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Notes on basic principles and practical methods

of procedure
by ET Westbury, 1951
Reference:
The Model Engineer, Percival Marshall & Co. Ltd.
Volume 106, Numbers 2651, 2653, 2655.
Introduction
EVERY new development in engineering brings with it new
problems, or causes old problems to become accentuated, and
it is often found that the methods of dealing with them have to
be revised to cope with advanced design and more exacting
performance. While engineers of today are very fortunate in
having available a vast amount of accumulated data, obtained
laboriously by the research workers of the past, it is often
found that this is inadequate to cover the conditions which
arise when producing something entirely new, such as, for
instance, a racing engine. In some respects, one may be
hampered rather than assisted by faith in ready-made data,
and it is often better to tackle the problems from first
principles, or even by the much-despised "rule of thumb",
which although crude, is often effective.

A problem which is brought to my notice with ever-increasing


frequency these days is that of balancing engines or other
mechanism. Many readers who attempt to construct engines
which will go just a little faster than ever before, find
themselves in trouble with excessive vibration or overloading of
working parts, as a result of unbalanced forces, and ask my
advice in finding a practical solution. Some of them are rather
disappointed to learn that I cannot furnish them with a few
figures and symbols which will clear the whole matter up tidily
and accurately; the childlike faith which some of my querists
have in formulae is most impressive!

It is perhaps necessary for me here to make one of my


frequent disclaimers regarding my attitude to theoretical
solution of problems. I am not, nor have I ever been,
antagonistic to, or contemptuous of, theory, wherever it can
properly be applied; but the factors involved in what may, at
first sight, appear to be quite a simple practical problem, are
often so profound and complex that their solution by theory
alone is almost impossible to a person of normal intelligence.
By all means use theory in its place, and where you can be
quite certain that the premises on which it is based are correct;
but always remember that it must be a supplement to, and not
a substitute for, practical knowledge. In many problems,
practical experiment will find the solution more quickly and no
less accurately than theoretical calculation.
So far as the particular subject of balancing is concerned, I
may mention that many years ago, in the attempt to solve
problems personally encountered, I studied text-books by three
of the best-known authorities on the subject namely, Sharpe,
Dalby, and Schlick; but I must confess that, so far from being
enlightened, I was scared stiff with the immensity of what I
had regarded as a mere elementary problem of design.

First Principles of Balancing


The need for balancing arises by reason of the basic law of
mechanics which states that "Action and reaction are equal and
opposite". Any force which tends to produce motion in a body
must therefore be balanced by an equal reactive force. For
instance, water or air craft in moving through a fluid, must
necessarily produce a reaction in the opposite direction against
that fluid; motorcars or locomotives produce a backward
reaction on the road or track, through their driving wheels. A
revolving shaft which exerts force to drive a machine is subject
to "torque reaction" which is equal and opposite at all times to
its driving torque. If a piston, in an engine or pump, moves
upwards, under the effect of a given force, an equal downward
reaction is exerted, through the connecting-rod and crankshaft,
to the bearings and foundation of the machine. This brief
explanation of what reaction really means may not be
necessary to the majority of readers, but it has been
considered worth while in case of any possible
misunderstanding of the term.
Perfect balance in a machine requires that the reaction of the
forces required to accelerate the working parts, or keep them
moving against load, should neutralise each other in every
phase of the motion, so that no reaction is ever exerted upon
the bedplate of the machine. Such a machine would run
steadily and without vibration at any speed, without the
necessity for bolting down. It may be said that this desirable
condition is rarely, if ever, obtained in practice, and one must
be satisfied with the nearest approximate condition which can
be obtained within the limitations of practical design.
Balancing Revolving Masses

A truly symmetrical wheel


of homogenous material,
mounted on a true shaft
and running in properly
fitted bearings, produces
no unbalanced forces,
except for torque reaction,
which is generated when
it forms part of a machine
used either to exert or
absorb power; this is a
matter with which we are
not at present concerned.
But it often happens that
the mass of such a wheel
cannot be guaranteed
symmetrical, even when it is machined all over, and any lack of
mass symmetry introduces an unbalanced force, the reaction of
which tends to produce vibration of the frame carrying the
bearings of the wheel as shown in Fig. 1A. If the unbalanced
mass U is on the side of the wheel which is travelling upwards
at a given time, the frame is subject to a downward reaction R-
R; and at any phase in the revolution, the effect is always felt
on the frame, in an opposite direction to the unbalanced force.
The speed of rotation will affect the vibration caused by these
reactions, which may become violent and dangerous at high
speed.
If the foundation of the bearings is held rigidly, it is sometimes
possible to prevent vibration becoming apparent, but the forces
are still there, and are exerted on the bearings of the wheel,
thereby causing excessive loading. On the other hand, the
frame may be resiliently mounted, so that vibrations are
damped out to a certain extent between the machine and its
actual foundation; but in neither case is this a complete
remedy for lack of balance.
The logical and obvious thing to do in this case is to correct the
bias in the mass of the wheel, either by removing metal at the
heaviest point, or by adding a corresponding amount of mass
at a point exactly opposite to it as in Fig. 1B. In order to locate
the position of the unbalanced mass, and also to check any
correction made, the wheel may be "poised", by rolling the
shaft on levelled knife-edges, rollers, or very free-running
bearings, and noting any tendency for it to stop in one
position; the unbalanced mass will, of course, tend to run by
gravity to the lowest point. This method of static balancing is
often employed in practice, but where high accuracy is
necessary it tends to be tedious and sometimes expensive.
A simple stand for the static balancing of
flywheels, armature, shafts, etc., is shown in
the photograph. It was made from a piece of
channel steel, with strips of gauge plate bolted
to the upturned edges, and is provided with
three levelling screws in the base, and a two-way spirit level.
The strips are not finished to a sharp edge on the top surface,
but are honed to a radius to avoid damaging shafts or
mandrels, and must, of course, be dead straight and in parallel
alignment with each other.

Static and Dynamic Balance

So far we have considered the case of a wheel, which


approximates to a simple disc, having all its mass in or near
one plane. If this is statically balanced in the way described, it
will run at any speed without vibration. But in a rotating body
having a fairly considerable axial length, such as a cylinder, it
is important that any local unbalanced mass should be
balanced out by a mass as nearly in the same cross plane as
possible.
The static method of
balancing, in this case, is
not reliable because it
gives no indication of the
position of the bias in
relation to axial length.
Thus the cylindrical rotor,
an armature shaft for
instance, shown in Fig. 2,
may be heavy at the point A, as indicated by a static balancing
test. If this unbalanced mass is counteracted by a weight
applied at the point B, the rotor will appear to be in correct
balance; but when running at high speed, the effect of the two
unbalanced masses will cause local reactions R-R which tend to
rock the shaft along its length, or in other words to set up a
"couple." In practice, the effect of this may be worse than that
of a single unbalanced force which tends to vibrate the
structure bodily, and it is often much more difficult to detect
and correct.

The method usually employed for dynamic


balancing is to mount the shaft in bearings on
a frame which is resiliently mounted, usually
by some form of spring suspension, so that it
is capable of being displaced in any plane by the effect of
unbalanced forces. Means are provided for locking the frame
while the shaft is run up to a fair speed by any convenient
means, after which it is released and allowed to vibrate or
oscillate under the effect of the unbalanced forces. In modern
dynamic balancing machines, indicating or recording devices
are provided to show the position and extent of the unbalanced
masses. While it would not be impossible to construct a simple
dynamic balancing rig in the home workshop, most of the
problems involved in small machines can be dealt with by
careful consideration of design, and accuracy in construction of
moving parts. It may be mentioned that even the balancing
machine, unless of very complex design, may leave certain
important considerations out of account.
For instance, suppose
that a rotor having an
unbalanced mass at J
(Fig. 3A) is balanced by
adding two smaller
masses at the points K,
L. The rotor is then in
correct dynamic balance,
and in the case of a fairly
rigid component, such as
an armature, it will be
perfectly satisfactory in
practice. But suppose the same principle is applied to a non-
rigid component, such as a crankshaft; in this case, the
cancelling masses, being in different planes, exert bending
stresses on the shaft, and the latter may be deflected, thereby
altering the moment of the masses and putting the system out
of balance (Fig. 3B).
This is only one of the
many pitfalls in practical
balancing, which cause
the designer many
headaches, and are
rarely capable of being
dealt with by theoretical
calculation. Another
example occurs in the
case of a rotating body
which for practical
reasons cannot be made
symmetrical in shape, though the moments of mass are
calculated and counterweights added where necessary to
cancel out and give correct balance as in Fig. 4. When running
at high speed, however, the effect of centrifugal forc,e causes
the flywheel to distort, and thereby displace the masses to a
varying extent, thereby unbalancing them. In case readers
think this is an unlikely eventuality, I may say that I once
worked on a certain type of flywheel magneto which gave a
great deal of trouble through this cause, though dynamic
balancing tests gave no indication of the source of error.
Balance weights, whatever their type or purpose, should
always be located as close to the plane of the unbalanced mass
as possible. Thus, in the case of the crankshaft shown in Fig.
3B, it would be better to attach the counterweights to the
crank webs than at the points indicated. The practice of fitting
balance weights to external flywheels, therefore, is one that
cannot be commended; in the case of an overhung crankshaft,
any bias in the flywheel would set up a violent rocking couple.
Flywheels should always be at least in static balance, and if of
any great width, dynamic balancing is desirable. An exception
is made in the case of internal flywheels, as in motor-cycle
engines, which are close to the crankpins, and usually form the
crank webs.

Balance of Reciprocating Masses

We have seen that an unbalanced rotating mass may be


cancelled by an equal and opposite rotating mass; in a similar
way, an unbalanced reciprocating mass may be cancelled by an
equal and opposite reciprocating mass. It is essential that this
axiom should be clearly understood; it is no use attempting to
balance completely a reciprocating mass by a rotating
counterweight, or vice versa. A reciprocating mass can only be
balanced by an equivalent mass moving in the same plane, but
in exactly opposite phase. Thus it happens that the most
popular type of small engine, having a single piston working on
a single crank throw, cannot possibly be perfectly balanced;
the best that can be done in practice is to use a rotating
counterweight to produce a partial state of balance, which may
be more or less satisfactory, but can never eliminate, vibration
or abnormal mechanical stresses completely.
This rule applies, whether the engine is single or double-acting,
and whatever method is employed to convert the reciprocating
motion of the piston to rotary motion of the crankshaft. I
emphasise this point because I am often asked to prescribe a
"perfect" balancing formula for a single-cylinder engine, and
some fearfully and wonderfully conceived devices--all of them
either futile, or too complex for practical application--have
been submitted by designers as a solution to this problem.
Single Cylinder Balance
In the orthodox arrangement of a single-cylinder engine, the
piston is linked to the crankshaft by a rigid connecting-rod,
either directly, or through a piston-rod and crosshead. The
piston (with rod and crosshead, where fitted) and its wrist or
gudgeon pin, are, of course, pure reciprocating weight; the
connecting-rod reciprocates at the "small" end and rotates at
the "big" end; while the crankshaft and all its appurtenances
are pure rotltting weight. In any attempt to balance an engine,
the two orders of motion must be isolated, so far as is
practicable, and thus one of the first things to do is to assess
the amount of counterweight which must be applied opposite
the crankpin to balance out all the rotating weight.

A Misleading Term

One point which should be carefully borne in mind here is that


the term "weight" in balancing formulae may be rather
misleading, as what really matters is "moment of mass". A
comparatively large weight on one side of the axis, in a
rotating body, may be cancelled out by a smaller weight acting
at a greater radius on the other side, or vice versa. Similarly, a
large reciprocating weight may be cancelled out by a smaller
weight having a longer stroke, i.e. moving through a greater
distance in the same time, or vice versa. These things look
after themselves when static or dynamic tests are made, but
they can, and often do, complicate matters when one attempts
to work out problems by calculation alone.
In the simple engine shown diagrammatically in
Fig. 5, the balance weight may either be made
integral with the crank web or attached to it in any
convenient and secure way. It must, primarily,
have sufficient moment of mass to balance out all
the rotating weight in the system; but if no more
than this is accounted for, it leaves the whole of
the reciprocating weight of the piston, gudgeon-
pin and small end of the connecting-rod
unbalanced. The result is that a powerful reaction
force, tending to cause vibration in the plane of
the piston motion, but opposite in phase, will be
set up when the engine is running.
If now sufficient mass is added to the counterweight to cancel
out entirely the reciprocating weight, it will be clear that when
the piston is moving downwards at maximum velocity (i.e. at
mid-stroke), the counterweight is moving upwards at such a
rate as to cancel out the unbalanced reaction; and at the same
point in the up-stroke, the downward movement of the balance
weight is also in direct and equal opposition. But whereas the
rate of motion of the piston varies from zero to maximum on
each stroke, that of the counterweight is constant, so that the
latter itself becomes unbalanced when the piston is at the top
or bottom of its stroke. The result is that the vibration in the
plane of the piston movement may be more or less completely
cancelled out, but in its place is substituted a vibration,
practically of equal magnitude, at a right angle to the plane of
piston movement. The last state is, therefore, no better than
the first.
Partly Cancelled Out

In practice, the best results are obtained by using a


counterweight capable of cancelling out only a portion of the
reciprocating weight. The exact amount is often a subject of
fierce dispute, but in actual fact it depends on a number of
(sometimes incalculable) factors, such as the way the engine is
mounted, the moments of inertia in the fixed and moving
masses (which influence "critical speeds"), and so on. What
really happens is that some of the forces which tend to cause
vibration are diverted into other planes, where they may be
more tolerable, or more readily absorbed in the structure; in no
case is the vibration in a single plane so violent as it would be
in an entirely unbalanced engine.
As a general rule, it may be said that engines which are
required to run at widely varying speeds require a greater
portion of reciprocating weight to be balanced out than those
which can be kept running at well above critical speed. In some
small high-speed engines it is possible to "get away with
murder", by using very sketchy balance weights, or even none
at all. This is because the reciprocating parts of these engines
can be made extremely light, and their structure resilient
enough to absorb vibration; but it should be remembered that
the unbalanced forces are still there, and are registered in the
mechanical stresses and bearing loads, also that these forces
have to be generated by the engine itself, thereby detracting
from the power available for useful work.
In most of the engines which I have described in THE MODEL
ENGINEER, I have found it satisfactory to balance out about
half the reciprocating weight, except in one or two cases where
the engines were designed for special purposes. The methods
employed in finding the correct counterweight to apply to the
crankshaft are illustrated here, in the following order:
First, weigh the piston, complete with its rings,
gudgeon-pin, and pads, or other retaining devices
(this is pure reciprocating weight). It may be
mentioned that sufficient accuracy for this purpose
may be obtained by using a simple spring balance
(since it is only necessary to find comparative figures),
and a suitable type of balance has been obtained from the
surplus market, as advertised in THE MODEL ENGINEER.
Second, weigh the two ends of the connecting-rod,
either separately or simultaneously (preferably the
latter) keeping the rod quite horizontal during the
process. The small-end is taken as reciprocating
weight, and the big-end as rotating weight.
Third, assess the amount of weight to be cancelled out
in the counterweight. This is done by adding together
reciprocating weights of the complete piston assembly, and the
small-end of the rod, which (if we accept the proportion
recommended above), is then halved, and added to the
rotating weight of the big-end.
Fourth, the crankshaft is poised on knife
edges or rollers, to act as a balance, and the
assessed weight is hung on the crankpin; the
counterweight is then adjusted until it "stays
put" in any position of rotation. This may
entail either adding or subtracting metal at the
counterweight, such as by fitting lead "slugs" in suitable
recesses where they cannot be thrown out centrifugally, or by
filing or machining away the surplus. In some cases, lightness
of the balance weight may be remedied by reducing the web on
the crankpin side, or enlarging the centre hole in the later,
always having due regard for retaining a margin of mechanical
safety.
[Ron: Notice the "knife-edges" in the photo? Looks to me like
two pieces of drill rod held in position on the leveled surface-
plate by four small lumps of modelling clay. That is an idea well
worth remembering!]
The weight necessary to carry out this operation may be made
up from sand, lead shot, or any suitable material to hand; as
may be seen, metal washers were used in the case illustrated.
In the absence of a scale pan, a small bag may be used. It is
important that the means of suspension on the crankpin should
be arranged to produce the minimum friction. In the example
shown, a small plug was made to fit inside the hollow crankpin
(its weight being duly allowed for), having an extended pin of
small diameter, on which the hook of the scale pan was hung.
The figures in the example illustrated are as follows:
Piston, with rings and gudgeon-pin..83 grms.
Small-end of connecting-rod ..21 "
Big-end of connecting-rod ..25 "
(83 + 21)
----------- + 25 = 77 grms
2
(the amount to be cancelled out by counterweight)
Should the designer adopt a different figure for the proportion
of reciprocating weight to be balanced, this part of the
calculation must be suitably modified. This formula, however,
has been used with success, not only in models, but also for
larger engines which have had to work under exacting
conditions.
I have described this procedure in detail, as it is of interest to a
large number of readers, to judge by the number of individual
queries I have had to deal with, and I trust that this will clear
away the last remnants of mystery regarding this subject.
I have stated that these conditions apply to any orthodox
single-cylinder engine; it is also correct for machines having a
similar order of motion, such as high-speed pumps or air
compressors. Balancing problems should not be confused with
effects caused by working pressures, though these produce
their own reactions, and may affect smoothness of working. In
many small machines which are not required to run at very
high speeds, little attention is given to the finer points of
balancing, and within certain limits, the results are fairly
satisfactory.

Locomotive Balancing

Constructors of small locomotives do not usually take a great


deal of pains, either by calculating unbalanced forces or by
experimental tests, though the balance weights of full-sized
locomotives are usually copied more or less correctly to scale.
It may be mentioned that the principle generally adopted in
locomotive balancing is to treat each set of cylinders and
motion work as a separate single-cylinder engine, as shown in
Fig. 5; it can thus be dealt with in the manner already
described. Balance weights may sometimes be distributed over
all the coupled wheels; the coupling-rods, it should be noted,
are taken as rotating weight, as any single point on them
describes a true circle. Linkages, such as those used in certain
types of valve-gear, however, have more complex orders of
motion, and are difficult to balance; fortUnately their mass and
velocity can be kept fairly low, at least on any locomotives
likely to be built by readers of THE MODEL ENGINEER.
It may be observed that the balance weights on the different
coupled wheels of some locomotives are placed out of phase,
so that they do not all oppose the crankpin; there are various
reasons for this, one being that it is possible for the combined
reactions of three or more balance weights, moving
simultaneously, to produce the effect of a hammer blow on the
rails; the locations of the weights are, however, arranged to
produce, in combination, the correct moment of mass and
phasing to balance the motion work as well as possible (See
Fig. 6).
If one wishes to study the subject of locomotive balancing in
greater detail, it may be noted that an authoritative book on
the subject was written several years ago by Professor Dalby,
and may still be available for reference in technical libraries.
Steam engines having several cylinders, especially those of
multiple-expansion type, where the pistons vary in size and
mass, present special balancing problems, and these are
accentuated by the fact that the disposition of the cranks must
be arranged to avoid dead centres, so that the engine can be
started from any position without outside assistance. In large
marine engines, the Yarrow-Schlick-Tweedy system of
balancing, which involves a special method of unsymmetrical
crank angle spacing, is usually employed. In such engines, it is
not usually convenient to fit balance weight to the crank
throws, but the shaft and bearings are sufficiently rigid and
firmly mounted to allow of using the unbalanced masses of one
or more pistons to cancel out those of adjacent pistons.

Balancing Multi-cylinder Engines


Before dealing specifically with engines having more than one
cylinder, it may be mentioned that there is one type of single-
cylinder engine in which perfect dynamic balance is possible;
namely, the opposed-piston type, in which two pistons moving
in opposite directions are used in one cylinder. The advantages
of this type, however, are somewhat marred by the fact that its
mechanical arrangement is more complex, and often
convenient or inefficient; it is much better suited for dealing
with the heavy masses in very large slow-running engines than
for those of small high-speed engines, where the improved
dynamic balance may hardly be perceptible under practical
conditions.
Balancing problems may
sometimes (but not
always) be simplified by
the use of more than one
cylinder. A very common
arrangement consists of
placing two cylinders
alongside, and parallel
with each other,
connecting the pistons of
these cylinders to cranks
disposed at 180 deg. as
in Fig. 7. In practice, this
is by no means a complete solution of the problem, because of
the distance apart of the two cranks, with a corresponding
offset in the plane of the pistons, which sets up a pronounced
rocking couple. For an engine of given capacity, however, the
pistons are smaller, so that the unbalanced forces are reduced
in proportion, and another advantage (unconnected with
balancing) is that the frequency of power impulses, at a given
speed, is doubled, producing a more even torque at the shaft.
The effect of the couple can be reduced to some extent by
counterweighting the end crank throws.
In the attempt to ,reduce
the offset in the plane of
the pistons, the cylinders
can be located on
opposite sides of the
crankshaft, as in the
popular "flat twin", and
use a two-throw crank so
that the pistons move in opposite phase. It is not usually
desirable in practice to place the two cylinders in exactly the
same plane, so that there is usually a slight couple as shown,
in Fig. 8, but it is much less than in the side-by-side
arrangement, and balance, on the whole, is fairly satisfactory.
The same principle can be applied to any even number of
cylinders, and "flat fours" and "flat sixes" have become
increasingly popular in recent years,
Yet another arrangement
for a twin-cylinder engine
is to place the cylinders
at right angles to each
other, and connect the
two pistons to a single
crank throw, as shown in
Fig. 9. The crankpin is
counterweighted as for a
single-cylinder engine,
counterweight is always
acting in direct opposition to one or other of the pistons, and
therefore it is practicable to balance completely the
reciprocating weight one one piston (the other being of exactly
equal weight). Such an engine is very well balanced, but the
arrangement has its disadvantages, particularly in petrol
engines, as it introduces unequal firing intervals, unless the
pairs of cylinders are multiplied, as in the "vee eight" now
popular in motor cars. Note that the complete state of balance
is only obtained when the cylinders are set exactly at 90 deg.;
the narrow-angle vee twin commonly employed in motor-cycles
is not so good in this respect, being more of a compromise
between the single and the two-crank twin. Radial engines
having a symmetrical arrangement of cylinders may be
balanced on the same principle as the 90 deg. vee twin, but it
should be noted that when the rods do not all articulate on the
crankpin centre, their order of motion is modified, and this may
complicate balancing problems.
Side-by-side twins are
often arranged with the
pistons in the same
phase, as shown in Fig.
10, the object being
usually to obtain equal
firing intervals, with
smooth torque. From the
balancing aspect, this
may be considered a
retrogression, as the
problem is the same as
that in a single-cylinder engine; but there is no doubt that the
arrangement works well in practice, at least in engines of
moderate cylinder capacity. The complete absence of a rocking
couple, when the balance weights are symmetrically arranged
relative to the reciprocating masses (which taken individually,
are lower than those in a single of equal total capacity), is also
a probable factor in the success of this type of engine.
Sometimes a centre bearing is provided between the crank
throws, but in other cases the space is occupied by an internal
flywheel, which may be balanced in itself, or counterweighted
to contribute to the partial cancellation of reciprocating forces.
In the attempt to improve the balance of this type of engine, a
centre crank throw is sometimes introduced, opposite in phase
to the other two, and this is used to drive a charging pump or
compressor, or even simply reciprocate a counterweight equal
in moment of mass to that of the two main pistons. Split-single
two-strokes, having two cylinder barrels with a common
combustion head, sometimes have two separate crank throws
slightly different in phase, and may have an opposed centre
throw which drives a "displacer" to increase the volume of air
displaced in the crankcase, thereby acting as a supercharger.
An example of an engine of this type was the 15 c.c. engine. of
Mr. A. D. Rankine's Oigh Alba Junior, which unfortunately came
to an untimely end in a fire at Kilmarnock some years ago.

Three-cylinder Engines

These have never been very popular in small or medium sizes,


despite the fact that they can be arranged to give equal firing
intervals in either two-stroke or four-stroke types. In a three-
inline engine with the cranks arranged as in Fig. 11, there is
obviously a pronounced rocking couple which cannot easily be
eliminated. Generally speaking, this arrangement is not well
suited to high speed, but if it must be used, the best way is to
treat each crank throw as a separate singlecylinder engine and
counterweight the crank webs accordingly. Where it can
conveniently be used, the radial arrangement of cylinders,
acting on a single crank, is much to be preferred for high
speed.

Four or More Cylinders

The orthodox four-in-line engine can be quite well balanced if


the cranks are arranged in pairs at 180 deg., each pair being
opposed to the other to cancel out the individual couples, as
shown in Fig, 12. This arrangement is sometimes termed "
mirror" balance, as each half of the engine resembles a
reflection of the other as seen in a mirror. If the pistons and
other working parts of such an engine are of uniform mass, the
engine is capable of working smoothly, and with very little
vibration. A similar arrangement can be used in a six-cylinder
engine, with two opposed sets of three cranks at 120 deg., or
eight cylinders, with two opposed sets of four cranks at 90 deg.
It should, however, be noted that the stiffness of the
crankshaft, and of the engine structure generally, has an
important bearing on the success of such engines, 'as the
cancelling of the two opposed couples has a tendency to bend
the crankshaft in the middle.
The shorter and stiffer the complete engine structure can be
made, the more likely it is to be successful in practice. This
accounts for the decline in the popularity of the once-favoured
"straight sixes" and "straight eights", some of which were of
prodigious length. It may here be appropriate to make some
observations on the advisability of providing bearings between
crank throws, as this matter has a pronounced influence on
design from this aspect, and is often in dispute. Beyond doubt,
it is a good thing to support the crankshaft between crank
throws, provided that the bearings are held rigidly in true
alignment, and the shaft also remains true under working
stresses. But these conditions cannot be guaranteed in practice
in an engine which must be kept as light as possible for a given
size; moreover the provision of inter-throw bearings, if they
are to be of any use at all, adds very considerably to the length
of the engine, and therefore increases the effects of rocking
couples. A further effect, not directly connected with balance,
but capable of causing very troublesome vibration, is that of
torsional deflection in a long and intermittently loaded shaft. As
with many other things in engine design, a compromise is often
necessary to get the best practical results from the most
desirable features and avoid the worst of their disadvantages.

Primary and Secondary Balance

So far, I have dealt only with the means of dealing with the
most important unbalanced forces in orthodox types of engines
or machines; and quite frankly, I believe that if these principles
are fully grasped, they will cover most practical problems
encountered by "M.E." readers. There are, however, other
forces of the second, third and further orders, ad infinitum, but
it would be impossible to do so without taking up a
considerable amount of space, and going very deeply in theory
and mathematics, which I feel sure would be out of place in a
practical journal.
It may, however, be
observed that secondary
unbalanced forces occur
in mechanisms where the
motion is not truly
harmonic, and this
applies where a connecting-rod of limited length is used to link
reciprocating and revolving parts. As short rods, involving
considerable maximum angularity, are common in high-speed
engines, no simple system of balancing can eliminate these
secondary forces completely, even in engines where the
reciprocating masses can be directly opposed in identical
planes. But as we have already seen, theoretical balancing
systems do not always give the best results in practice, and
again the importance of compromise must be stressed.
I have tried to assist
readers to solve their
own balancing problems
in a strictly practical way,
well knowing that nearly
all model engineers are
men of action, who
would much rather spend
their time at the lathe or
bench than in working
out theoretical problems on paper. I know from experience that
these problems can be capable of purely practical solution, and
I am not prepared to admit that this takes longer, or involves
more labour, than the theoretical approach, always provided,
of course, that basic principles are correctly grasped, and that
one does not attempt to fly in the face of all physical laws.
There is much more that could be said about practical
balancing problems, but I trust that readers will be able to
apply this elementary, and admittedly limited, information to
advantage, and be encouraged to work things out for
themselves by practical experiment. The mechanisms dealt
with here are those most likely to be encountered in model
engineering, but unusual types of machines generally embody
combinations of simple motions which can be isolated and
analysed. Perfection in the balancing of any machine is rarely
attained, but the higher the speed and the more exacting the
duty, the closer must be the approach to perfection if the
machine is to be a practical success.

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