Karl Jaspers' Christology

Author(s): Harold A. Durfee

Source: The Journal of Religion, Vol. 44, No. 2 (Apr., 1964), pp. 133-148
Published by: The University of Chicago Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1200282
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 KARL JASPERS' CHRISTOLOGY
HAROLD A. DURFEE*

HE intention of this essay is to development, but his reflection ha

indicated considerable sympathy for
analyze the interpretation of Jesus
offered by one of the leading religious perspective. He has written
as one devoted to the relevance of the
European existential philosophers, Karl
transcendent both in philosophy and
Jaspers. There are a variety of reasons
for such an analysis and many per- in modern life. His thought maintains
constant association with the biblical
spectives within which his interpreta-
tion becomes both fruitful and of tradition. Furthermore, within the exis-
special interest. tentialist movement he was the philo-
Jaspers is somewhat unique among
sophical Protestant as distinct from the
philosophers qua philosophers inRoman
de- Catholic philosopher, Marcel,
voting considerable attention toorthe
the non-believer Sartre, or the
philosopher
person, message, and significance of who avoided theological
Jesus. Most philosophers, with discussion
a few as did Heidegger. Jaspers has
exceptions such as Nietzsche, on
avoid
the contrary, maintained a constant
dialogue with Christianity and with
completely any attempt to comment
upon this much discussed figure in theology while remaining the
Christian
man's religious history. Strangely
philosopher. This was especially evident
enough, this is the case even among
in his published discussion with Bult-
mann.1 What then would such a
ethicists. Jaspers, however, devotes
special attention to numerous religious
philosopher have to say about Jesus?
leaders, including Jesus, and theirThis
im- concern with religious thought
is further evidenced by his serious
portance for the history of philosophical
interest in both Kierkegaard and
reflection. His analysis at this point
may have special relevance for the He interprets both of these
Nietzsche.
thinkers as leading spokesmen of the
faith-reason controversy in our day.
But Jaspers also occupies a rather
nineteenth century and his philosophy
has been developed in the light of these
unique place in the existentialist move-
ment itself. Not only was he one "exceptions."
of In view of the direct
the early leaders in this philosophical concern with Jesus on the part of both
* The author received his education at the Uni- Kierkegaard and Nietzsche, regardless
versity of Vermont (Ph.B.), at Yale University of their differences, Jaspers could hard-
(B.D.), and at Columbia University (Ph.D.). He ly avoid dealing directly with the prob-
also did a year's postdoctoral research at Harvard
University, under the sponsorship of the Fund for
lem of christological interpretation.
the Advancement of Education. He has taught phi- Jaspers has also spoken as something
losophy at Park College and the American Univer-of a Kantian. In view of the constant
sity, Washington, D.C., where he is presently serv-
ing at chairman of the Department of Philosophy
use of Kant by Christian thinkers for
the last century, and the strong Kantian
and Religion. Previously, he has been published in
the International Philosophical Quarterly, Journal
influence in contemporary Protestant
of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, Theology Today,
theology,
American Quarterly, Christian Scholar, and Journal it may be especially interest-
of Religion. ing to see what a Kantian philosopher,
133

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134 THE JOURNAL OF RELIGION

who as a Protestant concerned about pretation of Jesus takes on further

relevance.
the practical reason and the moral
Finally, Jaspers' concept of tran-
order, will have to say about the ac-
tivity of Jesus.2 scendence leads him to give special
attention to the openness of man in
With much of Jaspers' writing avail-
able in translation it is possible that
the world, and especially his openness
he may have increasing influencetoincommunication. This gives Jaspers
the opportunity to speak as the
realms of religious thought. If so, many
aspects of his philosophical position
philosopher of communication and tol-
will become increasingly relevant erance,
and and it also leads him to be
thus they form varied perspectives especially disturbed by claims of ex-
within which to interpret his analysisclusiveness in regard to truth. Such
of Jesus. While Jaspers has been claimsin- would end conversation and
sistent upon the presence of the communication. Once again the rele-
transcendent, he has been equally in- vance of the matter of communication
sistent that it could be known or to Christology takes on special sig-
grasped only in ciphers, none of nificance.
which
are sufficient to encompass the tran- From these many and varied per-
scendent. The Kantianism of such a spectives, therefore, I would suggest
that Jaspers' thought is of special
position is obvious, but the suggestion
that we are confined to ciphers interest
also when he focuses upon an
has, as we shall see, its own importinterpretation
for of Jesus. If it is true
the Christology of the position. that each serious thinker has his own
interpretation of deity, it may be
In addition Jaspers develops an analy-
sis of what he calls "philosophic faith" true that many have their own
equally
which he places between revelationinterpretation
and of the person and work
atheism. This is the faith by whichof Jesus. I am not sure that "Christol-
the
philosopher and the enlightenedogy" manis the proper word for such inter-
will live. It is obvious that such philo-
pretations. Surely it will not be Christol-
ogy
sophic faith must play a crucial role inas it has frequently been presented
his reaction to the person of Jesus.in theological creeds and debate. I shall
not be concerned to analyze Jaspers'
Furthermore, one should not forget
that Jaspers began his career as atheology
pro- as a whole for that is a much
more extensive task. But I am con-
fessional psychologist and had received
cerned to see what he makes of the
appropriate education in the exact
historical figure of Jesus both as to
sciences. He then speaks to modern
man as one who knows science from history and as to personal significance,
and this especially in the light of the
the inside, but who nevertheless finds
various philosophical frames of refer-
that scientific activity need be supple-
ence outlined above.
mented by "philosophic faith." His
scientific interests do not lead him to THE TEACHINGS OF JESUS AND THE
abandon the realm of myth, but rather HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY

supplement his emphasis upon the Jaspers' christological analysi

central role of myth and cipher. From brought together in any centra
but scattered references throu
the perspective then of the relationship
works offer evidence that a rather clear
of science and religion Jaspers' inter-

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 KARL JASPERS' CHRISTOLOGY 135

Christology is present The

andmessage
more of Jesus
or was distorted as
less
explicit in his numerous writings.
early as St. Paul, and since then the
Jaspers' discussion of Christian the life community
of Jesushas frequently
is brief and rather routine. neglected the He centraldoes,
message for the
however, note especially development of dogma. Jaspers fre-
the ambiguity
in Jesus' conception ofquently himself.
identifies He sug-
his own interpretation
gests that Jesus apparently came
of the biblical messagetowithnothe synop-
firm conclusion regarding tic gospels and atmatter
this times specifically
and that much that we disassociates
have himselfpreserved from St. Paul.
regarding his intended messianic
Jesus does not oppose con- the Old Testa-
ment
sciousness is the influence of later dog-law as St. Paul does. The creation
matic formulation. Jaspers of the Christ was
seemsthe work toof Paul and
emphasize Jesus' lack of church.
the early clarity in of Jesus
The faith
"self-awareness," alongand of the
side ofsynoptics
his com- is not the faith
mitted dedication and obedience to of the historical church as propounded
God.
in creeds and dogmas.5 Jaspers also dis-
In discussing the message of Jesus,
tinguishes his reliance upon the synop-
Jaspers emphasizes the role of the
tics from the "gnosticism" of the Gospel
Kingdom of God and notes the strong
of John."
eschatological element in Jesus' pres-
Jaspers considers Jesus along with
entation of the Kingdom. The Kingdom Socrates, Buddha, and Confucius as
four "paradigmatic individuals" exert-
of God is something "entirely different"
from history. Jaspers draws heavilying ongreat influence not merely upon
the "interim ethics" of Schweitzer and the history of culture but more specif-
the interpretation of Martin Dibelius. ically upon the history of philosophy.
I do not mean to suggest that his his- Although there is no rational proof
torical comments at this point are which establishes these figures as de-
unique, but they are rather the em- serving of the power which they have
phasis which he takes from currentexerted on human history, nevertheless
biblical scholarship. He also emphasizestheir influence is obviously still very
the intention of Jesus to concentrate ongreat, and one can hardly help being
the inner being of man. "He demands moved by their reality. "These men set
what cannot be willed but is the source norms by their attitudes, actions, ex-
of all willing."3 perience of being, and their imperatives.
Jaspers suggests that Jesus' demand In delving to the heart of their own
to love our enemy is a distinctive problems, subsequent philosophers have
feature of New Testament thought and looked to these thinkers. Each in his
not typical of the Old Testament. sphere, they have all exerted an enor-
Nevertheless, he is really the last of mous influence on later philosophy."7
the Hebrew prophets, with radical Although Jaspers considers these four
emphasis upon devotion to God and together, what is said applies equally to
subordination of all things in the world Jesus. Thus he proposes that these men,
to the divine.4 including Jesus, are not ones who have
From time to time Jaspers also notes visions and ectasies but rather "indicate
a distinction between Jesus and Chris- what is to be done," and thereby break
tianity, or the message of Jesus and through the customary and create new
the message of the historical church. possibilities.8

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136 THE JOURNAL OF RELIGION

Jaspers notes how they

JESUS call
AND THEfor an
PHILOSOPHY
inner transformation. These men are OF HISTORY

not philosophers in the classical sense. In spite of the proposal that J

But philosophy may well receive, and is the world's crisis, this does no
Jaspers to propose that he is the c
frequently has received, inspiration not
merely from their teachings but fromof history as so much Christian
losophy of history has done. Ra
their very reality. Thus they "become
models" for mankind making their im-Jaspers develops a philosophy of hi
in which the center of history o
pact upon humanity and upon philoso-
phy. Each of these men, including "axial period," as he calls it, falls m
earlier
Jesus, is a way of experiencing the than the life and times of J
human situation and the human task. Jaspers notes that Western philo
Thus each "fulfilled ultimate human of history was "founded in the C
tian faith," but his own philosop
potentialities."9 They faced existence in
history reinterprets the center o
the extreme, and in this they are essen-
historical process.
tial for philosophy and the stimulus
In the development of his phi
for philosophical reflection. They, like
phy of history Jaspers attemp
us, were men who faced the extremities
distinguish clearly between item
of life, and thus we stand beside themfaith and matters of empirical info
in the confrontation of the human
tion. This theistic philosophy of hi
situation.
develops from the faith that ma
Although these four have much ainsingle origin and a single goal,
of which are unknown but can be
common, Jaspers does not try to draw
some common religious denominator suggested only by ciphers or symbol
from them. Rather he is quite willing Man, created by God, moves throug
to recognize their uniqueness and their fall and then through knowledg
the
differences and allow each to make his and temporal activity to "the lucidit
own contribution to culture and to of the consciously manifest." The goa
philosophy. "They cannot be pieced is the loving understanding and com
together to form a single manmunion
who of spirits.12 It is within such a
faith that the empirical data are to b
might travel all their ways at once."o
These men are not to be imitated but interpreted.'3
The trouble with the Christian phi-
rather are ways of illuminating our own
losophy of history with the Christ a
existence and our thought. The rela-
the center of history is that it is only
tionship of these four is clearly indi-
valid for believing Christians. Thus i
cated when Jaspers writes, "Schemat-
is not the faith of mankind but only
ically, we may say that Socrates, in the
the faith of a somewhat exclusive grou
world, goes the way of thought, of of believers. Furthermore, such Chris
human reason; this is the way thattian interpretation of history has
distinguishes man, his characteristic
frequently failed to make careful con
potentiality. Buddha strives to annul the
nection between its faith and the
world by extinguishing the will toempirical data of history. Any cente
existence. Confucius aspires to build ofa history, if one were to be proposed
world. Jesus is the world's crisis.""' ought not to be an item of faith bu

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 KARL JASPERS' CHRISTOLOGY 137

center of human
rather an empirical discovery. Then history
it is to "gain
could be accepted by all, including be-
possession of something common to all
mankind,
lieving Christians. "The beyond all
axis would bedifferences of
situated at the point in history
creed.""' which
He therefore presents a thesis
gave birth to everything which,
regarding since
the unity of history open to
communication
then, man has been able to be, and communion
the with
all humans
point most overwhelmingly regardlessin
fruitful of their "faith."
This thesis also serves as a "challenge
fashioning humanity."'4
Jaspers discovers such an "axial
to boundless communication," in view
period" not in the historical of the factJesus
that it is a common unity
but
in the period around 500 for all B.C. or be-
humanity."
tween 800 B.C. and 200 B.C. This is the It is obvious that the proposal brings
chief dividing line in the history of Jaspers into dialogue with classical
the human race. This is the period of Christian philosophy of history, and
Confucius, Buddha, Zarathustra, thehe is well aware of the dialogue. Jas-
Hebrew prophets, Homer, Plato, and pers proposes that the Christian phi-
other leading spirits of human culture.losophy of history still remains intact
The most significant of events hap-as the proclamation of faith of the
pened in this "axial period." Jaspers Christian community. But while such
characterizes its contribution in many a conviction regarding Jesus as the
ways. Man "becomes conscious of Be- center of history may be a binding
ing as a whole," "experiences the terrorconviction for the believers, it cannot
of the world and his own powerless- be a binding orientation for all men.
ness," "experiences absoluteness in the Humanity itself is bound together in
depths of selfhood and in the lucidity openness and communication in the
of transcendence," and "reason and
experience of the axial period. But
personality were revealed for the firsthumanity cannot be bound together by
time."' revelation. As man, one may find the
This axial period followed what experiential import and centrality of
Jaspers refers to as "the mythicalthe axial period. Only as the recipient
of revelation can man receive the bind-
age" and the axial period as a more
ing together of the Christian com-
rational period brought forth serious
conflict between the mythical and munity.
the
rational. The development of this Jaspers then proposes something of
crucial period also involved a struggle
a dialectical relationship between the
for the "transcendence of the one God" insight and the contribution of the
as well as more serious ethical inter- axial period and the insight and con-
pretations of religion. Philosophy tributions
ap- of later spiritual leaders. In
pears and man then comes to himselfthis connection he raises the question
"within Being" thereby overcoming ofthenorms quite directly and therein
subject-object dichotomy and duality.
illustrates some of the ambiguity re-
While the causes of the axial period
garding his Christology. He asks if the
may remain unknown and its occur- axial period is to be accepted as a norm
rence may appear miraculous or provi-
or "yardstick" for the spiritual crea-
dential, its meaning is still open to
tions and developments which succeed
interpretation. To make this period the
it. There is no doubt about the presence

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138 THE JOURNAL OF RELIGION

Hebrew prophets,
of and even the tremendous this reconsideration
insight and
contribution of laterof spiritual achieve-
the central creative period of history
ments. But the question is whether
remained fragmentary. Thus a great
these are to be measured by the chasm was established between the
achievements of the axial period, and,world of antiquity and the world which
more importantly, whether in such afound its center in the Christian axis.
comparison the later achievements will This chasm was partially bridged by
always appear weak and inadequate. the development of the modern world
Jaspers tries to speak carefully re-since the Renaissance and Reformation
garding such comparative and norma-in which there was increasing recog-
tive matters. There is little doubt of nition of the true "axis of world his-
the unique contribution of the later
tory."9 Thus Jaspers attempts to re-
movements, and no attempt to interpret place an interpretation of history
them merely as repetitions of the axial rooted in the Christian community of
period will succeed. But even after faith,the which thereby loses communion
most sincere appreciation of the crea- with much of mankind, with an inter-
pretation of history rooted in the ex-
tivity of later spirits, one will still find
the need to return to the creativity perience
of of the whole of humanity,
the axial period to "regain his health." which thereby preserves the very core
In speaking apparently of Jesus spe-of communication between all men.
cifically in comparison with Jeremiah So far we have noted Jaspers' in-
as a member of the axial period,terpretation
he of the life and message of
notes the contribution of Jesus which
Jesus and also his interpretation of the
was never before achieved, "a depthcenter
of of history which places Jesus in
soul, especially in the case of the the
'ex- post-axial period. But what of the
ception.' " But he does not elaborate
unity of history, and what of Jesus the
further, and, when continuing "exception,"
the and what of this unique
dialectical relationship between One the in view of Jaspers' well-known de-
mand for openness and communication?
creativity of later figures and the need
to return to the axial period to find
the heart of the matter, he chooses JESUS AND COMMUNICATION
Near the center of Karl Jaspers'
to illustrate by reference to the rela-
tionship of Augustine to Greek phi- philosophy is the thesis of openness,
losophy. But let us not interpret communication, and tolerance. This is
Jaspers as putting too much hope in intimately related to his theory of
the axial period as a norm, for this too transcendence. If the transcendent sur-
would be to desert his Kantianism and passes all of our knowledge and cannot
his theory of transcendence. "Nowhere be grasped, if truth transcends all
on earth can we find final truth, knowledge, our symbols and our cate-
authentic salvation. gories, then surely no one position has
The axial period too ended in failure.authority to identify itself as the truth
History went on."18 and establish claims of exclusiveness.
But for the West the return from Although such claims have frequently
the Christian center to the axial periodbeen put forth in history, one who
hardly took place. While there wasrecognizes the true meaning of the
transcendent will recognize their in-
some reconsideration of the Greek con-
tribution, and some return to the appropriateness. This is obviously a

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 KARL JASPERS' CHRISTOLOGY 139

further aspect of Jaspers' posites in the content of this total

Kantianism
and theism. It is this Kantianism and
literature. We may need to approach
theism which has made Jaspers the the truth through such polarities, but
continental philosopher of the open there is surely no reason for turning
spirit of Socratic philosophy. But it
oneis of the poles into the totality of the
also this aspect of Jaspers' thought that
truth, although this is often done. These
has brought him into dialogue with theclaims to exclusiveness appearing in
Christian community and its frequent varied ways and forms brought religions
claims to exclusiveness in regard to the
into conflict with one another, and this
person of Jesus. rivalry fostered not only fanaticism but
The Hebrew prophets as figuresalso
of the inevitable questioning of such
the "axial period" brought radical
claims.
transformation to the spirit of early
It is at the very heart of Jaspers'
man. They freed man from "magic and philosophy as an existentialist that
the transcendence of objects." Uponhistorical and temporal reality by. the
very fact that it is historical cannot
this foundation Christian thought fos-
tered "the most extreme transcendence"
be universally valid for all mankind.
but "fettered this realization to the
Historical figures of great spiritual
world of immanence, and thereby
power may be worthy of being followed
brought about the perpetual unrest in-but one ought not make of them more
volved in the task of giving a Christianthan is philosophically meaningful and
conformation to the world."20 possible. As historical figures, men such
In the West especially, a dynamic
as Jesus have their limitations. To
absolutize such a one with claims of
quality of restlessness has been fostered
by "exceptions" creating new develop-
possessing an exclusive relationship to
ments thus breaking through thethe transcendent is to "divest his image
universal forms which have been estab- of all natural humanity."22 He then
lished. "The West gives the exception
loses the very qualities which make
room to move."'2 But the West also historical human beings historical.23
developed another extreme by its This is not to detract from their unique-
"claim to exclusive truth" which de- ness and creative spiritual contribution,
veloped in the biblical religions. This
but to recognize their creativity and
rigorous claim is a unique feature which
uniqueness it is not necessary to deny
runs through the history of western their humanity.
religious culture. One of the chief manifestations of
Jaspers recognizes that there aresuch
a claims is to be found in attempts
variety of biblical religions and aat a philosophy of history. Here especial-
variety of tendencies resulting from
ly, such claims lead writers to propose
drawing one's thought and inspiration
a unity of history based upon revela-
from biblical sources. Thus this claim tion or even rationally discerned which
to exclusiveness was offset by thedistort the plurality of historical phe-
tendency toward the pluralization ofnomena. Such claims as the key to the
biblical religions as well as by the ten-unity of history break down for if
sion between church and state. Biblical they were valid then each historical
literature when approached as a totality event or person would merely be the
is full of "polarities." There are notmediator for this unity, and merely a
only many proposals but also their op- path in time to the transcendent mean-

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140 THE JOURNAL OF RELIGION

ing. "It is not for itself" but

tian faiths serves
as well as the Jews and
merely as a mediator.24 those
But who
thebelieve without a church,
original
relationship to the Godhead and evenwhich
in some each
way those who ex-
man has in his own name and the pressly objure all faith. Biblical religion
"infinitude of the comprehensive"
thus becomes the all-embracing whole,
belies such mediative status for events. reaching through the millennia from
Furthermore, if such persons andAbraham to our own day; no westerner
events were but mediators of the unitycan disregard it, but no one is entitled
of history, then many people and events
to claim it for his own possession.""26
of great magnitude would be set aside It is clear that, for Jaspers, Jesus
as of little importance and meaning in is not at the center of biblical re-
the historical process, for they wouldligion. He is only a part of Chris-
not have any intimate relationship totianity and a part which was changed
the unity and would be incidental to into something which he never intended.
the meaning of history. In addition to being taken as a model
It should also be noted that to intro- for humanity, he was "transformed
duce such a unity in a philosophy offrom Jesus to Christ ... from a human
history is to interpret the historicalreality to an object of faith.""27 When
process as a closed system where thehis disciples began to believe in him
beginning direction and end are allas well as in his message, he was made
known. But history is not so closed,the Messiah, and his humanity was
and the origin and end are not so clear.thereafter neglected. This was a de-
Such an interpretation can but lead to struction of the truth which had been
a radically different philosophy of his-evidenced in the person of Jesus and
tory. In the previous section we havethe transformation of this truth into
already noted Jaspers' rejection of athe myth of the "God-Man."28 But it
Christian philosophy of history. Nowis this myth which has fostered the
it is evident why his theory of open-claims to exclusiveness and which must
ness and his rejection of claims of be discarded in order to recapture the
exclusiveness lead to the developmenttruth which was made evident in the
of a philosophy of history which re- person. The Christian faith when
jects the exclusiveness of Jesus as the
properly interpreted and developed will
center and meaning of history.25 Sym-eliminate such claims of exclusiveness.
bols of unity may offer a direction forThis will not be the end of Chris-
a moment in time but may not be ac-tianity, for a faith in the truth as
cepted as any final truth. evidenced in the person of Jesus would
We have also noted Jaspers' standstill be a motivating force. Jaspers does
within the framework of biblical re-
not try to picture or to analyze the
ligion, but this is very broad territorynature of a Christianity so purged of
as he interprets it. It is surely not athe "stigma of exclusivity," but he does
classical Christian or even Hebrew note that this is necessary if it is to
interpretation of biblical literature.return to its true origin. A major ques-
This too allows Jaspers to eliminate tionall of our age, when so many have
claims to exclusiveness even in the given up the belief in "Christ" as a
interpretation of this literature. Theunique or exclusive path to the tran-
scendent, is whether or not one can
biblical religion "encompasses all Chris-

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 KARL JASPERS' CHRISTOLOGY 141
restore Christianity to its true
volves origin
must necessarily reject with vig-
and transform the faith in Christ
or suchinto
christological claims.32 Thus
this to
its valid dimensions of openness debate
the about exclusiveness and
transcendent.` "We must abandon the and the role of Jesus in
communication
religion of Christ" in order toeach
recapture
would seem to Jaspers to be at the
the opportunity for human heart communi-
of the dialogue and the possibility
cation and communion.30 The religion
of dialogue between "philosophic faith"
of Christ took a theory of andsalvation
the Christian faith in revelation.
from Deutero-Isaiah and attributed it claims must be aban-
Although such
to Jesus, thus creating an exclusiveness
doned, as has already been suggested,
that is the death of human communica-
this does not eliminate for Jaspers a
tion.31
serious interpretation of the teachings,
Jaspers recognizes that such claims person, and contribution of Jesus-the
endanger debate with the believer just exception and the world's crisis. To this
because the claims themselves may halt positive contribution we must now turn.
dialogue and communication. He sug-
JESUS AS A CIPHER OF
gests great concern about this matter
TRANSCENDENCE
for a variety of reasons. On the one
hand, while the claims to exclusiveness Jaspers finds much in the person,
seem to stand in the way of genuine work, and message of Jesus which is of
dialogue, they should not hamper open utmost relevance to our world and to his
discussion between true human beings. philosophy of the encompassing. The
But beyond this, the suggestion of contribution of Jesus is described in a
Bultmann and others would seem to variety of ways which emphasize the
propose that for the Christian the ideahistoricity and finitude of man, the free-
of God without the "Christ" as under- dom of the self and the self-awakening
stood in the religion of exclusiveness of an individual, the inevitability of suf-
would be "madness." But Jaspersfering, and the symbolizing of the tran-
scendent.
obviously wishes to maintain just that.
The transcendent which is central to We have already noted Jaspers' in-
his position gives him the theism, butsistence that Jesus stands in the pro-
the exclusivistic claim must be aban- phetic tradition and thus fulfils its mis-
doned. Thus he above all would main- sion. Although a Jew who respected the
tain God without "Christ," and the Jewish traditions, he subordinates these
possibility of such a position is now at in a radical way to the will of God. His
stake in the attempt to maintain life was "illumined by the Godhead."33
dialogue with those who make the ex-One of the first things then to be said
about the contribution of Jesus involves
clusive claims. Finally such claims seem
his insight into the transcendent. The
to Jaspers to be an attack upon the very
transcendent is illumined as the "ground
spirit of philosophy which he has
learned from such classical masters as of all things," which conditions every-
thing else but is subject to no condi-
Plato and Kant. He fears that those
tions. Thus while Jesus is "in the world,
who make such claims obviously fail to he transcends the world."34 With this
realize what the philosophical spirit orinsight man cannot be held captive by
"philosophic faith" really is, and thosethe world. This attitude on the part of
who understand what philosophy in- Jesus of being "independent of the

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142 THE JOURNAL OF RELIGION

world" does not make him unconcerned persecution, abuse, degradation, that is
for he is constantly involved in thewhat befits the believer.""39 Jesus offers
world. He was "open to the world," but the only hope available to those to
his loyalty to the encompassing kept whom the orders of this world have de-
the world in its place. He was not onenied hope. He shows what human po-
to whom the world took the place of tentiality is under the worst of condi-
God. He was not dedicated to "finite tions. By the standards of the world
this hope is impossible, but this is the
absolutes," or tempted to think that bits
only real hope one has. Jesus "points to
of worldly knowledge were equal to to-
tal knowledge. a place where a home is open to man in
Jaspers insists, however, that Jesusevery mode of failure."40 Such a ground
not merely remained independent of theof hope can only be pointed to indirect-
world but that his orientation toward ly. It is not what the orders of the world
the transcendent also "put absolutely would suggest, and is contradictory to
everything in the world in question.""3 what reason would suggest. "He seems
to test what is madness in the world for
In this respect Jesus developed in a rad-
ical way a theme which was only a seed its possible truth." This is the unique-
in Old Testament thought. There was nessa of the illumination in Jesus and
radicalness here not to be found in Old this is the freedom of the man living in
Testament literature. "All earthly real-the transcendence of the encompassing.
ity is deprived of its foundation, abso- Jaspers is well aware of the eschato-
lutely and definitively.""3 The worldlylogical character of Jesus' message.
orders collapse into meaninglessness be-Even though the end of history did not
fore this radical orientation to tran-
arrive as anticipated, still it demands
scendence which Jaspers sees in Jesus.
of everyone a central decision regarding
In this radical throwing of the worldthe
in-transcendent. "Jesus reminds men
to question, Jesus is surely a cipher of
of this extreme situation."4
the encompassing. Jaspers also would emphasize the role
It is also to be noted that "the es- of suffering in the life of Jesus as an
sence of this faith is freedom."" This aspect of his uniqueness. The suffering
was the freedom of Jesus and the free-is not merely intense and faced square-
dom open to others who will so direct ly; in such suffering all foundations of
themselves toward the transcendent. his being but the transcendent are de-
The temptation to make of the world stroyed. He does not resign himself to
more than was worthy of it "shattered suffering or bear it patiently but lives
against the freedom of his faithupon in the only foundation from which
God."38 He was freed from the orders help can come. Thus Jaspers contrasts
of this world. the role of suffering in the spirit of Jesus
Such freedom also makes ample room with the "dignity" of Stoic ethics and
for the frustration, despair, and suffer-the apathy of Stoicism.42 Such dignity
ing in the world. Frustration is to be fails, "or freezes into indifference."
expected and suffering will not be Consequently Jaspers sees the reality of
avoided, but the orientation to the en-Jesus in courage and in the "fulfillment
compassing gives hope to those who soof his divine mission to tell the truth,
suffer adversity. "To die at the hands of to be the truth."43 Jaspers also contrasts
the powers of this world, in suffering, the role of suffering in the message of

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 KARL JASPERS' CHRISTOLOGY 143

Jesus with the place ofdom becoming conscious

tragedy in Greek of itself Jas-
pers takes
thought. It is the opposite oftothe
be central
"Greekin his philoso-
tragic principle" for phy.
"Biblical
Freedom doesreligion
not live out of itself,
lies outside or beyondbutthe
as it comes
senseto understand
of the itself it
increasingly
tragic.""44 In this sense finds that its
Jaspers canvery being
speak of the cross where
points to the "funda-
its foundation in the encom-
mental reality of the eternal
passing. Here is
the embod-
existentialism of Jas-
pers the
ied in time."45 It was in comes increasingly
symbol toof the fore and
in this there is serious
the cross that the authenticity of life opposition
in to the
relationship to the encompassing is dis-
interpretation of freedom in Sartre.so
In order that
closed and the impossibility of hereliance
will not be misunder-
upon the world is made clear.
stood, JaspersThus the
takes pains to distinguish
cross stands along withsuch
thean analysis
idea of offreedom
God and "the
Christ
as a central symbol of in me" from
biblical the classical Prot-
religion
where an answer toestant
the question
doctrine of by faith.
of justification
death is offered and where even such Such a position Jaspers will reject with
death is taken as God's will. It is vigor.
by Freedom becoming aware of it-
self and thus dedicated to transcend-
such a vision that Jesus lives as a his-
torical and paradigmatic individual. His ence is not to have faith in Jesus as the
most serious limitation is that with the unique incarnation of the transcendent
world so thrown into question there is in time. Nor is such faith due to the
little place for "building in the world."46action of some external agency such as
The nature of freedom in Jaspers' the grace of God. To interpret things
Christology is also given much more in-in this way is to desert all of the mean-
ner direction than so far we have indi-ing of the transcendent, and the histo-
cated. The person who lives in faith asricity of man and the potentialities of
existence that Jaspers finds crucial in
did Jesus is awakened to itself and is
"given to itself by God," thus demand-the analysis of the human situation. The
ing a new appreciation and understand-doctrine of justification by faith is the
ing of reality.47 Man must undergo natural
a accompaniment of a philosophy
"rebirth." Man has a "God-created in- which finds the natural human situation
born nobility" which he is to receivehopeless
or and thus relies upon faith in
renew in his freedom. This is the bibli-
"redemptive history." This is but an-
other statement of the doctrine of exclu-
cal conception of "the Christ in me"
which is to be fulfilled in one's free- siveness, and is not the core of biblical
dom.48 The spirit of Christ is then religion
a although some would make it
communion with this nobility of man so. Rather biblical religion knows of
about which one must make fundamen- "the Christ in me" of which we have
tal decisions. This is the "actuality of
already spoken. Man, helped by God,
the divine in man.'49 But surely it cancan be responsible for the fulfilment of
be fulfilled by those who do not main-his own freedom.5" The decision to find
tain the claims of exclusiveness which oneself is possible without Christ, and
we have discussed earlier. This is the apart from the whole theory of a re-
decision with which we are confronted demptive history which has been so
by the person of Jasus as a cipher of the classical in Western Protestant thought.
transcendent. This emphasis upon free- Those without grace and to whom re-

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144 THE JOURNAL OF RELIGION

demptive history means quacy nothing

of the proposed maycircles. Logic
still, out of their owncannot settle the debate
freedom, seebetween
in the cir-
the suffering of this historical one
cles. The claim of the cipher a of tran-
cipher of the transcendent and
scendence be stirred
in opposition to the cipher of
not to believe in him but to exercise justification by faith is the openness and
their freedom toward the encompassing. non-exclusiveness of the one and the
The decision called for in the theory of failure to recognize the historicity of
justification by faith is a theological ad-
Jesus on the part of the other. Thus al-
dition and not part of the message of
though historical and objective revela-
tion is not a characteristic of the faith
Jesus. The decision he asked for was the
decision before and in regard to God.
of the open and communicative man,
No grace nor any belief can cancel one's
this suggests no weakening of the vital-
ity of the faith. Man as man and the
guilt. One has to answer for it.52 How-
ever much the doctrine of justification
philosopher as philosopher are or may
has been historically associated with be in direct relationship with the tran-
Paul, we have seen that one can come to
scendent and no mediation through the
himself without grace and independent-historical Christ is necessary. For those
ly of the Christ. Thus we have arrivedto whom he speaks it may be helpful,
at a philosophy and insight which is but the transcendent is available apart
from such historical occurrences. Thus
valid and "philosophically convincing"
even though Paul's insights in this re-
the objectivity of a unique revelation in
gard may have been very helpful. this particular historical incarnation is
This analysis also leads Jaspers intodenied in the name of human freedom
a concern with the problem of subjec- and the transcendence of the divine.
Jesus as the historical unique incarna-
tivity and objectivity in the self-aware-
ness of freedom. There has been a con- tion by whom we are justified does not
demand decision, but Jesus does de-
stant attempt to interpret the occur-
mand that a man "be given to himself,"
rence of revelation in exclusivistic ways.
But revelation properly understood is and this surely is a crucial decision for
not some single, unique, and objective
all.54 Thus God speaks through many
occurrence in which people must believemen, if one will but listen, and through
to be secure. In the encompassing, sub-no man exclusively, though there are
ject and object are inseparable so thatsurely those paradigmatic individuals
the occurrence of revelation has thewho "express what there is no appropri-
form of a circle. "We say either thatate way of saying."65 But to assert the
revelation is the process of becoming claim of exclusiveness is to confuse
revealed to the subject, which conceivesclaims to universality with historicity
revelation in itself as something objec- and is to confuse the cipher of tran-
tive; or, that reason in the movement ofscendence with the occurrence of a his-
reason subjects its revelation to the testtorical event.5"
of rationality.""53 This is what occurs All of this suggests a careful relation-
when the self awakens to itself. But ship between Jesus, the doctrine of jus-
such circularity is no criticism of the tification by faith, and philosophy. Such
position for circularity is "the funda-claims to exclusiveness are impossible
mental form of all awareness." The cru-for philosophy or "philosophic faith"
cial question is as to the depth and ade- which questions, which holds the world

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 KARL JASPERS' CHRISTOLOGY 145

sociated
in question, and which religious
is open toexistentialism
that with
which encompasses all history. of
the neo-orthodoxy Such
our day, that to
claims are the very opposite of philo-
find a philosopher of religious existen-
sophic faith and thustialism who is much
Jaspers more of a liberal
would
force a decision between
than thephilosophic
existential theologians of the
faith and the doctrine twentieth
of justification
century may notorbe expected.
any other exclusive claim
If thisto revelation.
proposal had come from non-the-
But philosophic faithisticis
existentialists
not opposed it would have been
to Jesus or his faith.noIt sees but
surprise, intoJesus'
find this emphasis in
faith the "same calm determination theistic existentialism is hardly typical
which the philosopher seeks, andofthetwentieth-century religious thought.
But Jaspers is well aware of this dis-
same uncertainty with respect to God's
will, which the philosopher experi-
tinction and consciously considers him-
ences."57 Jesus is the one who calls self
re-more liberal. He is more of a liberal
liance upon the world in questionrationalist
and than one usually expects an
thus has been "crucial in determining
existential philosopher to be, and this
by intention. Levi has already noted
the course of philosophy." Philosophical
thought cannot give us contents of faith,
Jaspers' continuity with eighteenth-cen-
tury rationalistic philosophy and his
but it can keep our minds open to faith.
It can be a standing place between skep-
Christology offers further evidence in
ticism and exclusiveness. This is the this direction."9
standpoint for one who recognizes the Jaspers frequently pictures his philo-
ciphers of the transcendent-as ciphers.
sophic faith as standing between revela-
As Professor Ricoeur has put it "the tion and atheism, and there is something
God-man is the antithesis of the ci- to be said for his interpretation at this
pher."58 But this is far from claimingpoint. But his Christology also indicates
that Jesus is not a unique cipher of the
that this standpoint is a bit more ambig-
transcendent. uous than he suggests. For it would ap-
pear that all meaningful interpretations
CONCLUSION
of revelation are not denied, and that in
Now that the analysis ofa Jaspers'
very real sense Jaspers has his own
Christology is completed a few conclud-
theory of revelation. There is a signifi-
ing comments about his proposals cant sensemay
in which, for Jaspers, Jesus is
be in order. a revelation of the encompassing. In at-
The distinction which he wishes to tempting to disassociate himself from
certain theories which he takes to be
draw between the message of Paul and
orthodox Christianity Jaspers too easily
the message of the Synoptic Gospels may
seem to many to be a strong continua-places himself over against the theory
tion of an outdated liberalism. Recent of revelation. It would be much more
Christian thought has been much more to the point to place him between ortho-
doxy (as he interprets it) and atheism
conscious of the continuity of Paul with
than between revelation and atheism. In
the intentions of Jesus than Jaspers sug-
gests. In fact his whole more liberal fact
at- it would be very helpful if Jaspers
would enlarge upon his own theory of
titude on matters of religious concern
may come as something of a surprise,
revelation and grace which is surely evi-
dent in "freedom awakening to itself."
for recent Christian thought has so as-

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146 THE JOURNAL OF RELIGION

The transcendent is nottoricalwholly

and the limits of the historical
inactive
which will not soon
in this process, and this is not a rigorous be overthrown.
Pelagianism even thoughThus there
there is presented
is sym- a challenge to
pathy in this direction. The
classical interrela-
Protestant thought, and espe-
tion of self-transformation, grace,
cially its theory of the andincarnation. The
revelation in Jaspers' problem now to find still
own position a way of stating
needs careful elaboration. the classical Only
theory, then
if this is possible,
will his own theorywith of due revelation be
regard to the historicity and
clarified. limits of historical personages and still
Jaspers makes interesting retain the intention
comments of the classical
about the transformation of the natural formulations. Jaspers finds that in order
orders by the paradigmatic individuals. to retain the historical and its limits it
But this too is in need of much greater is necessary to deny the classical affir-
clarity. Somehow the exceptional onesmation of the incarnation. This was of
transform the natural orders, but thecourse just the paradox that Kierke-
extent to which these are transformed gaard insisted must remain a paradox.
or turned about remains most ambigu-Clearly this issue is not settled yet. But
ous. Obviously this is a central issue inthere is a further and most serious issue
both Thomistic and Protestant philoso-developed in Jaspers' Christology. We
phy of religion. But it is of central im-have noted frequently the ways in
portance in understanding the relation- which he includes Jesus as a central ex-
ship of Jaspers' Christology to his philo-
pression of the appropriate freedom and
dedication of the rational and enlight-
sophic faith. Philosophic faith is a faith
in man's reason as well as a faith in the ened man. It would seem that the sig-
transcendent. If it is the case that Jesusnificance of Jesus has now been accom-
as the world's crisis transforms the modated and included at the heart of
natural orders then surely there will be Jaspers' philosophy, which is exactly
an impact upon the reason by which aswhat raises the problem. It has been
a philosopher one carries on with philo-suggested before, especially in relation-
sophic faith. This does not seem to be ship to Heidegger, than continental phi-
natural reason untouched by the "excep- losophy has now encompassed theology,
tion," but neither is it clear what trans-so that the circle of theology and the
formation the natural order of reason circle of philosophy become one. If this
underwent when illuminated by this should be the case, then the question as
cipher of the transcendent. More precise to the self-identity and independence of
concern with the christological problem theology is surely at stake. Jaspers' in-
and its relationship to natural reason clusion of the significance of Jesus as a
would be most helpful. central cipher of the transcendent with-
Surely Jaspers' entire philosophy, in- in his analysis of man and human free-
cluding his Christology, is one of the dom offers further evidence of this
most recent statements of Christian hu- tendency of continental philosophy as
manism, and thus it is not surprising to philosophy to encompass the theological
find it in tension with many traditionalmeanings.6o
theories of the incarnation. But it is also There seems little doubt that Jaspers
true that the existential philosophers has stated a position with much more
have had a profound sense of the his- accommodation to the non-Christian

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 KARL JASPERS' CHRISTOLOGY 147

ed to reinstatein
world than has been customary theProt-
Socratic spirit in
estant circles. If a transcendental
modern philosophy. This
phi- attempt and
losophy will appeal to the non-Christian
this issue is worthy of thoughtful con-
world or the non-Christians in the so-
sideration and serious attention, for
called Christian world Jaspers has
above all, Western man either as demo-
clearly made a noble effort. This is es-cratic or more specifically Christian has
pecially relevant just when Western and before him as never before the question
historical Christian civilization is in as to how to be both tolerant, open, in
more direct relationship with non-Chris-
communication and yet convinced, con-
tian cultures than ever before. victed, and faithful. In regard to this
Consequently it was most appropriate matter Jaspers' Christology is most sug-
for Jaspers to focus upon the relation- gestive. The philosopher of religion of
ship of tolerance and conviction not the twentieth century who will speak
only in his Christology but throughout to a major dilemma of modern man will
his philosophic faith. Whether or not his surely need to be clear as to the status
reconciliation of the two is satisfying, of the ciphers of the encompassing and
at least he has focused upon the proper how they function. Jaspers' Christology
issue with a most serious attempt rooted is the presentation of such a central
in and drawing upon the very spirit cipher embodying in one cipher the spir-
of philosophical inquiry in Western it of loyalty and dedication and the
thought. Jaspers has seriously attempt- spirit of openness and tolerance.

NOTES

1. K. Jaspers and R. Bultmann, Myth and Chris-

considers this matter only to the extent that it
tianity (New York: Farrar, Strauss & Co., bears
1958).on his Christology.
2. "I consider myself a Protestant, I am a church
14. The Origin and Goal of History, p. 1.
member, and as a Protestant I enjoy the freedom15. Ibid., pp. 2, 4.
to ascertain my faith, the faith on the basis16. ofIbid., p. 19.
which I like to think I live, without mediators,
17. Ibid. As we have noted, this demand for
in direct relation to transcendence, guided by openness,
the communication, and tolerance is one of
Bible and by Kant" (ibid., p. 78). the central features of Jaspers' philosophy. It leads
3. K. Jaspers, The Great Philosophers (New him to oppose all claims to exclusiveness and thus
York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1962), p. 77. brings him into serious conflict with much Chris-
4. P. A. Schilpp, The Philosophy of Karl Jaspers tian theology. The import of this for the signifi-
(New York: Tudor Publishing Co., 1957), p. 768. cance of Jesus will be dealt with increasingly in
5. Jaspers, op. cit., pp. 79, 91, 227. the remainder of this essay.
6. "The spiritualized Christ of the Gospel ac- 18. Ibid., p. 20.
cording to St. John, though noble and captivating 19. Ibid., p. 60.
as a fairy tale hero, seems to us far less significant 20. Ibid., p. 75.
than the living figure of Jesus in the Synoptics" 21. Ibid., p. 64.
(Jaspers and Bultmann, op. cit., p. 21). 22. K. Jaspers, The Great Philosophers, p. 105.
7. Jaspers, op. cit., pp. 99-100. 23. Jaspers and Bultmann, op. cit., p. 100.
8. Ibid. 24. K. Jaspers, The Origin and Goal of History,
9. Ibid., p. 105. p. 259.
10. Ibid. 25. Ibid.
11. Ibid., p. 103. 26. K. Jaspers, The Great Philosophers, p. 93.
12. K. Jaspers, The Origin and Goal of History27. Ibid.
(New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1953), 28. Schilpp, op. cit., p. 400.
p. xv. 29. K. Jaspers, The Perennial Scope of Philos-
13. This is not intended as any complete in-ophy (New York: Philosophical Library, 1949),
terpretation of Jaspers' philosophy of history but
pp. 95-96.

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148 THE JOURNAL OF RELIGION

30. Professor Ricoeur notes that 46. Ibid.,the

p. 103. exceptional
vigor with which Jaspers makes 47. Ibid.,
thisp. 88. attack upon
exclusiveness is much harsher 48. thanJaspershisand Bultmann,
attack op. cit.,
upon pp. 50-51.
various philosophic systems with 49. Jaspers,similar claims,
The Perennial Scope of Philosophy,
and is an attack upon the very p. 105.heart of a doctrine
of revelation (see Schilpp, op. 50. Schilpp,p.
cit., op. cit.,
623). p. 780.
31. K. Jaspers, op. cit., p. 105. 51. Jaspers and Bultmann, op. cit., pp. 50-51, 73,
32. Jaspers and Bultmann, op. 75. cit., pp. 110-11.
52. Schilpp, op. cit.,
33. Jaspers, The Great Philosophers, p. p. 780.
88.
34. Ibid. 53. Jaspers and Bultmann, op. cit., p. 46.
35. Ibid., p. 89. 54. Ibid., pp. 77-78.
36. Ibid. 55. Jaspers, The Great Philosophers, p. 100.
37. Ibid., p. 88. 56. Jaspers and Bultmann, op. cit., p. 101. See
38. Ibid. also K. Jaspers, Truth and Symbol (New York:
39. Ibid., p. 89. Twayne Publishers, 1959), pp. 76-77.
40. Ibid. 57. Jaspers and Bultmann, op. cit., p. 82.
41. Ibid., p. 90. 58. Schilpp, op. cit., p. 624.
42. Jaspers and Bultmann, op. cit., p. 84. 59. A. W. Levi, "The Meaning of Existentialism
43. Jaspers, The Great Philosophers, p. 90. for Contemporary International Relations," Ethics,
LXXII (1962), 248.
44. Jaspers, The Perennial Scope of Philosophy,
p. 40. 60. See especially a quotation in a book review
45. Jaspers, The Great Philosophers, p. 91. in Theology Today, XIX (1962), 440.

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