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Article history: We study the steady, laminar thermal convection flow in a participating, absorbing-emitting fluid-
Received 19 December 2015 saturated porous medium occupying a cylindrical annulus with significant thermal radiation effects as
Revised 25 May 2016
a simulation of a solar energy absorber system. The dimensionless incompressible, viscous conserva-
Accepted 27 June 2016
tion equations for mass, axial momentum, radial momentum, heat conservation and radiative transfer
Available online 9 July 2016
equation are presented with appropriate boundary conditions in an axisymmetric (X, R) coordinate sys-
Keywords: tem. The Traugott P1-Differential radiative transfer model is used which reduces the general integro-
Radiative differential equation for radiation heat transfer to a partial differential equation. The Darcy–Forcheimmer
Convection isotropic porous medium drag force model is employed to simulate resistance effects of the solar porous
FTCS medium with constant permeability in both the radial (R) and axial (X) direction. A numerical finite dif-
RAD-SPICE ference (FTCS) scheme is used to compute the velocity (U,V), temperature () and dimensionless zero
Solar energy
moment of intensity (I0 ) distributions for the effects of conduction–radiation parameter (N), Darcy pa-
Rayleigh number
rameter (Da), Forchheimer parameter (Fs), Rayleigh buoyancy number (Ra), aspect ratio (A) and Prandtl
number (Pr). The computations have shown that increasing aspect ratio increases both axial and radial
velocities and elevates the radiative moment of intensity. Increasing Darcy number accelerates both ax-
ial and radial flow whereas increasing Forchheimer number decelerates the axial and radial flow. Higher
values of optical thickness induce a weak deceleration in the radial flow whereas they increase both
axial flow velocity and temperature. Increasing optical thickness also reduces radial radiative moment of
intensity at intermediate axial coordinate values but enhances them at low and high axial coordinate val-
ues. Extensive validation is conducted with the network thermo-electric simulation program RAD-SPICE.
The model finds important applications in solar energy porous wafer absorber systems, crystal growth
technologies and also chemical engineering thermal technologies.
© 2016 Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2016.06.034
1876-1070/© 2016 Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
O.A. Bég et al. / Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers 66 (2016) 258–268 259
2.1. Mass conservation 2 ∂
At R = 1/(r ∗ −1 ) : U = V = 0, = 1, 1− I0
3 τ0 ∂ R
∂ (RU ) ∂ (RV ) 4
+ =0 (5)
∂X ∂R =
1
+1 (10)
f
2.2. Axial (X-direction) momentum conservation
2 ∂
At R = r ∗ /(r ∗ −1 ) : U = V = 0, = 0, 1+ I0 = 1
1 ∂ (RU U ) ∂ (RV U ) ∂ P Pr ∂ ∂U ∂ ∂U 3 τ0 ∂ R
+ =− + R + R
R ∂X ∂R ∂X R ∂X ∂X ∂R ∂R (11)
1 Fs
+ Ra Pr − χ U − λU 2 (6)
∂ 1 ∂ I0
Da Da
At X = 0 : U = V = 0, + = 0,
∂ X 3N ∂ X
2.3. Radial (R-direction) momentum conservation 4
2 ∂
1− I0 = +1 (12)
3 τ0 ∂ X f
1 ∂ (RUV ) ∂ (RV V ) ∂ P Pr ∂ ∂V ∂ ∂V
+ =− + R + R
R ∂X ∂R ∂R R ∂X ∂X ∂R ∂R ∂ 1 ∂ I0
At X = A : U = V = 0, + = 0,
V 1 Fs ∂ X 3N ∂ X
− Pr − χ V − λV 2 (7) 4
R2 Da Da 2 ∂
1+ I0 = +1 (13)
3 τ0 ∂ X f
2.4. Energy (Heat) conservation
In practical solar engineering design, the boundary heat transfer
rates for the annulus are important. We may therefore define the
1 ∂ (RU ) ∂ (RV ) 1 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
+ = R + R local Nusselt number on the inner vertical cylinder and the outer
R ∂X ∂R R ∂X ∂X ∂R ∂R vertical cylinder, which take the form:
f τ0 2
4
∂ 1 ∂ I0
+ + 1 − I0 (8) Nu = −R + (14)
N f ∂ R 3N ∂ R
where the appropriate value for the radius is used for the two
2.5. Radiative transfer equation
cases. Additionally a mean Nusselt number may be computed by in-
4 tegrating the local Nusselt number along the cylindrical wall sur-
1 ∂ ∂ I0 ∂ ∂ I0 face, viz:
(R ) + R = 3τ0 I0 −
2
+1 (9)
R ∂X ∂X ∂R ∂R f 1 A
˜u =
N Nu dX (15)
A 0
where X = Dx and R = Dr are dimensionless axial and radial coordi-
nates, U = uD vD A number of special cases can be derived from the trans-
α and V = α are dimensionless axial and radial ve-
locity components in the X and R directions, P = p−p∞ 2 is di- formed momentum, energy and radiative transfer Eq. (5) to (9).
ρ (α /D ) As Fs → 0, inertial porous hydromechanical drag effects vanish and
mensionless pressure, α is thermal diffusivity of the gray fluid, ρ
the regime becomes a purely Darcian (isotropic) porous medium.
is density of the gray fluid, = TT −Tc
−Tc is dimensionless tempera-
h With Da → ∞ and Fs → 0, all porous hydrodynamical body forces
ture function, f = Tc
Th −Tc is dimensionless reference temperature vanish. This implies that the porous matrix permeability be-
k σa comes infinite so that the regime is purely fluid in the annulus.
ratio, N = is the conduction: radiation heat transfer parameter,
4σ Tc 3
io Eqs. (6) and (7) are therefore reduced to the model solved by
Io = is the dimensionless zero moment of intensity in which
4σ Tc 4 Weng and Chu [37] with the same boundary conditions, although
io is zero moment of radiation intensity, σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann their study infact ignores variation of Prandtl number. As Ra → 0,
constant, τ0 = σa D is optical thickness where σ a is the absorp- buoyancy forces vanish and only the X-direction (axial) momentum
ri
tion coefficient, A = H D is the aspect ratio, r∗ = ro is the radius ra- Eq. (6) is affected. With N → ∞, radiative heat transfer effects are
ν
tio, D = ro -ri is annular gap radius, Pr = α is the Prandtl number, negated and this affects the energy conservation Eq. (8); the radia-
gβ (T −T )D3
c tive transfer Eq. (9) also vanishes.
Ra = h
να is the Rayleigh free convection (buoyancy) num-
ber, Da = DK2 is the Darcy number (dimensionless permeability pa-
rameter) for both radial and axial directions, F s = bL is the Forch- 3. FTCS numerical simulation
heimer inertial number for both radial and axial directions, χ is
a modified viscosity parameter, λ is a modified thermal diffusiv- Numerical solutions to the governing transformed partial differ-
ity parameter, ρ is density of gray fluid, β is coefficient of thermal ential Eqs. (5)–(11) under boundary conditions (12) to (15) are to
expansion, ν is kinematic viscosity of gray fluid, σ is the Stefan- be obtained using a robust finite difference numerical method. We
Boltzmann constant, k is thermal conductivity, g is acceleration due utilize a well-tested, versatile, explicit numerical scheme which is
to gravity. In Eq. (6) +Ra Pr is the buoyancy (free convection) forward in time and central in space [38]. This scheme has been
term, coupling the axial momentum Eq. (6) to the energy Eq. (8). successfully applied to a variety of complex geometric and mate-
Also in Eq. (6) the penultimate term on the right hand side is the rial non-linear fluid dynamics problems [39-41]. According to this
axial Darcian drag force and the last term is the axial Forchheimer scheme the various axial and radial partial derivatives of U, V, ,
drag force. Similarly in Eq. (7) the penultimate term is the radial IO appearing in (5)–(9) are approximated as, for example:
Darcian impedance and the final term on the right hand side is the
∂ U ∼ Uik+1 − Uik−1
radial Forchheimer impedance. The corresponding boundary condi- = = UX (16)
tions are as follows: ∂X 2 X
262 O.A. Bég et al. / Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers 66 (2016) 258–268
∂ ∼ ki+1 − ki−1
= = R (19)
∂R 2 R
∂ IO ∼ IO ki+1 − IO ki−1
= = IO R (20)
∂R 2 R
where for instance, Uki denotes the value of U at axial node Xi and Fig. 2. RAD-PSPICE network simulation methodology.
at radial node Rk . Similar expressions for other partial derivatives
may then be derived. With the aid of Eqs. (5)–(9), the numerical
solution can be generated for (N+1) uniformly discretized points
Xi (i=1,2,…N+1), with an axial grid spacing of X=1/(N+1), and at
radial points Rk =(k-1) R (k=1,2,…), with a radial grid spacing of
analogy is applied to the discretized equations together with Kirch-
R. Test computations are performed for the present case. A stable hoffś law for electrical currents. To implement the boundary condi-
solution with an accuracy of 10−7 is achievable.
tions, constant voltage sources are employed for velocity, temper-
ature and concentration. Time remains as a real continuous vari-
4. Validation with network simulation method (NSM) able. Researchers need not manipulate the finite difference differ-
ential equations to be solved nor expend effort in convergence ex-
To verify the accuracy of the FTCS computations, we have also ercises. The principal advantage of NSM is that it negates the re-
solved the nonlinear boundary value problem with a modified quirement in standard numerical finite difference schemes of ma-
version of the electro-thermal solver, PSPICE [42], namely RAD- nipulation of difference equations and the constraints of specified
PSPICE. The transformed partial differential Eqs. (8) to (10) sub- yardsticks around the convergence of numerical solutions. Details
ject to the temporal and spatial boundary conditions (11) have of the discretization and electronic network diagram construction
been solved with the RAD-PSPICE Network Simulation Method have been provided in many previous studies and the reader is
software (NSM) approach in a MATLAB environment. This tech- referred to Bég et al. [49]. The MAG-PSPICE code is designated
nique is founded on the thermo-electrical analogy and has been im- the “electric circuit simulator”. Nagel [42] has elucidated in de-
plemented in many diverse areas of applied mechanics, thermal tail the local truncation errors present in the original SPICE algo-
sciences and fluid dynamics, being equally adept at solving lin- rithm. A necessary criterion for using RAD-SPICE effectively is a
ear and non-linear, steady or transient, hydrodynamic or coupled familiarity with electrical circuit theory. Momentum, temperature
transport problems. Network simulation methodology uses the net- and concentration balance “currents” are defined systematically for
work theory of thermodynamics, in which flux-force relationships in each of the discretized equations and errors can be quantified in
dynamical systems are modelled using electric networks. NSM ef- terms of the quantity of control volumes. The user however needs
fectively exploits the formal similarities between the mathemati- to program a customized protocol file, (file “RadNetwork.cir”). This
cal structure underlying different phenomena with the same bal- program rapidly generates the file for execution in RAD-PSPICE,
ance and constitutive equations and intrinsic to this approach is and the program permits the reading of the solutions provided
the design of an “analogous electric circuit” which possesses the by RAD-PSPICE (file “RadNetwork.out”). Following the simulations,
same balance and constitutive equations as the physical problem the code plots waveform results so the designer can visualize cir-
of interest. NSM was introduced by Nagel [42] originally for semi- cuit behavior and determine design validity. Graphical results of
conductor and transient electrical circuit problems. It has also been each simulation are presented in the RAD-PSPICE “Probe window
implemented in magnetic tribology (squeeze films for spacecraft waveform viewer” and analyzer, where it is possible to see the
landing gear) [43], magnetic biopolymer materials processing [44], velocity, temperature and concentration field at any point of the
magneto/electro-rheological (M/ER) smart lubrication systems for boundary layer. A summary of the procedure is given in Fig. 2
earthquake shock protection (seismic bearings) [45], electro-kinetic below. NSM implements the most recent advances in software
stabilization of geotechnical materials [46], stratified materials pro- in the resolution of electrical networks to solve diverse types of
cessing flows [47] and rotating Couette flows [48]. Discretization of partial differential equations which may be elliptical, hyperbolical,
the differential equations is founded on the finite-difference method- parabolic, linear, non-linear and 1-, 2- or 3-dimensional. At least one
ology, where only a discretization of the spatial co-ordinates is nec- of the FTCS finite difference computations in each validated graph
essary. Numerical differentiation is implicit in such methods and has been closely verified with RAD-PSPICE. The NSM (RAD-PSPICE)
some expertise is required in avoiding numerical diffusion, insta- solutions are given the symbol in selected graphs (Figs. 3–10)
bility and convergence problems. NSM simulates the electrical vari- presented. The FTCS computations are therefore shown to be
able of voltage as being equivalent to the velocities (U,V), temper- highly accurate as corroborated by an independent numerical sim-
ature () and dimensionless zero moment of radiation intensity ulation tool. Although simpler models do exist with which we can
(Io ), while the electrical current is equivalent to the velocity flux e.g. benchmark very special reduced cases of the general model pre-
(∂ U/∂ X, ∂ V/∂ R), temperature flux e.g. (∂ /∂ X, ∂ /∂ R) and radia- sented in the current article, we have opted to validate the gen-
tion intensity flux e.g. (∂ Io /∂ X, ∂ Io /∂ R)). A network electrical model eral model including all hydrodynamic and heat transfer effects.
for each volume element is designed so that its electrical equa- This is a significantly more zealous approach and confirms gen-
tions are formally equivalent to the spatial discretized equation. eral solutions obtained by the FTCS code with the RAD-SPICE code.
The whole network model, including the devices associated with Moreover, it provides extensive confidence to other researchers
the boundary conditions, is solved by the modified numerical com- who may wish to extend the present model to for example non-
puter code Pspice [49]. Fourier’s law is utilized in the spatial dis- Newtonian flow and are therefore provided with solutions to vali-
cretization of the dimensionless transport equations. The electrical date their own programs.
O.A. Bég et al. / Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers 66 (2016) 258–268 263
Fig. 3. Axial velocity (U) versus radius (at X = 1) for Pr =7.0, Da = 0.1, Fs = 1, λ =1, χ
=1, τ 0 = 0.1, f =0.5, N = 1, A = 2, ri = 0.5. [RAD-SPICE case validated for Ra = 5].
Fig. 6. Dimensionless zero moment of intensity (I0 ) versus radial coordinate (at
X = 1) for Pr =2.0 (water), Da = 0.1 (high permeability), Fs = 1 (weak quadratic
porous drag), λ =1, χ =1, τ 0 = 0.1, f =0.5, N = 1, A = 2, ri = 0.5 for various Rayleigh
numbers. [RAD-SPICE validation for Ra = 10].
Fig. 4. Temperature () versus radius (at X = 1) for Pr = 2.0, Da = 0.1, Fs = 1, λ =1, χ
=1, τ 0 = 0.1, f =0.5, N = 1, A = 2, ri = 0.5 for various Rayleigh numbers. [RAD-SPICE
case validated for Ra = 10 0 0].
Fig. 7. Radial velocity versus X (at R = 1) for Pr =2.0, Ra = 10, Fs = 1, λ =1, χ =1,
τ 0 = 0.1, f =0.5, N = 1, A = 2, ri = 0.5 for various Darcy numbers. [RAD-SPICE valida-
tion for Da = 0.1].
Fig. 5. Dimensionless zero moment of intensity (I0 ) versus X (at R = 1) for Pr =2.0,
Da = 0.1, Fs = 1, λ =1, χ =1, τ 0 = 0.1, f =0.5, N = 1, A = 2, ri = 0.5 for various Rayleigh
numbers. [RAD-SPICE case validated for Ra = 100].
Fig. 8. Temperature () versus axial coordinate (X) at R = 1, for Pr =2.0, Ra = 10,
Fs = 1, λ =1, χ =1, τ 0 = 0.1, f =0.5, N = 1, A = 2, ri = 0.5 for various Darcy numbers.
[RAD-SPICE validation for Da = 0.1].
5. Numerical results and discussion
In the present study we present an extensive range of FTCS of constant axial and radial pressure gradients, so these parame-
solutions. Figs 3–10 include RAD-SPICE validation. The nonlinear ters may be prescribed unity values i.e. In Eq. (6), ∂∂XP = −1 and in
boundary value problem entails 4 variables to compute in the ax- Eq. (7), ∂∂ RP = −1. We primarily study the effects of Ra, Da, Fs, N, A
ial (X) and radial (R) direction i.e. U, V, , Io . The regime con- and τ 0 . In the plots dimensionless radius, R, is denoted by numeri-
servation equations and boundary conditions are controlled by 9 cal r. Generally we prescribe Pr = 2.0 (water-based suspensions), Da
thermo-physical parameters: Pr, Ra, Da, Fs, λ, χ , τ 0 , f , N and 2 = 0.1 (very high permeability), Fs = 1 (weak quadratic porous drag)
geometric parameters i.e. A and ri . We note that A = H D i.e. aspect are prescribed.
ratio, represents the ratio of height of the cylinders to the gap ra- Evidently in Fig. 3 an increase in Rayleigh number acceler-
r
dius, H height of cylindrical annulus, D (= ro -ri ) and r∗ = roi is the ates the axial flow. With Ra > 1, the thermal buoyancy force ex-
radius ratio and generally for an annular regime ro > ri . For exam- ceeds the viscous hydrodynamic force. This aids momentum de-
ple for ro = 2ri , r∗ = 0.5, for ro = 4ri , r∗ = 0.25. We consider the case velopment and increases velocities. The axial velocity profiles also
264 O.A. Bég et al. / Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers 66 (2016) 258–268
Fig. 9. Temperature () versus radial coordinate at X = 1, for Pr =2.0, Ra = 10, Fs = 1, Fig. 11. Dimensionless zero moment of intensity (I0 ) versus radial coordinate at
λ =1, χ =1, τ 0 = 0.1, f =0.5, N = 1, A = 2, ri = 0.5 for various Darcy numbers. [RAD- X = 1, for Pr =2.0, Ra = 10, Fs = 1, λ =1, χ =1, τ 0 = 0.1, f =0.5, N = 1, A = 2, ri = 0.5
SPICE validation for Da = 1]. for various Darcy numbers.
Fig. 12. Axial velocity (U) versus X (at R = 1) with Pr =2.0, Ra = 10, Da = 0.1, λ =1, Fig. 15. Temperature () versus axial coordinate (X) at R = 1 with Pr =2.0, Ra = 10,
χ =1, τ 0 = 0.1, f =0.5, N = 1, A = 2, ri = 0.5 for various Forchheimer numbers. Da = 0.1, Fs = 1, λ =1, χ =1, τ 0 = 0.1, f =0.5, A = 2, ri = 0.5 for various conduction-
radiation parameters.
Fig. 13. Radial velocity (V) versus radius (at X = 1) with Pr =2.0, Ra = 10, Da = 0.1, λ Fig. 16. Axial velocity (U) versus axial coordinate (X), at R = 1, with Pr =2.0, Ra = 10,
=1, χ =1, τ 0 = 0.1, f =0.5, N = 1, A = 2, ri = 0.5 for various Forchheimer numbers. Da = 0.1, Fs = 1, λ =1, χ =1, τ 0 = 0.1, f =0.5, N = 1, ri = 0.5 for various aspect ratio
values.
Fig. 17. Radial velocity (V) versus radial coordinate at X = 1 with Pr =2.0, Ra = 10,
Da = 0.1, Fs = 1, λ =1, χ =1, τ 0 = 0.1, f =0.5, N = 1, ri = 0.5 for various aspect ratio Fig. 20. Axial velocity (U) versus X, at R = 1, with Pr =2.0, Ra = 10, Da = 0.1, Fs = 1, λ
values. =1, χ =1, f =0.5, N = 1, ri = 0.5, A = 2 for various optical thickness (τ 0 ) values.
Fig. 18. Temperature () versus radial coordinate, at X = 1, with Pr =2.0, Ra = 10,
Fig. 21. Radial velocity (V) versus radial coordinate at X = 1, with Pr =2.0, Ra = 10,
Da = 0.1, Fs = 1, λ =1, χ =1, τ 0 = 0.1, f =0.5, N = 1, ri = 0.5 for various A values (1,
Da = 0.1, Fs = 1, λ =1, χ =1, f =0.5, N = 1, ri = 0.5, A = 2 for various optical thickness
2, 5, 10).
(τ 0 ) values.
Fig. 19. Dimensionless zero moment of intensity (I0 ) versus radial coordinate at Fig. 22. Temperature () versus axial coordinate (X) at R = 1, with Pr =2.0, Ra = 10,
X = 1, with Pr =2.0, Ra = 10, Da = 0.1, Fs = 1, λ =1, χ =1, τ 0 = 0.1, f =0.5, N = 1, Da = 0.1, Fs = 1, λ =1, χ =1, f =0.5, N = 1, ri = 0.5, A = 2 for various optical thickness
ri = 0.5 for various aspect ratios. (τ 0 ) values.
intensity is associated with better solar collector performance, it mal radiation is better attenuated in the medium and this in-
would appear that taller and slender solar collectors achieve en- duces heating. Optical thickness is a dimensionless quantification
hanced efficiency compared with shorter and wider cells. Indeed of how much a given medium retards the passage of thermal radi-
this has been noted in several experimental studies of solar cell ation. Radiative intensity falls by an exponential factor when opti-
performance, notably [51–53]. cal thickness is unity. Physically optical thickness will be a func-
Finally Figs. 20–25 illustrate the effect of optical thickness (τ 0 ), tion of absorption coefficient, medium density and propagation
a key radiative property, on thermofluid characteristics. In the vast distance. Strong axial flow acceleration is generated with greater
majority of radiative–convective studies, optical thickness is as- optical thickness (Fig. 20) whereas weak radial deceleration (Fig. 21)
sumed to be either very small (optically thin approximation) or is produced. Figs. 22 and 23 show that both axial and radial tem-
very large (optically thick approximation). The latter results in a perature distributions are strongly enhanced as the medium be-
Rosseland-type diffusive flux model [54]. These extreme values of comes more optically thick. Higher temperatures are observed in
optical thickness are not representative of real media in solar col- the radial direction however. Lord and Arpaci [55] have observed a
lectors. More robust values correlating with solar cell design fall strong increase in temperatures with increasing optical thickness-
between 0.1 and 1, and these are implemented in the present this trend is confirmed in the present study. A weak decrease in
computations. As optical thickness (optical depth) increases, ther- radiative moment of intensity distribution with radial coordinate
O.A. Bég et al. / Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers 66 (2016) 258–268 267
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