Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
FronfMptecí?.
The Aztec Calendar Stone found beneath the
centra! plaza of Mexico City. The monument is
not a fully functioning calendar, but
commemorates the Rve mythica! world-creations
(the Five Suns).
Reader's Guide
6
Acknowledgments
7
Introduction
9
Subject Index
36
THE DICTIONARY
38
Sources of Illustrations
215
Masonry baHcourts are one of the defining features of Mesoamerican civihzation. (A¿?oye) A baUcourt
at the Cfassic Maya site of Copán in Honduras. (Be/ow) A Ciassic period Zapotee baHcourt at Monte
A lbán ,Oaxaca.
Introduction
Early Settlement
The early peopling and settlement of the Americas remains obscure. Certainly by
15,000 years ago, waves of people had crossed the Bering Strait during times of low
water, and by 10,000 years ago people were living within the bounds of Mesoamerica.
The Brst widespread reliable evidence for humans in the Western Hemisphere
comes around 12,000 years ago, with the makers of flint and other stone fluted
points called Clovis. For some 3,000 years, nomadic hunters migrated into Mesoamer
ica, perhaps in search of megafauna, and archaeologists have found human
remains with those of the long-extinct mammoth. Generations later, humans would
domesticate small animals, including the dog and turkey, but no large mammals
would be available for domestication.
Around 7000 BC, the New World began to dry out. At this point, during what is
called the Archaic, people in Mesoamerica $lowly shifted their way of life, as many
animal species vanished from the planet and humans adapted to the warmer, drier
environment. The domestication of major foodstuffs in Mesoamerica accompanied
and fueled the impulse to settled life, eventually supporting the development and
growth of civilization. A primitive but domesticated maize can be documented by
3500 B e . Waves of migration continued after the onset of sedentary life. The Nahuatl-
speaking peoples of Central Mexico may have been among the latest arrivals. When
they migrated south, they left their linguistic cousins among the Uto-Aztecan
language group behind, largely within the borders of the United States and Canada.
The Aztecs spoke Nahuatl, as did their predecessors, the Toltecs, and although
INTRODUCTION 10
EARLY tS
POSTCLASSÍC
M tb CA/cAen
900 TERMINAL Pa^gu/ (Toltee Maya)
CLASSIC
Cacajrt/a
P angue, Centra!
LATE Albán IUb Yucatán
CLASSIC
600 >
1 M M 7/ia/,
EA RLY
Cl .ASSIC A! bán 111a
n- LrtMn d e/
300 e
j Ao /r
5
M
PptOTO- A!bán H
Ct^ASSIC
AD CAupIenaro Xam/na^nyd, Cerros
BC 7res Zapotes Aba/ 7aAaMr
Colima
300 R LTE
FORMATIVE
La Fen la
NaÁb^
600
1Í
MIDDLE 77at//co
Albán 1
F()RMATIVE
6
O
900 San
R tRLY
F(3RMATÍVE
Ocos
1500
A!tCHAIC
linguists disagree about the language of Teotihuacan - the single largest city in
Mesoamerica during the Erst millennium AD - it may well have been the Erst
important Nahuatl civilization.
Timescales
Archaeologists and anthropologists have divided the chronology of Mesoamerica
and assigned terminology to the various periods. During the Archaic (7000-2000 B e )
11 INTRODUCTION
^ C i M ^
'o
o
,
O!MPiCM0r0A
" ArTrEofinM^cjAi ^
. A'üapocwo
M ed co a ty /^ ^ /M *
JVí^//n¿r¿co ^ AÍas'BocíK
(%?&árj/co Chcláízlngío
J ío r ^ M < 7 C í7 ^ JV eyr^ ^ ^
__A^NC/ENTErrES
*^C Km BMODERNTOWNS
Aztecs lived too high for cotton to grow, and so the cotton mantle functioned as a
standard of exchange in their dominion. On his last voyage to the New World,
Christopher Columbus encountered Maya traders plying the waters o? Honduras
in ocean-going canoes piled high with woven cottons, part of the vast web of
Mesoamerican trade and tribute about which relatively little is known. Throughout
Mesoamerica, highland obsidian from volcanic Hows commanded high values, since
all households sought blades from this "steer' of the native New World. And
wherever volcanoes erupted, they renewed and enriched the soil. Today coHee
plantations have generally replaced tracts of cacao trees and vanilla orchids that
once Hourished along the PaciHc Coast of Guatemala and Chiapas and in Veracruz,
13 INTRODUCTION
/ AjMqyopan TuIum/cozuMZLi
-3 S&
$gnfgRj'fdA^_
%,-^
o%cc
G^ode^*Cz,
íg5^í6¡M$^
ThH2apoiaL3<7Mna
&Í05 Germs s
TtidM^^ro^Yox-, ^ ) !j
Toning A t
A%"1 A/ C ^ O j a c 'R y y ^ ^ L . ;
Onapa&&rzoA^,^^p^g ^ar&&Kn/faoj^ S
Aj^il^g
a Oaxaca
A D g /g z u
GUA*T t M ^
OTfc<;
AjVebg;
M /n ^ Á ^J^ o ^ /^ íy u ___
A(f/Bggf
aSaniaLucia
Cbtzumaihuay pi CALVAD
tL SALVADOR
UK //
Technology
By the time of the Spanish Conquest, Mesoamerican technology had progressed to
what archaeologists call '*New Stone Age/' in that some metals were worked but
played little practical role as tools. Copper axes were a relatively recent phenomenon;
^ stone axes and Hint knives, along with diverse obsidian blades, were the main tools
with which generations of people had quarried stone, cut flesh and hide, and brought
down the forest. The gold and silver that so astonished the European invaders
tNTHODUCflON 14
formed religious works or jewelry; the Europeans were equally astonished by the
greater value Mesoamericans attributed to jade. Blue-green, like the most precious
things of the Mesoamerican world (quetzal feathers or maize foliage or water), jade
symbolized preciousness. The hardest stone commonly known in Mesoamerica, jade
also signified permanence, and when Maya nobles died, they carried such a bead
in their mouth to enter the Underworld.
Throughout the world, the wheel often played a role in religious imagery, but in
Mesoamerica (as in the rest of the New World), no wheel was ever developed for
mundane purposes - although graves in Veracruz have yielded wheeled toy-like
objects - perhaps because of the absence of draft animals. Today, as in Prehispanic
times, in many regions men and women are the beasts of burden, and Mesoamerican
people carry heavy loads on their backs with tumplines stretched across their
foreheads.
time La Venta began to flourish. No certain data are available for Laguna de los
Cerros, as yet unexcavated. All three sites share layouts based on bilateral symmetry,
a preoccupation of Olmec art and symbolism as well, in which mirror images fall
along a central axis. La Venta features the Brst pyramidal form of Mesoamerican
architecture, what is perhaps a radial pyramid but which has also been interpreted
as a volcano effigy. At La Venta the Olmecs buried pavements and caches following
a pattern along the central axis; at San Lorenzo, basalt sculptures were interred
along the edges of a vast ceremonial platform. The Olmecs carved huge thrones
(dubbed "altars" by early scholars) from which lords presumably ruled; the Olmecs
commemorated their powerful lords with portraits in colossal heads. Olmec stone
sculpture achieved a high, naturalistic plasticity, yet it has no surviving prototypes,
as if this powerful ability to represent both nature and abstract concepts was a
native invention of this early civilization.
INTRODUCTION 16
Early in the 8rst millennium Be, the Olmecs forged connections across Mesoamer-
ica, from Central America to western Mexico, perhaps in search of scarce highland
resources, particular!y jade, from which they carved precious objects. By 900 Be,
the nascent Maya civilization at Copan made imitations of Olmec ceramics and jade.
In western Mexico, the Olmecs encountered a sophisticated culture at Xochipala,
where naturalistic human Bgures had been made after 1500 Be. Later, coeval with
La Venta, the Olmecs covered the giant rock outcropping at Chalcatzingo, Morelos,
with depictions of their lords and gods. Olmec-style petroglyphs also mark the cliffs
of highland Guatemala and Chiapas, further suggesting Olmec contacts in the Maya
region. They established a highland center at Teopantecuanitlan, Guerrero; Olmec
artists also made paintings celebrating cave rituals at Cacahuazqui, Juxtlahuaca, and
Oxtotitlan. In Central Mexico, the Olmecs encountered communities with well-
developed traditions of Sgurine manufacture at Tlatilco and elsewhere. These places
subsequently adopted Olmec forms and imagery and in modern times have yielded
the Snest Olmec ceramic sculpture, particularly large hollow "babies/'
Mound j at Monte Albán, Oaxaca. Possibly an observatory, the structure features walls covered with
more than 50 carved slabs describing the conquests of. the early Zapotees.
17 INTRODUCTION
Albán (and at least one other similar building at Caballito Blanco), an unusual
pointer-shaped building, possibly an observatory oriented toward the rise of the star
Capella on the night of the Brst zenith passage. These buildings probably conBrm
knowledge of a large body of star lore.
Toward the end of the Formative era, from 100 Be to AD 300 or what is also
termed the Protoclassic, many of the principles and beliefs common to Classic-
period civilization appear to have come together, particularly along the axis of the
Isthmus of Tehuantepec and ranging from Atlantic to PaciBc Coasts, at places as
far-flung as Monte Albán, Dainzú, Tres Zapotes, La Mojarra, Chiapa de Corzo,
Izapa, and Kaminaljuyú. Across the region, the Principal Bird Deity - probably the
same as Vucub Caquix of the PopcV VuA (the native epic of the Quiche Maya
transcribed into the Roman alphabet at the time of the Conquest) - gained
prominence; the PopoV VuA account of origins, humanity's relationship to chaos, and
the Hero Twins' harrowing of the Underworld, may have been widely subscribed to.
Tres Zapotes in the Olmec Gulf Coast heartland may have flourished about the
time of La Venta, and also exhibits some late Olmec colossal heads, but the site
experienced continued occupation into the Protoclassic, and old Olmec concepts
underlay the foundation of new Mesoamerican ones shared from Oaxaca to
Honduras. Working at Tres Zapotes in the 1930s, Matthew Stirling found part of
what seemed to him to be a date written in the place-notationa! calendar generally
called the Long Count and most prevalent among the later Maya. Although Tres
Zapotes Stela C lacked its Brst number glyph, Stirling correlated the date to 32 B e ,
and subsequent discovery of the upper fragment conBrmed his reading. Other early
Long Count dates occur at Chiapa de Corzo, on the Tuxtla Statuette, and on La
Mojarra Stela 1, which bears two dates in the second century AD and which depicts
a standing lord wearing the Principal Bird Deity headdress and adorned in regalia
like that of later Maya kings. Together, these and other examples give evidence of
the development of a new eastern Mesoamerican tradition that emphasized dynastic
rule and a method of recording time and space permanently using calendrics and
phonetic writing. In this way, linear time as well as cyclical time gained prominence.
Phonetic writing was reBned and elaborated by the Maya, but even in its earliest
appearance, it probably allowed the rough replication of speech.
Aeria! view of the great city of Teotihuacan, with the Pyramid of the Moon in the foreground, and
the Pyramid of the Sun in the center.
and the Mixtees emptied out old Zapotee tombs and reused them for their own
nob!e dead.
No single city dominated the Gulf Coast during the Classic era, nor did competing
centers display a unity of belief and ritual, although modern understanding of the
region has been hampered by rampant looting and insufficient archaeology. In much
of southern Veracruz, at places like Las Remojadas, thousands of "smiling" figurines
have been exhumed; other sites have yielded life-size hollow ceramic tomb
sculptures. Dramatic paintings of bloodletting have been uncovered at Las Higueras.
To the north, El Tajin dominated the region, particularly during the Late Classic,
under the Huastecs, who spoke a Mayan language. Acres of temples and palaces
survive. The Pyramid of the Niches at El Tajin features 365 empty niches, perhaps
a calendrical reference, although other buildings use varied niche configurations.
Ballcourts and ballgame paraphernalia abound, and architectural sculpture illustrates
the playing of the game and human sacrifice.
Late Classic polychrome mural from Cacaxtla, Tlaxcala. Standing on a Feathered Serpent, the figure is
clad in a bird costume and carries a ceremonial bar.
as revealed by painted ceramics of the Late Classic period and in the Bonampak
muráis, a burgeoning Maya elite lived rich and abundant lives within their palaces
where they engaged in courtly arts, including writing and painting.
gods, left little evidence of public writing, and tike the Teotihuacanos, tived in patace
compounds. Of at! Mesoamerican traders, the Tottecs are perhaps the most
tegendary: they forayed into the far north, to what is now the American Southwest,
to trade for turquoise, but they estabtished their most profound contacts with the
Maya at Chichen Itzá in northern Yucatan and capitalized on the integration of
Mesoamerica.
Around the year 900, Chichen Itzá rose to new prominence and may wet! have
been the largest city in Mesoamerica. Its Sacred Cenote was one of the most
important pilgrimage destinations of the ancient Mesoamerican world. Whether
through voluntary alliance or through domination by one culture of the other, the
Toltecs and Maya developed new forms of architecture and sculpture - including
cAacmoo/s (stone sculptures of reclining human forms that received human sacrifices)
and serpent columns - that flourished at both cities. Whereas the old Maya order
invested its power in the individual ruler and his or her cult, at Chichen and Tula
it is the position and power of the warrior-king, rather than his lineage and portrait,
that holds sway. As a result, ruler portraits vanished from Chichen, to be replaced
by carved thrones, on which any suitable candidate might sit. Mayan hieroglyphic
texts nevertheless record the names of those who ruled in the period. At Tula,
perhaps initially a major receptor for Maya ideology, ruler portraits on stone slabs
were tried before the practice was abandoned. Although heart sacriSce was known
to the earlier Maya, at Chichen Itzá it took on new ritual force after its introduction
in the Toltec era.
Like all centers of Mesoamerican civilizations, Chichen and Tula eventually both
fell into decline, and by no later than the 12th c., Mesoamerica entered a period
when no major city or culture exerted much influence beyond its local region. At
Mayapan, Maya lords built a walled city and reigned for almost two centuries. In
Reconstruction drawing of the Early Postclassic site of Chichen Itzá, Yucatán. The Sacred Cenote,
from which the site took its name, is depicted in the foreground.
[INTRODUCTION 24
the final centuries before the Spanish Conquest, the Yucatec Maya had organized
themselves into balkanized, quarreling states, using different styles and media to
record their gods and their rituals at Santa Rita, Tulum, and elsewhere, and in the
four surviving Maya codices. In the Guatemalan highlands, Maya lords ruled from
hilltop acropolises. In 1524, the Spanish allied with the Cakchiquel at Iximche to
defeat the Quiche Maya at Utatlan. After the Conquest, a Quiché nobleman used
the European alphabet to transcribe his people's sacred book, the Pqpo/ VuA. Other
important religious texts, including the Books of Chilam Balam, were transcribed
through the late 1700s.
The ceremonia! precinct of the Aztec capita! city, Tenochtitian, depicted in a reconstruction painting
by Ignacio Marquina. In front of the massive Temp!o Mayor one can discern the circular wind temp!e
of Ehecatl-Quetzalcoatl and the platform supporting the fema/acaf/ dish of gladiatorial sacrifice.
along its axes. Aqueducts brought fresh water to the city from Chapultepec, a region
of hiHy springs to the west, and causeways connected the island to the mainland.
At Tlatelolco on the north side of the island, Cortés described a market teeming
with goods and traders, with what he believed to be some 60,000 souls in attendance.
The Aztec ruler Motecuhzoma II and his retinue lived in a grand palace to the west
of the Mayor. Ordinary folk, or maceAna/As, lived in clan groupings called
ca/pu/A, the essential administrative component of the city. Foreigners, including
Mixtee craftsmen, lived in their own barrios.
For years, the Aztecs had engaged in what they called xocAfyaoyot/ or "Bowery
w a r/' In these contests, the Aztecs fought neighboring cities in order to garner
sacriBcial victims but not to win outright victory. Young Aztec soldiers became
seasoned Bghters, and the demanding Huitzilopochtli received his due, but the
Aztecs earned a hatred more relentless from their enemies, particularly in Tlaxcala,
than if they had subjected them to a clear-cut defeat and death on the battleBeld.
When the Spanish invaded Mesoamerica, this sort of warfare baiHed them, for the
Aztecs sought to capture their new Spanish foe?s for subsequent sacrifice. The Spanish
cut a swath of destruction, slaughtering their Aztec enemies. And where the Aztecs
might have anticipated that a negative outcome would lead to an unfavorable tribute
arrangement, they could never have guessed that the Spanish would seek to bring
their world to an absolute end.
In 1519, Cortés received Doña Marina (often known as La Malinche, but Cortés
is also called Malinche in some accounts), a young multilingual noblewoman, as a
gift, after her skills as a translator had been demonstrated to him. She, along with
ÍNTHODUCTION
Jerónimo de Aguilar, a Spanish priest stranded for years among the Maya, could
transíate for Cortés, so that he could begin to understand the world around him.
No such informed interlocutors interpreted the Spanish world-view for the Aztecs,
or for any of the peoples of Mesoamerica, although they quickly found out what
the future had in store for them. Demographers have estimated that some 20 to 25
million people lived within the boundaries of what is now Mexico in 1519. The
Spanish surveyed the population late in the 16th c. and found a scant million souls,
the survivors of an invasion that wreaked death and destruction.
In 1521, once Cortes and his men reigned triumphant in Tenochtitlan, the Spanish
Crown and the Catholic church began to devise plans for both the administrative
control and religious conversion of the vast entity soon known as New Spain.
Disparate native groups found themselves lumped together under a new name,
Indians, an awkward term with which we still labor. Native lords often served the
new masters, keeping much administrative control in native hands in the early
Colonial period.
Artists went to work for the new regime, copying Aztec tribute lists, making maps
of the conquered world, and, from time to time, copying or transcribing a religious
document that managed to escape the torch. Some new hybrid types of books were
devised that used native artists and ideas to warn missionaries of the idolatry
they were fighting, while at the same time, some traditional forms of writing and
record-keeping went on. Mixtee lords, for example, continued to keep detailed
pictorial genealogies, and some of these manuscripts later served as evidence in civil
suits over rights to land.
Independence from Spain removed native peoples from protection that had been
offered by the Spanish Crown and in some cases led to more brutal exploitation. In
recent times, despite both oppression and the lure of urban life, many native peoples
and cultures have survived, and some have thrived.
importance of world directions and trees, suggest a distant and ancient relation to
Asia. Nonetheless, however profound or early these links may be, they are not
reflected in the scant archaeological remains of the earliest peoples. It is not until
the Archaic period (7000-2000 B e ) , in the arid highlands of southern Mexico, that
concrete evidence of complex religious activity appears. Excavations in the Tehuacan
Valley of Puebla have uncovered two groups of human burials dating to approximately
the 6th millennium B e . Wrapped in blankets and nets, the bodies were also
accompanied by baskets. Some of these individuals were burned and partly
dismembered, perhaps as an early form of ceremonial cannibalism. Although the
actual significance of this ritual mutilation remains to be established, these Tehuacan
burials clearly demonstrate an early concern and belief in the afterlife.
The site of Gheo Shih, situated in the Tlacolula Valley of highland Oaxaca, reveals
other tantalizing evidence of ceremonialism during the Archaic period. Gheo Shih
roughly dates to 5000-4000 B e , and seems to have been a seasonal site where bands
of people would gather together to collect certain wild plant foods. Archaeologists
uncovered an ancient surface Hanked by lines of stones on the two longer sides.
Some 65 feet (20 meters) long and 23 feet (7 meters) wide, the Hoor area seemed
to have been swept and was virtually devoid of debris. Although the lines of stones
may have delineated a dance Hoor, it is also possible that they marked the sides of
an early, simple ballcourt alley. The ancient Oaxacans may have imported rubber
balls for the ballgame, but it is far more likely that they were fashioned of locally
avaHable leather, wood or stone. Ritualized competitive games may have been an
important form of social interaction during seasonal gatherings in the Archaic period.
INTRODUCTION ZB
The Earty Formative period saw major changes that were important for the !ater
development of Mesoamerica: the introduction of farming, the growth of populations
thanks to settled village life, and the production of pottery. With the appearance of
sedentary villages containing relatively large populations, greater evidence of
complex religious activities and beliefs survives. During the mid 2nd millennium B e ,
Formative villages appear widely in the southern coastal region of Chiapas, Mexico.
Known as Ocos, this Early Formative culture already displays a number of important
elements observed in later Mesoamerican religious systems. In certain Ocos burials,
mourners placed mica mirrors with the dead: obsidian;- pyrite, and other stone
mirrors continued to be revered objects of ornament and ritual until the Spanish
Conquest in the 16th c. With the appearance of pottery, ceramic figurines become
common at Ocos and other Formative sites. The function of these Formative figurines
is unknown; many examples portray youthful, full-bodied women, as if they reflect
a concern with human or agricultural fertility. Often beautifully worked, Ocos
figurines frequently represent curious blendings of human and zoomorphic traits
that have no obvious counterparts in the natural world. At times, these strange
figures are seated upon thrones. According to archaeologist John Clark, these throne
figures may portray shamanic chiefs wearing animal masks of their spirit companions.
A Middle Formative
Olmec
representation o fa
figure seated inside
acave. From
Chalcatzingo,
Morelos.
of balance and harmony. This may be expressed in terms of the individua!, the
community, or the surrounding wor!d. Imbalance and discord can !ead to sickness,
death, socia! discord, famine, and even world destruction. In ancient Mesoamerica,
there were even gods who personiSed excess. In Postclassic Central Mexico,
the Ahuiateteo simultaneously portrayed particular vices and their consequent
punishment. Through particular forms of religious observance, the peoples of
Mesoamerica have sought to ensure harmony both with themselves and with the
greater cosmos.
OMEYOCAN
. . 1 3 HEAVENS in the
CELEST1ALLEVEL
-- 9 STEPS to the
The Aztecs oriented Tenochütlan's Templo Mayor to UNDERWORLD LEVEL
the four quarters, and conceived of it as the central
point between the 13 levels of heaven and the 9 steps
to the Underworld (Mictlan). M IC T L A N
cycles ran in increasingly larger units. The Maya Long Count, for example, consists
of units marking days, 20 days, 360 days, 20 x 360 days, and 400 x 360 days, and
still larger units encompassing millions of years. Similarly, in Late Postclassic Central
Mexico, there were the 365-day vague year, the 52-vague-year cycle, and a still
33 INTRODUCTION
greater cycle of 104 years. Of crucial importance in Mesoamerican ritual and thought
are period endings, during which a unit of time is terminated and another begins.
For the Postclassic Maya of Yucatán, the end of the 365-day year was a major
concern, whereas for the Aztecs, it was the completion of the 52-year cycle. The
completion of major Long Count cycles must have been of momentous significance
to the Classic Maya. There have even been suggestions, albeit unlikely, that the
completion of the tenth Baktun (10.0.0.0.0) of the Maya Long Count in AD 830 was
a major reason for the Classic Maya collapse.
The ending and renewal of calendrical periods were commonly expressed through
concepts of world creation and destruction. In fact, the New Year rites of the Yucatec
and the New Fire ceremony of the Aztecs concerned the reassertion of the ordered
world from the forces of chaos and darkness. In both regions, it was believed that
such period endings could mark the end of the present world. In Mesoamerican
thought, creation, as well as calendrics, is also cyclical. The Maya Pqpo/ Vu/?, Aztec
accounts, and contemporary mythology share common and explicit references to
multiple creations and destructions. Just as the series of previous worlds were
destroyed, it was believed that this world in which we live would also end.
One of the basic concerns of Mesoamerican calendrics was the recording and
prediction of astronomical events. The sun, moon, planets and constellations exerted
powerful influences upon people and the world. Two astronomical events that were
of supreme importance were solar eclipses and the Brst appearance of Venus as
Morning Star. The ancient Maya, with the most developed form of astronomical
notation known for Mesoamerica, had elaborate tables recording and predicting
eclipses and the cycle of Venus. It was widely believed that the world could be
destroyed by demons of darkness during solar eclipses. Moreover, the rays of the
Morning Star at heliacal rising were considered to be particularly dangerous, and
threatened speciBc people and things of the natural world. It is now knowrr that the
Classic Maya frequently scheduled battles to coincide with the movements of Venus,
especially the Brst rising of Venus as evening star.
The apparent movements of the planets and constellations were considered to be
the reenactments of cosmic mythical events. To the Aztecs, the movement of Ursa
Major into the sea may have represented Tezcatlipoca losing his foot during the
cosmic battle with the great earth monster. Recent investigations by Linda Scheie
and David Freidel suggest that the Classic Maya also observed mythological events
in the movement of the stars, probably based on an ancestral form of the PopoV VuA
creation epic.
pertaining to rulership and other high ofEces were likewise suppressed, not only
because of their chaMenge to Christian doctrine but a!so because of their essentially
political nature, which could serve as catalysts for rebellion. However, the eradication
of native Mesoamerican customs was by no means total. Many of the more profound
and lasting religious beliefs continue to the present day. Rich oral traditions
encompassing ritual speech, songs, and mythology are contained in Nahuatl, Mayan,
Mixtee, and other modern native languages. Forms of the 260-day and vague 365-
day calendar are still used in southeastern Mesoamerica. Ceremonies to ensure
agricultural fertility are widely performed in Mesoamerica, and copa/ incense,
Sowers, and prepared foods are among the offerings still presented to the gods and
ancestors. Although this volume specifically concerns Preconquest Mesoamerican
religion, it should be remembered that we are describing but the ancient origins
and history of a still living and vibrant culture.
Subject Index
X ip e T o te e T E O T IH U A C A N
1. C ods, goddesses
X iu hco atl F a t C od
and o th er
supernatura! beings X iu h te c u h tli H u e h u e te o tl
ancestral couple X o c h ip illi Jaguar gods
celestial b ird X o ch iq u etzal Jagu ar-ser p e n t-b ird
death gods X o lo tl P u lqu e gods
Q u e tza lc o a tl
MAYA
A x T E C A N D P oS T C L A S S iC
T eo tih u ac an gods
B icephalic M o n s te r
C E N T R A L M E X IC O
T la lo c
C hac
A h uiateteo W a r S erpent
D iv in g God
C h alch iu h tlicu e ZAPOTEC
F a t C od
C hicom ecoatl C ocijo
H u n H u nah p u
C ihuacoatl H u e h u e te o tl
Itza m n a
C ih u ateteo Jaguar gods
P rin cip al B ird D e ity
C in te o tl M a iz e gods
Ixchel
C oatlicue P rin cip a l B ird D e ity
Jaguar gods
Coyolxauhqui X ip e T o tee
Jester C od
E hecatl K in ic h A h a u
H uehuecoyot! 2. F lo ra and fau n a
Long-nosed and
H u eh u ete o tl am aran th
L o n g-lipp ed deities
H u itzilo p o ch tli bats
M a ize gods
H am atecuhtli b u tte r Ay
M a n ik in scepter
Itzp a p a lo tl cacao
P ad d ler Cods
Itztla c o liu h q u i-Ix q u im illi caim an
P alenque T ria d Cods
Jaguar gods ceiba
Pauahtun
M acu ilxoch itl celestial b ird
Q u etzalcoatl
M a ize gods cotton
Schellhas gods
M a y ah u el d eer
Scribal gods
M ic tla n te c u h tli dog
Sky B earers
M ixco atl eagle
T o h il
O m eteo tl Vision Serpent Rowers
Pulque gods hallucinogens
Vucub C aquix
Q u etzalcoatl W a te r L ily S erpent hu m m in g b ird
Scribal gods ja g u ar
M lX T E C
Sky Bearers ja g u a r-s e rp e n t-b ird
Tezcatlipoca M ix te e gods m aguey
T lah u izcalp an tecu h tli X ip e Totee m aize
T lalo c Yahui m onkey
T la lte c u h tli OLM EC m uan ow l
T la zo lte o tl Jaguar gods owls
Toci M a iz e gods parrots and m acaws
Tonacatecuhtli O lm ec gods peccary
T o n atiu h Q u etzalcoatl q uetzal
T zitzim im e W ere-jag u ars ra b b it
37 SUBJECT INDEJt
kings o f the Q uiché and C akchique! peoples tortionists appears as e a rly as th e Olm ecs. A
39 AFTERLIFE
B u t m ost A ztec souls, and a ll those w ho A t m any M a y a cities, com m em orative stelae
died o rd in ary deaths, en te red M ic tla n , the p a ir w ith a ltars in w h a t has o ften been term ed
U n d e rw o rld , w h e re they, lik e th e ir M a y a the stelae " c u lt" : in fac t th e p ractice was not
counterparts, faced a series o f trials d u rin g a c u lt b u t ra th e r a p a tte rn o f com m em orating
th e ir jo u rn e y. ru le r p o rtraits on stelae and offerings (som e
tim es sacrificial victim s) on alta rs . A m ong the
A h u iatcteo Am ong the Postclassic peoples o f la te r M a y a , Toltecs, and A ztecs, CHACMOOLs
C en tra! M exico , m any form s o f pleasure, fre q u e n tly fun ctio ned as receptacles fo r sacri
w hen in excess, w ere considered to be causes fices. Some A zte c altars fo r H U M A N S A C R IF IC E
autosacriRce L ite ra lly the sacriBcing o f one- burned. In th e sm oke fro m the burned o ffe r
seif, autosacriRce in the form o f BLOODLETTING ings, M a y a n o b ility com m unicated w ith th e ir
p layed a ro le in an cien t ritu a l fro m a t least ancestors, as w as recorded a t Y axchilán.
O lm ec tim es u n til the Spanish C onquest. T h e A lth o u g h no e x p lic it depictions o f O lm ec
very act o f such self-sacriRce was recorded autosacriRce su rvive, sharp JADE perfo rato rs
w id e ly in M eso am erican a rt, and q u an tities and stingray spines in d ic ate such a practice
o f ritu a l p a ra p h e rn a lia survive th a t w e re a t an e a rly d a te , as do terraco tta sculptures
designed specifically fo r sacrifice on the p a rt fro m W e s t M exico th a t v iv id ly d ep ict cheek
o f the n o b ility . p e rfo ra tio n .
A ccording to A ztec accounts, the gods
g ath ered a t TAMOANCHAN fo llo w in g previous a x is m u n d i s e é . W O R L D TR E E
SACRIFICE. In som e instances, victorious b a ll d ren o f a p p ro x im a te ly th ree years o f age w ith
players d ec ap itated th e d e fe a te d ones; WATER from a s e rp e n t-ta ile d asp ergillu m . In
skullracks fo r the trophies o fte n adjo in a d d itio n , one o f the p rin c ip a l citizens o f the
ballcourts (see T Z O M P A N T L i). A m ong the com m unity a no inted the ch ild ren w ith w a te r
C lassic M a y a , a ritu a l p a ra lle le d th e b allg am e fro m a m oistened bone. L an d a notes th a t this
in w hich d efe ated p layers, usually CAPTIVES o f rite cleansed and puriB ed th e c h ild ren , an
w a r, w e re bound and trussed in o rd er to be im p o rta n t fu n ctio n o f baptism .
used as the b a ll its e lf. In this Bnal act o f the Book 6 o f th e F lo re n tin e C odex provides
gam e, the cap tive-as-b al! w as bounced dow n d e ta ile d descriptions o f th e ritu a l speech
a Bight o f stairs. and rites associated w ith A zte c baptism . In
T h e e q u ip m en t fo r the b allg am e v a rie d contrast to th e Y u catec cerem ony, baptism
through tim e and space, b u t g en e rally con took place soon a fte r B IR T H . H o w e v e r, the
sisted o f a ru b b e r b a ll and, fo r the p layers, A zte c rite w as also associated w ith PURiFi
heavy padding. Solid ru b b er balls a re heavy C A T IO N , to rem ove any p o llu tio n acq u ired from
and dense: m o d em -d ay ballgam es in n o rth the parents. D u rin g th e ritu a l b ath in g , the
ern M exico use balls th a t are 10cm or 4 in fa n t w as nam ed and p resented w ith the
inches in d ia m e te r and w eig h 5 0 0 g o r li b . tools necessary fo r a d u lt life .
Some very larg e balls are d ep icted in M a y a T h is cru cial episode o f A zte c b irth rites is
and W est M exico a rt; a solid b all 3 0c m or illu s tra te d in the 16th c. C odex M en d o za,
12 inches in d ia m eter w ould w eigh 3 .5 kg or w h e re th e m id w ife p repares to b ath e the
7.5 lb and could have m aim ed or k ille d an in fa n t in a vessel o f w a te r placed on a reed
o lf-b alance p layer. A t C hichen Itz á , carvings M AT. Im m e d ia te ly above and b elo w th e m at
o f the ballgam e show a skull on the surface ap p ear th e articles rep resen tin g the occu
o f the large b a ll, and skulls - perhaps o f pations o f m en and w om en. A b ove, one can
previously d efeated ballplayers - m ay have discern the m asculine tools o f th e sculptor,
been im bedded in such balls to create a fe a th e rw o rk e r, p a in te r, and goldsm ith, along
ho llo w center. w ith the a ll-im p o rta n t fe a th e r and shield o f
Vast q u an tities o f ballgam e p arap h ern a lia the w a rrio r. C le a rly , the lo t o f the fe m a le
survive, m ostly from the C u lf Coast o f M exico child is less e n v ia b le , as she is supplied
and the PaciBc Coast o f G u atem ala. C arved only w ith the d re a ry tools fo r sw eeping and
from hard stone, the YOKES, handstones, spinning cotton.
H A C H A S , and PA LM A S (both o f w hich a re know n
was a source o f g re at fascination in an cien t stream s - p a rtic u la rly w hen spurting from
M eso am erica. N o t only was b irth an fresh w ounds - a re o fte n configured as live
im p o rta n t eve n t o f g re a t concern in e ve ryd ay SERPENTS. T h e C lassic M a y a fre q u e n tly show
In the a rt o f L a te Postclassic C e n tra l M e x Jade versions o f the sharp spines fro m the
ico, goddesses are freq u e n tly shown in the stingray survive fro m O lm ec tim es, in d ic atin g
posture o f b irth know n as h e e le r, from the th a t d u rin g th e firs t m ille n n iu m BC
G erm an w ord signifying a squatting position, M eso am erican peoples w e re fa m ilia r w ith
hfocher figures typ ically have th e ir arm s the serrated bony spine th a t arm s th e ta il o f
upraised, as if m irro rin g the crouching squat this SEA crea tu re . Because o f th e acute angle
o f the lo w er lim bs. B ut although these figures o f the serrations, once a stin g ray spine has
squat in the b irth posture, ra re ly do they give p ierced the skin it cannot be rem oved w ith o u t
b irth from the loins. In stead , in a num ber o f causing p a in fu l dam age: it is easier in fa c t to
instances, individuals em erge from a JADE p u ll the spine co m p letely through a p e rfo r
placed on the navel, representing the cen ter atio n . T h e M a y a b u rie d th e ir noble m ale dead
o f conception and gestation. w ith stingray spines - perhaps in pouches long
decayed - over th e g ro in , and these spines
blood M o st M esoam erican peoples id e n tifie d w e re th e perfo rato rs used to d ra w blood fro m
blood w ith o th er substances, p a rtic u la rly the penis.
M A IZ E , JA D E , FLO W E R S , and the sap o f trees. T h e M a y a also p ierced th e ir Resh w ith
A ccording to some M a y a accounts, the gods O B S ID IA N blo o d letters and carved bones. T h e y
could be form ed. N a tiv e m aize was red , blue, bottom ed bow ls and set aRre. The
and y ello w in color; likew ise hum an blood im p lem en ts, as w e ll as the bow ls, w e re fre
appears blue in the veins w hen seen through q u en tly p rize d fu n e ra ry offerings; nobles
the yellow ish tones o f skin, b u t w hen cut is w rap p ed b lo o d lettin g eq u ip m en t in th e ir
red (see COLORS). sacred B U N D L E S . Y axchilan w om en o ften w o re
Blood was understood in M esoam erica to headdresses lik e those o f w a rrio rs w hen
m ean kinship, or bloodlines, as w e ll as the undergoing autosacriRce and it was not
actual substance th a t courses through veins uncom m on fo r m en to adopt the m u tila te d ,
and arteries. shredded a ttire o f captives, as i f id e n tify in g
In M ix te e and A ztec m anuscripts, hum an th e ir ow n b lo o d lettin g w ith th a t o f sacriRcial
blood is som etim es ren dered as a jagged red victim s. C aptives them selves m ay have been
stream tipped w ith ja d e beads; in the a rt o f forced to p erfo rm autosacriRce; some bear
Classic V eracru z and C hichen Itz á , blood the necessary spines and p ap er in ancient
47 BUNDLE
from m asked god bundles, ro u n d , kno tted as th e trunks o f trees, presum ably to re p
bundles com m only a p p e ar in Classic M a y a resent the axis m o o d /, g en e rally considered
scenes. In a n u m b er o f instances, th e y a re as th e CEIBA (C erh a spp ). W ith its thorny,
e p ig rap h ically la b ele d ic atz, m ean in g bund sw ellin g tru n k , the ceiba does in d eed bear
le " or "b u rd e n " in several h ig h lan d M a y a n som e resem blance to th e rough back o f the
languages. .See a/so MORTUARY BUNDLES. caim an. In N a h u a tl, th e term fo r caim an is
cipacfA, m eaning "sp in y o n e."
b u tte rfly A lthough re la tiv e ly ra re in an cien t B oth th e M aya and C e n tra l M exicans
M a y a a rt, b u tte rflie s com m only ap p e ar in the id e n tifie d th e caim an w ith aged c reato r gods.
iconography o f h ighland M ex ico , p a rtic u la rly In C e n tra l M .exico, the aged TONACATECUHTLi,
a t the g re at cen ter o f TEonHUACAN, w h e re or L o rd o f O u r Sustenance, presided o ver the
they o ften display w ings, antenn ae, fe a th e re d Erst o f th e 20 day nam es, C ip a c tli, or C aim an ,
proboscises and fe a th e r-rim m e d eyes. In as w e ll as the 13-day TRECENA o f 1 C ip a c tli
ad d itio n , they m ay be d epicted w ith the (see CA LEN DA R). A m ong the M a y a , this aged
toothy m aw o f the JAG UA R . T h e b u tte rfly - creato r god w as know n as rrzA M N A, q u ite
ja g u a r also appears am ong the Classic p erio d possibly th e p aram o u n t god o f the M a y a
Zapotees and M a y a , fre q u e n tly in contexts o f p antheon. In a n u m b er o f instances, Itza m n a
w a r. In L a te Postclassic C e n tra l M exico , is p o rtray ed w ith in the body o f the caim an,
b u tterflies sym bolized both FIRE and the souls p ro b ab ly Itz a m n a as Itz a m C a b A in , m eaning
o f dead w arrio rs. Seen in the fig h t o f the Itz a m E a rth C aim an .
m ilita ris tic b u tte rfly -ja g u a r and the w id e
spread appearance o f b u tterflies on T e o tih u - calen d ar M eso am erican calendars tracked
acan INCENSE burners, the Teo tih u acan b u tte r the solar y ea r, lu n a r y e a r, Venus cycle, and
fly can also be id e n tifie d w ith FIR E and w ar. o th er p erce iva b le phenom ena as w e ll as
su p ern atu ral and ritu a l cycles w hose fu n d a
m en tal bases re m ain unknow n. T h e c alen d ar
was essential to the arts o f p re d ictio n and
D iv iN A T iO N as w e ll as to the c eleb ratio n o f
religious festivals. T h e m ost sophisticated
cacao W h e th e r consumed as an esteem ed calen d rical observations in a n c ie n t M exico
d rin k or exchanged as m oney, cacao (71heo- and G u a te m ala w e re m ade b y the Classic
bronia cacao) was one o f the most im p o rtan t M a y a , A D 3 0 0 -9 0 0 , b u t w ritte n evidence fo r
p lan t products o f ancien t M esoam erica. T h e use o f a calen d ar goes back to th e 6 th c. B e .
seeds d erived from the pod o f the cacao tree
w ere w id e ly used as currency and John Llo yd J2#0-c%ay aAnanac
Stephens reported the use o f cacao currency Com m on to a ll M eso am erica, th e 2 60-d ay
as la te as the m id -19th c. in Yucatan. W h en cycle, the oldest and m ost im p o rta n t calen d ar,
ground in to pow der, the seeds w e re m ixed rem ains in use am ong a fe w groups o f h ig h
w ith w a te r and flavoring agents to create a lan d M a y a in G u a te m ala and am ong some
fro th y beverage g reatly favored by the n ative O axacan peoples. (Som e h ig h lan d M a y a s till
e lite . R ecent epigraphic research has estab keep a 365-d ay calendar as w e ll.) In this
lished th a t the w ord cacao was fu lly present calendar, a re p ea tin g cycle o f 20 d ay nam es
among the Classic M a y a - in fact, m any o f pairs w ith 13 day num bers, y ield in g a count
the fine Classic M a y a polychrom e vases are o f 260 days, a n um ber th a t bears no re latio n
g lyphically lab eled as cacao d rin kin g vessels. e ith e r to astronom ical or to a g ric u ltu ra l phen
om ena. I t w as p robably devised by m idw ives
caim an O ne o f the m ost ven erated carnivores to calculate b irth d ates, w o rkin g fro m Erst
o f M esoam erica was the caim an (C arm an m issed m enstrual p erio d to BIRTH, approxim at
crocodi/us). Because o f its aquatic h a b ita t, ing the 9-m o n th hum an gestation p eriod. In
g reat size, and spiny back, the caim an was a m any parts o f M exico , hum ans and gods took
com m on m etaphor fo r the m ountainous EARTH th e ir nam es fro m th e ir d ate o f b irth in this
Boating upon the SEA. E x p lic it portrayals o f calen d ar, and w e re reg ard ed as having com
the caim an appear as e a rly as the F o rm ative p le te d one 260-d ay cycle a t b irth .
O lm ec, w h ere it is ren dered both in p o rtab le This calen d ar took a special nam e in every
a rt and m onum ental sculpture. In the a rt o f n ativ e language, although m any o f the nam es
L a te Preclassic Iza p a , caim ans are depicted are now lost, and archaeologists have some-
49 CALENDAR
tim es in ven ted term s lik e the pseudo-Yuca tec Maya glyph to be read
M a y a tzo/Ain to re fe r to the count o f 260 cacao, from cacao vessel
days. T h e Aztecs called it the fona^poAua///, excavated at Río Azul,
and the book in w hich it was recorded the Guatemala, Early Classic
fonalam af/. N o o th er book in M esoam erica period.
was so im p o rtan t to the d iv in e r, fo r the 260-
Caiman tree, detail of
day alm anac was the fun d am en tal guide to Izapa Stela 25, Protoclassic
the fu tu re , and every day and num ber oRered Maya. This tree probably
clues for in te rp re ta tio n . G ifts and short refers to the great ceiba,
comings w e re bestow ed by one's d ate o f which has a green spiny
b irth , and those bom on troublesom e days trunk reminiscent of the
w e re o ften renam ed on m ore auspicious ones.
Each one o f the 20 day nam es had a specidc
association w ith a supernatural patron, and
m any had associations w ith n atu ra l phen
om ena. T h e M a y a and A ztec associations are
as follow s:
the In itia l Series. T h is cale n d ar bore no called th e S u p p lem en tary Series, and in the
re la tio n to the solar y e a r and w as usually series o f lunations counted in the Postclassic
used in conjunction w ith dates in both the D resd en C odex. In th e S u p p lem en tary Series,
3 65-d ay calen d ar and the 260 -d a y alm anac. ages o f lu n atio n s on a given d ate a re g en e rally
Long C o u n t or In itia l Series dates can be reckoned from th e Rrst appearance o f the
easily recognized: they usually begin M a y a n ew MOON, counted by th e ir position in the
inscriptions and a re in d icated by la rg e in tro six-m onth lu n a r h a lf-y e a r, and ta llie d for to ta l
ductory glyphs called " In itia l Series In tro d u c days, e ith e r 2 9 or 30. E v e n tu a lly , the M a y a
ing G lyp h s." T h e coefficients to th e glyphs cam e to recognize th a t 149 lunations = 4,400
re fe rrin g to the periods o f tim e a re fre q u e n tly days, or 2 9 .5 30 20 days p e r m onth in decim al
recorded in b a r-a n d -d o t n u m eratio n in w hich term s, a n u m b er v e ry close to the 29.53059
Rve dots equal one bar. used by m o d ern astronom ers.
T o hold open Riled places, this calen d ar In and o f its e lf, a lu n a r calen d ar m ay have
requires a n u ll cip h er, a p laceh old er s im ila r been o f in trin s ic in te re s t, b u t c a re fu l lu n a r
to our zero, although in the M a y a conception calculations w e re also necessary in o rd er to
the place is fu ll, or com pleted, ra th e r than produce E C LIP S E w a rn in g dates. Eclipses w e re
em p ty. T h e in te lle c tu a l develo pm en t o f the b eliev ed to th re a te n disaster fo r M es o am e ri
idea o f zero took place only tw ice in h istory - can p eo p le, so th e ir p re d ictio n w o u ld have
once in ancien t In d ia , am ong the H in d u s, and been o f g re a t use. Solar eclipses take place
once in M esoam erica. T h e Postclassic M a y a only d u rin g th e d ark o f the m oon, and w ith in
represented the sym bol for com pletion as a 18 days o f w h en the m oon's p ath crosses the
SHELL, probably because they used such shells a p p a re n t p ath o f th e s u N . T h e lu n a r tables o f
in w orking out th e ir a rith m etic. T h e Classic the D resd en C odex c a lib ra te d such coinci
M a y a used an abstract cruciform sym bol dences in o rd er to g en e rate eclipse w a rn in g
som ew hat resem bling the E uropean M a lte s e dates. L a te in th e 8 th c., a to ta l eclipse d id
cross, possibly a schema d erived from an occur d u rin g the d ry season in th e M a y a
outstretched hum an body, the 20 digits o f low lands, and the phenom enon w as recorded
Rngers and toes in dicating a fu ll vigesim al in the S u p p lem en tary Series o f a stela a t
place. T h e head v a ria n t o f the com pletion Santa E len a Poco U in ic .
sign is the head o f a death god.
T h e M a y a celebrated p eriod-ending dates, iRipp/emen/ary Series
th a t is, dates o f com pletion o f periods o f T h e calen d rical d ata th a t fo llo w the In itia l
tim e, fre q u e n tly Aafuns o r half-A a funs. T h e Series in M a y a inscriptions a re know n as
com pletion o f 13 Aafuns in the ten th AaAiun the S u p p lem en tary Series, or L u n a r Series,
(th a t is, a fte r the com pletion o f the n in th and because m ost o f the in fo rm a tio n c arried th e re
w h ile the tenth was ongoing) was m uch deals w ith the m oon. T h e glyphs have been
celebrated by the M a y a and w ould be tra n given a lp h ab et labels by m odern scholars and
scribed in A rab ic num bers as 9.13 .0 .0.0. ru n in reverse o rd er, s tartin g w ith th e le tte r
G and continuing on through A . G lyp h C
T h e tro p ica / y e a r com prises the n in e various M a y a Lords o f
D esp ite the fact th a t M esoam erican calendars th e N ig h t (see b elo w ). G lyp h F refers to
included no mechanism s for tracking tru e G lyp h C and p ro b ab ly signiRes its seating.
tropical years and the leap days they re q u ire , G lyphs E and D record the age o f the c u rren t
the p a tte rn o f anniversaries celeb rated a t m oon. G lyp h C records the n u m b er o f moons
some M a y a cities and recorded in the Long com pleted in th e c u rre n t lu n a r h a lf-y e a r, and
C ount indicates th a t those w ho counted the so it usually bears a coefRcient. A fte r the
solar years w e re w e ll aw are o f the problem . le tte rs had alrea d y been designated, scholars
A t Piedras N egras, tru e tro pical year a n n ive r noticed th a t a glyph fo llo w in g C v arie d
saries w e re calculated over periods o f a t least depending on the coefRcient o f G lyp h C , and
200 years. it w as lab eled X , w ith varian ts X 1 -X 6 . G lyp h
B features a ro d en t head; it links G lyphs X
The A m ar ca/en d ar a n d Fo/ar ecApses and A in d icatin g only th a t X nam es A . G lyp h
A lthough lu n a r calendars m ay w e ll have been A conRrms th a t the c u rre n t lu n a r m onth is o f
kep t across M esoam erica, the only recorded 29 or 30 days. G lyphs Y and Z occasionally
ones survive in M a y a inscriptions, appended app ear b etw e en G lyphs F and E ; th e ir m ean
to the In itia l Series as p a rt o f w h a t has been ing is obscure.
53 CALENDAR
Lords o f the N ig h t
M o st M esoam erican calendars included a
separate count o f the N in e Lords o f the N ig h t,
w ho ru le d over the n ig h ttim e hours. T h e
M a y a N in e Lords are know n as the " G "
series o f the Supplem entary Series. Some o f
the M a y a N in e Lords have been id e n tifie d
w ith specific gods: G 7, for exam ple, m ay w e ll
be the ja g u ar-p aw e d patron o f the m onth
Pax; G 9 is a PAUAHTUN. T h e M a y a Lords o f
the N ig h t ran continuously through the Long A Long Count date from Burial 48 at the Maya
C ount. Since the 360 days o f the M a y a tun site of Tikal, Guatemala. The date given -
are p erfe ctly d ivisib le by nine, every period reading from top to bottom - is 9.1.1.10.10 4 Oc,
ending d ate o f the Long C o un t o f a tun or or 9 baktuns, 1 katun, 1 tun, 10 uinals and 10
la rg e r included G 9. kins, with the day name 4 Oc at the bottom. In
modern terms this is 19 March AD 457.
T h e A ztec Lords o f the N ig h t w ere
inscribed in the d iv in ato ry ton a/am at/section
o f m any o f the C onquest-era m anuscripts
th a t survive - som etim es w ith notations in
E uropean script, w hich fa c ilita te th e ir id e n ti
fication. A lthough th e re was some variatio n
depending on tim e and region, m any o f the
N in e Lords w e re standard, and the cycle
g en erally ran: x iu H T E C U H T L i, Itz tli or T ec p atl,
P iltzin te c u h tli, CINTEO TL, M IC TLA N TE C U H TH ,
C H A LC H IU H TLIC U E , TLAZOLTEOTL, T e p e yo llo tl,
and TLALO C. Each one o f these nine gods
p ro b ab ly h eld an association w ith one o f the
nine levels o f the UNDERWORLD. U n lik e the
M a y a series, the A ztec series d id not alw ays
run continuously and som etim es began anew
w ith each trecena.
A !though o fte n re fe rre d to as B irds o f the w h a t the A ztecs considered a "g re a t c ycle,"
D a y , these creatures a re m ore a p p ro p ria te ly the Venus, 260 -d a y, and 3 65-d ay cycles a ll
called vo latiles, since one is specifically a lin e d up. Such n u m erical coincidences of
BUTTERFLY. M o s t are creatures o f th e d a y tim e , in te rlo c k in g cycles app ealed to M eso am eri-
b u t a t least tw o OWLS occur in th e series. T h e y can calen d ar keepers and fa c ilita te d calcu
can be id e n tife d as the fo llo w in g , in English lations.
and N a h u a tl, w ith possible zoological id e n ti- In both M ex ica n and M a y a records, Venus
w as recorded to ap p e ar fo r 236 days as the
Acations:
1. H u m m in g b ird , p ro b ab ly x iu h u itzilin m orning star, then to disappear fo r 90 days
2. H u m m in g b ird , p ro b ab ly q u e tza lh u itzilin , d u rin g S uperior C o nju nctio n , re ap p ea r as the
evening star fo r 250 days, then b rie fly vanish
C a /y p fe costae
3. D o ve, cocotli, 5carc/aie//a inca in to In fe rio r C o nju nctio n fo r 8 days befo re
4. Q u a il, tecuzolin, C yrto n yx m o n iezu m ae re ap p ea rin g as the m o rn in g star. F o r reasons
5. R aven or Black H a w k -e a g le , possibly im possible to reconstruct, these calculations
ignore the p a tte rn o f Venus th a t can be
itz tlh o tli
6. O w l, ch icu atli, 7 y fo aiba observed by the naked eye: roughly equal
SACRIFICE or slavery. A ltho u g h m any captives the c iv il and religious responsibilities o f the
w e re slain shortly a fte r c ap tu re, others m ay com m unity. Q u ite o fte n , the in d iv id u a l pro*
have been kep t fo r years. A cap tive king - o f vides both econom ic support and com m unity
w hich th e re w e re m any am ong the M a y a - service in th e form o f w o rk tasks and ritu a l
w ould have m ade an id e al hostage and could observances, in positions o f ro tatin g a u th o rity
have ensured larg e trib u te paym ents. A m ong fre q u e n tly h eld one y e a r at a tim e.
the A ztecs, and perhaps am ong th e ir p re d e A ltho u g h th e n a tiv e and Spanish origins of
cessors, captives w e re som etim es engaged to m odern M eso am erican cargo systems a re still
p!ay g la d ia to ria l gam es, in w hich th e y p layed a source o f som e d e b a te , th e concept o f pu b lic
w ith handicaps in o rd er to be d efe ated (see ofhee as a b u rd en or "ca rg o " is o f g re at
T E M A L A C A T L ). a n tiq u ity in M eso am erica. A m ong the T aras -
P rio r to A C C E S S IO N , kings needed to take cans o f M ich o a cá n , one typ e o f n a tiv e p riest,
captives to dem onstrate th e ir prowess in the C u ritie c h a , w as said to c a rry the burden
b a ttle , and some captives w ould be slain a t o f the p eo p le upon his back. In the ritu a l
the in au gu ratio n its e lf. A ccording to D u ra n , address a t the A CC ESSIO N o f the A ztec king, or
captives w ere offered and slain at e very m ajo r A uey T L A T O A N i, th e office o f ru lersh ip was
festival o f the ag ricu ltu ra l cycle. described as a b u rd en to be passed from one
T h e O lm ecs m ade the e arlies t depictions king to ano th er. T h is id ea o f ru le rsh ip as a
o f captives and they a re shown bound by b u rd en m ay be also seen in both O lm ec and
ropes on the sides o f altars or thrones a t M a y a representations o f a tla n te a n figures
L a V en ta. A t M o n te A lb án , Zapotee lords supporting thrones. A m ong the L a te Post
proclaim ed th e ir victories in the first m ille n classic Yucatec M a y a the concept o f p u b lic
nium BC w ith a series o f carved slabs w hich office as a b u rd en w as d e fin ite ly present.
are m isnam ed ' D a n za n te s /* or "dancers'* H e re it was know n as cucA, th e Yucatec
(see DANCE), but w hich actu ally d ep ict h u m ili M a y a n w ord fo r b u rd en . In L a te Postclassic
ated captives, some w ith th e ir g e n ita lia cut Y ucatán, w e a lth y com m oners, ra th e r than
aw ay. nobles, served in the office o f aA cucA caA, o r
C aptives appear trodden under the fe e t on " b e a re r o f the c o m m u n ity ." A ccording to one
some o f the earliest M a y a m onum ents, a 16th c. Spanish source, the aA cucA caA
trad itio n th a t continued d u rin g the L a te oversaw the p aym en t o f trib u te and organized
Classic, w hen they a re also freq u e n tly re p his tow n w a rd fo r w a r and p u b lic cerem onies.
resented on both treads and risers o f stairs,
w h ere th e ir depictions w ould be rep eated ly C auac M o n s te r F e e M O U N T A IN S
th a t this m yth w as present am ong th e Classic In A zte c a rt, she appears w ith a ttrib u te s o f
M a y a over 1000 years ago. 5 ee a/so cocijo; C H A L C H IU H T L IC U E , in c lu d in g th e short, v e rtic a l
S C H E L LH A S C O D S ; TLAJLOC.
fa c ia l lines and headdress. H o w e v e r, she can
u su ally be distinguished b y ears o f m aize
chacm ool A term coined by th e 19th c. c arried e ith e r in h e r hands or on h e r back.
explorer Augustus L e Plongeon, cAacmooV
lite ra lly m eans red or g re at ja g u a r p a w in C hicom oztoc L ite ra lly " th e seven caves,"
Yucatec M a y a n , b u t L e Plongeon used the this w as a legendary m ountain p erfo rated by
w ord to describe the th ree-d im en sio nal, a single cave or by seven caves, and was
reclining figures found atop the T E M P L E S a t considered a sacred p lace by the A ztecs
C hichen Itz á . C h ara cteristic ally, the head o f and m ost o th e r N ah u a tl-s p e ak in g people o f
a cAacm oo/ is turned 90 degrees fro m the C e n tra ! M ex ico a t th e tim e o f th e C onquest.
fro n t o f the body, and the figure supports F o r m any groups, C hicom oztoc w as th e place
h im self on his elbow s. T h e bowls or disks o f o rig in fro m w h ich m an kin d em erg ed ; the
held on the chests o f cAacmoo/s w e re recep Aztecs b eliev ed th a t th e y had sojourned th e re
tacles fo r offerings; in one A ztec exam ple, some tim e a fte r th e ir in itia l d e p a rtu re fro m
the vessel held by the reclin in g figure is the leg en d ary A2TLA N. In th e m id -1 5 th c.,
specifically a C U A U H X IC A L U , or receptacle fo r M otecu h zo m a I sent 60 w ise m en to seek out
the HEARTS o f sacrificial victim s. CAacmoo/s C hicom oztoc, to le a rn m ore a bo u t M o te -
m ay sym bolize fa lle n w arriors w ho d e liv e r cuhzom a's ancestors, and to Hnd o u t if the
offerings to the gods. m o ther o f H u iT z iL O P O C H T L i w as s till a liv e .
K now n from T e rm in a l Classic tim es on A t the tim e o f th e C onquest, m ost M a y a
through the Spanish Conquest, cAaemooTs peoples o f h ig h lan d G u a te m a la also recog
have been found across M esoam erica, fro m nized a u th o rity issued by a p lace th a t the
E l Salvador to M ichoacán, although m ost o f Q uiché called T u la n Z u yu a , or "seven caves."
the know n exam ples come from C hichen Itz á In the P O P O L v u H the trib a l lineag e heads
or T u la . M a n y w e re set in association w ith jo u rn e y to T u la n Z u yu a to receive th e ir gods;
TH R O N E S or sacrificial stones. T O H i L , fo r exam ple, w as loaded in to the pack
was used to dem arcate sacred enc!osures D u rá n , the Aztecs p erfo rm ed a festival in
w ith in a cerem onia! precinct. A t T e n o c h tit- honor o f C o atlic u e a t C oatepec.
!an, such a serpent w a ll fram e d p a rt o f the D ep ictio n s o f C o atlic u e a re fa irly ra re in
T em p !o M a y o r, and some o f th e m onum enta! A ztec a rt. T h e m ost fam ous rep resen tatio n ,
xiUHCOATL serpent heads discovered th e re and one o f th e m ost p o w e rfu l A ztec sculp
w e re probab!y parts o f coafepaniZ/ w alls. A n tures, is the colossal figure discovered in 1790
in tac t coatepantZi o f X iu h co atl serpents can alongside th e cath ed ra! o f M exico . Standing
be seen surrounding a tw in p yram id a t the on huge taloned fe e t, C o atlic u e w ears a dress
site o f T en ayu ca. o f w oven rattlesnakes. H e r pendulous breasts
T h e c o a fe p a n fi/is not know n a t the Classic a re p a rtia lly obscured b eh ind a grisly neck
site o f TEOTiHUACAN, and m ay have been first lace o f severed HEARTS and hands. W rith in g
devised a t the E a r!y Postclassic site o f T u la , coral snakes ap p e ar in place o f h e r head and
H id alg o (see T O L L A N ), w h ere a c o a fe p a n t// hands, d en o tin g gouts o f BLOOD gushing from
Hanks P yram id B , one o f the m ajor structures. h er severed th ro a t and w rists. T h e tw o g re at
T h e w a ll o f this c o afep an t/i displays p a rtly snakes em erg in g fro m h e r neck face one
skeletalized hum an Hgures being devoured a n o th er, c rea tin g a face o f liv in g blood. A
by rattlesnakes. T h e serpents have Barnes m onum ent o f cosmic te rro r, C o atlic u e stands
em anating from th e ir bodies and it is p ro b ab le vio late d and m u tila te d , h e r w ounds m u tely
th a t they are fire serpents, th a t is, form s o f dem an d in g revenge against h er enem ies.
the X iuhcoatl. A ltho u g h a stupendous m o num ent, this
C o atlicu e scu lp tu re is n o t u n iq u e; tw o very
C oatcpec or Serpent M o u n tain was one o f s im ila r b u t p o o rly p reserved exam ples have
the m ore im p o rtan t places o f A ztec m yth o l also been discovered in M exico C ity .
ogy. This sacred MOUNTAIN constituted the
b irth p lace o f n u rrziL O P O C H T L i, and it was th ere C ocijo In Z ap o tee, th e term cocyo signifies
that the n ew ly born god defeated both L iC H T N iN C and the god o f lig h tn in g and
coYOLXAUHQm and h er 400 brothers, the RAIN. T h e god C ocijo is com m only found
C entzon H u itzn a h u a. A lthough the actual on Zapotee ceram ic urns fro m the M id d le
Coa tepee m ountain is located close to the F o rm a tiv e p erio d o f M o n te A lb á n i to the
T o ltec site o f T u la , H id alg o (see T O LLA N ), this end o f the L a te C lassic p erio d . L ik e the
sacred place was rep licated in the h e a rt o f Classic M a y a C H AC , C ocijo usually has a
the A ztec cap ital o f T en o c h titla n , w h ere it zoom orphic face w ith a th ick , b lu n t snout.
was long thought by archaeologists th a t the O n e o f his oldest and m ost consistent charac
H u itzilo p o ch tli side o f the g reat dual T em p lo teristics is his long b ifu rc a te d serp entin e
M a y o r represented M o u n t Coatepec. S triking tongue. A lth o u g h not occurring w ith the
physical corroboration o f this b e lie f occurred M a y a ra in god C hac, s im ila r tongues are
in 1978 w ith the discovery o f the dism em b found w ith ja g u a r form s o f the ra in god TLALOC
ered Coyolxauhqui sculpture a t the base a t Classic perio d TEOTiH U A C A N .
o f the H u itzilo p o ch tli tem ple stairw ay. This Q u ite fre q u e n tly , C ocijo appears w ith a
sculpture corresponds p erfe ctly to the A ztec p a rtic u la r sign - Zap o tee G ly p h C - in his
m yth w hich describes the severed rem ains o f headdress. In the Postclassic M ix te e codices,
Coyolxauhqui tum bling to the base o f M o u n t a s im ila r g lyph serves as a sign fo r th e day
C oatepec. nam e W a te r. I t is p ro b ab le, th e re fo re , th a t
Z apotee G lyp h C represents th e day nam e
C oatlicue According to A ztec b e lie f, the W a te r, an a p p ro p riate em b lem fo r the god
m o ther o f H u rrziL O P O C H T L i was C oatlicue, She o f ra in and lig h tn in g .
o f the Serpent S kirt. In A ztec accounts, C o at T h e Postclassic Zapotees term e d the fo u r
licue was m iraculously im pregnated w ith a 65-day divisions o f the 260-d ay calen d ar
b a ll o f dow n w h ile sw eeping a t COATEPEC. "C o cijo s," suggesting th a t th e re w e re fou r
H e r child ren , COYOLXAUHQUI and the C entzon Cocijos o rie n te d to th e w o rld DIRECTIONS.
H u itzn a h u a, w e re furious a t h er condition BLOODLETTING and o th er religious observations
and decided to k ill h er. A t the m om ent o f h er w e re p erfo rm ed to the Cocijos o f the fou r
DEATH, C oatlicue gave BIRTH to the fu lly arm ed calen d rical periods. Passages in the C e n tra l
H u itzilo p o c h tli, w ho then d efeated and slew M e x ica n Vaticanus B and B orgia codices also
C oyolxauhqui and the C entzon H u itzn a h u a. illu s tra te this fo u r fo ld division o f th e 260-
According to a 16th c. account by D iego day calendar. T h e re , h o w ever, T la lo c - ra th e r
65 COLORS
account from th e C ak ch iq u e l, neighbors o f strongly resem bling the Popo/ Fu/? and
the Q u ich e, p eo p le w e re Erst fashioned o f Classic M a y a m ythology, Q u etzalco atl and
m ud. F o llo w in g th e ir d estru ctio n , th e p resent XOLOTL descend to the UNDER W O R LD to re trie v e
race o f m ankind was created fro m ground the rem ains o f th e people destroyed in the
m aize m ixed w ith th e blood o f ta p ir and Hood. In o rd e r to o b ta in the precious bones,
SERPENT. T h e Rood m yth is know n fo r the th e y tric k th e w ily god o f d ea th , MicTLANTB
C olonia! Yuca tec M a y a , fo r in c e rta in o f the c u H T L i. T h e bones a re then taken to TAM OAN
Books o f C h ila m B alam th e re is m en tio n o f CHAN, w h e re th e gods g rin d them lik e com
a race o f in d ivid u als destroyed in th e Rood. in to a Rne m e al. U pon this ground m eal, the
These accounts also describe the erectio n o f gods le t th e ir BLOO D, thus crea tin g th e Resh
WORLD TREES fo llo w in g the Rood. A ltho u g h o f th e p resent race o f people.
the C o lo n ial Yucatec sources p ro vid e only A fte r the creation o f people, the gods
tan g en tial references to previous creations, convene in darkness a t T E O T n ru A C A N . I t is
these a re e xp lic itly recorded in m odern Yuca decided th a t in o rd er to crea te th e Hfth sun,
tec texts, w hich describe th re e d istinct w orlds N a h u i O llin , one o f th e gods m ust th ro w
and races o f people b efo re the present h im s e lf in to a g re a t p yre. T w o v o lu n te e r, the
creation . hau g h ty T e c u cizte ca tl and th e diseased and
H ig h ly developed in C e n tra l M exico , this lo w ly N a n a h u a tzin . T ec u cizte ca tl is frig h t
notion o f m u ltip le creation reaches its highest ened by the Rames, b u t N a n a h u a tzin b ravely
com plexity in the g reat cosmogonic m yth o f hurls h im s e lf in to th e p yre and is transform ed
the nvKSUNs. A lthough there is some v ariatio n in to th e suN. T e c u cizte ca tl follow s to becom e
in the know n accounts, the basic p attern is the M O O N . T h e gods then sacriEce them selves
q u ite sim ilar to the Q uiché P opo/ Fuh. W ith a t T eo tih u ac an and fro m th e ir rem ains,
the Erst acts o f creation, the creato r couple sacred B U N D LE S o r f/a g u ú n j/o //i a re fashioned.
prepared the w ay for the Erst o f the fou r suns, A n o the r com m on C e n tra l M e x ic a n creation
or w orlds, previous to the present creation. m o tif is the em ergence o f people from the
N am ed a fte r the days on w hich they end, the earth. In essence, this differs little fro m the
fou r suns usually occur in the follo w in g o rd er, taking o f the bones out o f th e U n d e rw o rld ,
N ah u i O celot! (4 Jaguar), N ah u i E h ecatl (4 although in this instance, actual living hum ans
W in d ), N ah u i Q u ia h u itl (4 R ain ), and N ah u i em erge out o f the earth . O n e o f the most
A tl (4 W a te r). Each sun is presided over by famous versions o f the em ergence m yth con
a d eity and race o f people w ho are e ith e r cerns cmcoMOZTOc, the seven CAVES o f em erg
destroyed o r transform ed into a p a rtic u la r ence. In the P&sfor/a 7b/feca-C/uc/un?eca
creatu re. TEZCATHPOCA is the god o f the Erst account o f this episode, the MOUNTAIN contain
sun, N ah u i O celotl. T h e people o f this w o rld ing the seven caves was struck open w ith a
are giants, and a re devoured by JAGUARS. lightning staff. In an o th e r version o f the
Presided over by the w ind god E H E C A T L , the em ergence, the Erst people cam e out a fte r
second sun o f N ah u i E hecatl is destroyed by the sun shot an a rro w into the House o f
w in d and its people becom e M O N K E Y S . T h e M irro rs .
R A IN and L IG H T N IN G d e ity T L A L O c is th e god o f O f M ix te e c rea tio n m ythology little is
N ah u i Q u ia h u itl, w hich is consumed by Eery know n in com parison w ith th a t o f the M a y a
ra in - possibly an allusion to volcanic eru p and peoples o f C e n tra l M exico . O n e b rie f b u t
tion - w h ile its people turn in to B U T T E R F L IE S , im p o rta n t account derives fro m an e a rly 18th
Docs, and turkeys. T h e w a te r goddess C H A L C H i c. w o rk o f F ra y G reg o rio G a rcía. D u rin g the
uHTLicuE presides over the fo u rth sun, N a h u i tim e o f darkness, in th e p rim o rd ia l SEA, a
A tl; the Rood ending this sun transform s the creato r couple sharing th e sam e calen d rical
hum an inhabitants in to Rsh. ñam e o f 1 D e e r c rea te a m assive stony
F o llo w in g the Rood ending the fo u rth sun, m o untain upon w h ich they fashion th e ir
Tezcatlipoca and Q U E T Z A L C O A T L raise the hea sum ptuous palace. A t th e peak o f the m oun
vens by transform ing them selves in to tw o ta in , a g re at copper axe b lad e supports the
g reat trees. In several accounts, these tw o heavens. T h is creato r couple has tw o m ale
gods create the earth by slaying a huge earth ch ild ren , one nam ed W in d o f N in e Snakes,
m onster described e ith e r as a C A IM A N or as the o th er, W in d o f N in e Caves. T h e e ld er o f
the earth d e ity T L A L T E C U H T L i. th e sons has the p o w er to transform h im s elf
A lthough the earth is created a t this p o in t, in to an E A G L E , w hereas th e younger son can
no people in h a b it its surface. In a jo u rn e y becom e a w inged SER PENT th a t can Ry through
71 CUAUHXICALLI
stone as w e ll as a ir. These tw o sons create a
garden Blled w ith fru it trees, FLOWERS, and
herbs. F o llo w in g the creation o f the stony
m ountain and the brothers and th e ir garden,
heaven and earth are fashioned and hum ans
are restored to life . A lthough only a tan g en tial
reference, the m ention o f hum ans being
restored to life strongly suggests the m u ltip le
creations and destructions m entioned in
M aya and C e n tra l M exican creation
accounts. T h e M ix te e creato r couple are re p
resented in tw o o f the ancien t M ix te e screen-
folds, the Codex Vindobonensis and the
Selden R oll, com plete w ith the calendrical
nam e o f 1 D e e r.
According to a la te 16th c. w o rk o f F ray
A ntonio de los Reyes, the first M ixtees
em erged from the cen ter o f the e arth , w h ile
la te r gods and rulers w e re born from trees
near the sacred tow n o f A poala. In the ancient
M ixte e codices, the people em erging from
the earth are freq u e n tly depicted as stone
m en. This probably refers to an ancient p re
daw n era as, am ong the M ixtees and other
M esoam erican peoples, gods and legendary
figures w ere turned to stone a t the first
daw ning. T h e m o tif o f tree b irth , still present
in contem porary M ix te e m ythology, is also
illu strate d in both the Vindobonensis and
Selden codices. .See a/so ANCESTRAL COUPLE.
ness or w anton sexuality. A m ajo r cause FICE. D u rin g d ie v ein ten a celebrations o f
o f sickness was im balance and disharm ony, T itid , a slave w om an was fu lly a rra y e d as
e ith e r w ith society, the gods and ancestors, iL A M A T E C U H T L i. "A n d b efo re she d ie d , she
or the surrounding w o rld . In o rd er to cure danced. T h e old m en b ea t th e drum s fo r h er;
the p a tie n t, it was necessary fo r the curer to the singers sang fo r h e r - th e y in to ned h er
d ivin e the p a rtic u la r source o f an illness. song. A nd w h en she danced, she w e p t m uch,
H an d casting w ith the 260-day CALENDAR was and she sighed; she fe lt anguish. F o r tim e
often used for this purpose, as it s till is today was b u t short; the span w as b u t b rie f b efo re
in highland G u atem ala. Am ong the com mon she w ould suffer, w h en she w o u ld reach h er
cures was PURIFICATION, such as by CONFESSION end on e a rth ." (F C : 11)
or bathing in stream s or swEATBATHS. Along A ccording to the A zte c 2 60 -d a y auguries,
w ith diviners, im p o rtan t m edical specialists those born in the trecena o f 1 M o n k e y w ould
included m idw ives, surgeons and herbalists. be dancers, singers, or scribes. Those born
Some o f the m ore com mon form s o f surgery on 1 W in d w o u ld be necrom ancers w ho
included DENTISTRY, the rem oval o f foreign danced w ith the fo re a rm o f a w om an w ho
bodies, closing wounds, setting fractures, had d ied in c h ild b irth ; th e y w o u ld be e v il
am putation, and bleeding w ith obsidian la n people, perhaps even thieves. In g en eral the
cets. H o w ev er, surgery was fa r less developed dancer was a skilled p e rfo rm e r, and dance
than the n ative know ledge o f plants, w hich alm ost alw ays occurred w ith singing and
appear in an astonishing a rray o f d iffe re n t Music. HUEHUECOYOTL and MACuiLxocHiTL w e re
m edical uses. the patrons o f m usic and dance. A ccording
In the Q uiche POPOL vuH, an aged couple to surviving depictions, m ost L a te Postclassic
pose as curers o f broken bones, eyes and teeth C e n tra l M e x ica n dance follow s a cou n ter
in order to tric k and destroy the w ounded clockw ise m ovem ent.
m onster b ird , vucuB CAQuix. In Postclassic T h e re ad in g o f a lo n g -u n d ecip h ered v erb
Yucatan tw o aged deities w e re especially in M a y a h iero g lyp h ic w ritin g reveals th a t the
id e n tifie d w ith curing. O ne o f these was the M a y a n o b ility p erfo rm e d a w id e range o f
old goddess ixcHEL, know n as Goddess O dances: a snake dance p erfo rm e d w ith liv e
or cAac cAe/ in the codices. Yucatec curers boa constrictors, dances w ith b ird staffs, God
perform ed a festival in h er honor during the K staffs, basket staffs, and a fe a th e r dance
20-d ay m onth o f Z ip . T h e other aged d eity p erfo rm ed by rulers and th e ir attendants in
was the creator god, iTZAMNA, w ho was also g re at fe a th e r backracks. As p a rt o f a p ublic
invoked du rin g the Z ip rites. In L a te Post perform ance o f ritu a l BLOO DLETTING , M a y a
classic C e n tra l M exico, TLAZOLTEOTL seems to lords p e rfo ra te d th e ir p h a lli w ith long, color
have been an especially im p o rtan t goddess fu l pairs o f "dan cer's w ings" - or w h a t m ay
o f curing, being closely id en tified w ith both be p ain te d PAPER o r cloth strips stretched over
confession and the sw eatbath. w ooden supports - and then danced, blood
stream ing across the "w in g s ."
73
n atu re o f the gods is re ite ra te d in a curious celeb ratio n s a re c le a rly o f P rehispanic o rigin.
episode m en tio n ed in th e L ey en d a d e so/es. In ancien t M ex ico , the ArrERLifK destination
TLAHLBCALPAKTECUHTLJ, th e god o f d aw n and o f an in d iv id u a l v a rie d according to his or h e r
the m orning star, attacked the sun as it status and th e m ode o f d eath . M o st souls,
hovered over T eo tih u ac an . T h e sun, in tu rn , h o w e ve r, had to p erfo rm an arduous jo u rn e y
shot an a rro w in to the fo reh ead o f th e m o rn to th e UNDERWORLD, fo r w hich th e y w ere
ing star, w ho becam e the god o f co!d. K n ow n fre q u e n tly supplied w ith food and clothing.
as iTZTLACouuHQLí-MQUíMíLU, he is a!so the I t w as also b eliev ed th a t Docs knew the w ay
god o f stone. H e com m only displays the through the U n d e rw o rld , and thus they too
d a rt o f the sun transExed through his stony fre q u e n tly accom panied th e dead. F o r the
headdress. T h e tran sfo rm atio n o f gods in to A ztecs, th e re , a re d e ta ile d descriptions o f
in e rt stone is g rap h ically described in the the U n d e rw o rld hazards faced by the soul.
POPOL vuH account o f the Erst d aw n . C o n tem A m ong these dangers a re clashing h ills and
p orary m yths o f the Zapotees and M ixtees o f obsidian-edged w inds. T h e Q u ich e M aya
O axaca also m ention an e arly race o f people POPOL v u H describes s im ila r hazards faced by
turned to stone a t the Erst appearance o f the the H e ro T w in s in th e ir jo u rn e y through
sun. T h e Erst daw n in g m arks the beginning the U n d e rw o rld , in c lu d in g k ille r BATS, Eerce
o f everyday re a lity , in w hich the gods are JAGUARS, and num b in g cold. The A ztecs
represented by re la tiv e ly passive bundles or b eliev ed th a t th e soul w as a t last extinguished
stone sculptures. B ut if the daw n and day fou r years a fte r d ea th .
constitute present ordered re a lity , the NIGHT
by contrast represents the supernatural tim e d eath gods In a n c ie n t M eso am erica, th e re is
o f DREAMS and livin g gods re-enacted in the com m only a m ix tu re o f fe a r and derision
a pp aren t m ovem ents o f the starry sky. 5ee tow ard th e gods o f d ea th . A ltho u g h w id e ly
a / s o C R E A T IO N A C C O U N TS . thought to be ruthless and cunning, they
are fre q u e n tly o u tw itte d and d efe ated in
death In M esoam erican thought death was m ythological accounts. Th u s Q U E T Z A L C O A T L
closely in teg rated in to the w o rld o f the livin g . successfully steals the m akings o f people fro m
L ife and death w ere b elieved to exist in the c ra fty M iC T L A N T E C U H T L i. In th e P O P O L v u H ,
dynam ic and com plem entary opposition. It the H e ro T w in s X b a la n q u e and H u n ah p u
was w id e ly recognized th a t because o f the tric k the gods o f d eath in to vo lu n te erin g
basic need for nourishm ent, k illin g and SACRi them selves to be sacriRced. Thus the lords o f
FICE was a necessary aspect o f life . M o reo v er, X ib a lb a a re d efe ated and th e tw in s re trie v e
deceased ancestors exerted p o w erfu l inR u- the rem ains o f th e ir fa th e r and uncle. O u r
ences upon the livin g . N o t only could they very presence is lite ra lly a liv in g testim ony
send punishing DISEASES, b u t they could serve to (he u ltim a te d e fe a t o f th e d ea th gods.
as in term ed iaries b etw een the livin g and the In C e n tra l M exico , the p re e m in e n t god o f
gods. D u rin g certain o f the 20-day V E IN T E N A S , d eath was M ic tla n te c u h tli, o r lo rd o f M ic tla n ,
m ajor festivals honored the dead; the livin g the U N D E R W O R L D . H e is u sually dep icted as a
com m unicated w ith th e ir ancestors by means skeleton w e arin g vestm ents o f PAPER, a com
o f food, Rowers, and o th er offerings. A ccord mon o fferin g to the dead. S keletal d eath gods
ing to the 16th c. D om inican, F ra y D iego are also know n fo r Protoclassic and Classic
D u ra n , the Aztecs perfo rm ed festivals fo r V eracru z. A t tim es, th e ir a n im ated p o rtray al
dead children du rin g the 20-day m onth o f suggests a fa m ilia rity b o rd erin g on affection.
Tlaxochim aco, and fo r adults in the fo llo w in g T h e skeletal M a y a e q u iv a le n t o f M ic tla n te
m onth o f X ocotlhuetzi. W ith considerable c u h tli is today know n as G od A (see scHELLHAS
concern, D u ra n noted th a t although o rig in a lly G O D s ), and com m only appears in Classic M a y a
perform ed in August, m any aspects o f these a rt as w e ll as in the Postclassic codices. In one
n ativ e rites w e re being perform ed during th e text fro m th e M a d rid C odex, he is re fe rre d to
C ath o lic celebrations o f A ll Saints' D a y and as cizm , or "R a tu le n t one. " CYzm is s till the
A ll Souls' D a y . This festival event, now w id e ly nam e fo r the d eath god am ong both the
re fe rre d to as the D a y o f the D ea d , is usually Yucatec and Lacandon M a y a .
observed during the several days m arking
the end o f O ctober and the beginning o f d eer T w o types o f d ee r a re n ativ e to
N ovem ber. M arigolds and other offerings M eso am erica, the w h ite -ta ile d d eer (Ocfocc-
s till used today in the D a y o f the D ea d f/ens am ericana), and the sm aller brocket
75 DEFORMITY
d e e r (A fa z a m a a m e ric a n a ). O f these, th e
w h ite -ta ile d d e e r seem s to h a v e h a d a fa r
m o re im p o rta n t ro le in n a tiv e ec o n o m y an d
re lig io n . D e e r m e a t w a s a n e s te e m e d food
o fferin g , a n d th e skins c o u ld b e used as th e
w ra p p in g s o f sacred B U N D LE S , a n d as th e lea ves
o f screenfo ld codices (s ee coDEx). A s o n e o f
th e larg e st g a m e a n im a ls , th e w h ite -ta ile d
d e e r plays a fa irly passive ro le in M e s o a m e r Death: a mortuary bundle
ican m y th o lo g y a n d is clo sely id e n tifie d w it h placed in the mouth
gods o f th e h u n t. H o w e v e r , in C lassic M a y a of a cave. Codex Laud,
scenes, th e d e e r a p p ea rs in a n im p o rta n t Late Postclassic period.
m y th ic a l ep iso de in w h ic h th e yo u n g M o o n
G oddess Rees h e r a tta c k e rs on th e b a c k o f a
d e e r. In c e rta in scenes, this ep iso de seems to
h a v e e ro tic overto n es a n d it is lik e ly th a t
a m o n g th e M a y a , th e stag w as id e n tiR e d w ith
se xu a lity.
I n m a n y M e s o a m e ric a n fo rm s o f th e 2 0 d a y
n am es, in c lu d in g C e n tr a l M e x ic a n , Z a p o te e ,
M ix te e a n d M a y a versions, th e te rm or g ly p h
fo r d e e r serves as th e s e ven th d a y n a m e .
In Postclassic C e n tra l M e x ic o , this d a y w as
M a z a tl, w ith TLALoc as its p re s id in g god. In
C e n tr a l M e x ic a n sources, a tw o -h e a d e d d e e r
is shot b y M D (C 0 A T L , god o f th e M IL K Y W A Y and
th e h u n t. T ra n s fo rm e d in to a w o m a n , th e
d e e r w as im p re g n a te d b y M ix c o a tl, a n d gave
Mictlantecuhtli, the
b irth to th e c u ltu re h e ro QUETZALCO ATL.
Central Mexican
death god. A stone
d e fo r m ity Since a t le a s t th e E a r ly F o rm a tiv e vessel excavated at
p e rio d th e re w as a fa scin atio n w ith physical the Templo Mayor,
a b n o rm a litie s . I n O lm e c a r t, rep re s e n ta tio n s Tenochtitlan, Late
o f DWARVES a n d hunchbacks ab o u n d . R a th e r Postclassic Aztec.
th a n b e in g o bjects o f d e ris io n , these in d iv id u
als a re o fte n p o rtra y e d w it h g re a t s u p e rn a tu
r a l p o w e rs . I n on e in stan ce, d w a rv e s a re
re p re s e n te d s u p p o rtin g th e SKY, w h ile in
a n o th e r, a chinless d w a r f displays heads o f
th e g r e a t h a rp y E A G LE u p o n his b ro w . R e p
res e n ta tio n s o f d e fo rm itie s a b o u n d in th e
P rotoclassic c e ra m ic to m b a r t o f W e s t M e x ic o .
A lo n g w it h d w a rv e s a n d hunchbacks, d o u b le
headed DOGS a re a m o n g th e m o re co m m o n
m o tifs. D u r in g th e Protoclassic p e rio d ,
a n o th e r ty p e o f d e fo r m ity a p p ea rs w id e ly in
M e s o a m e ric a n a rt. C o m m o n ly r e fe r r e d to b y
th e S pan ish te rm o f TUERTO , this fo rm a p p ea rs
as a g ro te s q u e ly tw is te d fa ce, w it h o n e ey e
shut, a b e n t nose, a n d a fr e q u e n tly e x te n d e d ,
s id e w a y s -c u rv in g to ng ue.
I n L a te Postclassic C e n tr a l M e x ic o , ph ys-
^ ic a l d e fo rm itie s w e r e id e n tiR e d w it h th e Anui-
A TETEO , gods o f p le a s u re a n d ph ysical excess. Xochipilli wearing a deer skin marked with the
C e r ta in ph ysical d e fo rm itie s and illnesses 20 day names, Codex Borgia, p. 53, Late
w e r e p r o b a b ly c o n sid ered to b e p u n is h m e n ts Postclassic period.
DEiF!CATfON 76
the headband or b ro w o f O lm ec heads m ay depicts a d iffe re n t d ire c tio n a l god, tem pfe,
also be an allusion to the fo u r d irectio n s. O n e and tre e . S im ila r d ire ctio n al passages app ear
la te O lm ec carvin g , the H u m b o ld t C e lt, m ay in th e F e jé rv á ry -M a y e r, V atican us B, and
possibly rep resen t p a rtic u la r signs o f th e fo u r Cospi codices. C o n ta in in g references to d ire c
d irections, o rie n te d around a c e n tra l disk tio n al gods, tem p les, and trees, a very s im ila r
containing a cross. sequence appears in the n ew y ea r pages o f
By the E a rly Classic p erio d am ong the the M a y a D resd en C odex.
M a y a , th ere is clea r epig rap h ic evidence o f
d ire ctio n al glyphs. E a rly Classic form s o f the disease In an cien t and contem porary
fou r d ire ctio n al glyphs a re d isplayed upon M eso am erica, th e re is an am bivalence
the w alls o f To m b 12 a t R io A zu l, G u a te m a la , reg ard in g illness. W h ereas disease m arks an
w h e re they correspond to the correct c ard in a l im b alanced and dangerous state, it can also
directions, confirm ing the w e ll-k n o w n d ire c den o te a special relatio n s h ip to sup ern atu ral
tio n al glyphs app earin g in the Postclassic pow ers. F re q u e n tly a person e xh ib itin g a
M a y a codices. A side from the still undeciph p a rtic u la r illness is b e liev ed to have received
ered glyph fo r south, the Classic and Post a s u p ern atu ral sum m ons. Q u ite o fte n , people
classic d irectio n al glyphs p rovide p honetic cured o f a disease becom e p o w e rfu l curers
values corresponding to Yucatec M a y a n d irec and SHAMANS. Som e o f the e a rlie s t as w e ll as
tional term s o f /a M m (east), tram an (n o rth ), m ost g raphic p o rtrayals o f disease app ear
and c M rin (w est). in the Protoclassic tom b sculpture o f W est
By the L a te Classic period, there is re lia b le M exico , especially th a t o f th e Ix tla n d el R io
epigraphic evidence for day nam es and coLons style o f N a y a rit.
o rien ted tow ard the four directions. Thus in Diseases a re com m only b eliev ed to d e riv e
the Classic M a y a 819-day cycle, the 20 day from CAVES and th e UNDERWORLD. T h e Q uiché
nam es are consistently associated w ith p a r M a y a P O P O L v u H describes p a rtic u la r diseases
ticu lar colors and directions. B eginning w ith caused by the U n d e rw o rld lords o f X ib a lb a .
the first day nam e o f Im ix, the directions and A m ong these d eath gods a re A h alp u h and
colors shift through the 20 day nam es in a A h alg an , w ho cause sw ellin g , pus, and ja u n
counter-clockw ise m otion from east and red dice, C h am iab ac and C h am iah o lo m , m akers
to north and w h ite , w est and black, south o f extrem e w asting and em aciatio n , and X ic
and yellow . T h e same o rien tatio n o f day and P a tan , bringers o f blood vo m it. I t is
names to colors and directions is w e ll docu p robable th a t m any o f the U n d e rw o rld gods
m ented for the Postclassic Yucatec M a y a . and dem ons in Classic M a y a vessel scenes a re
A lthough there are no know n signs for also personifications o f p a rtic u la r diseases. In
directions or colors in the w ritin g systems o f the Yucatec M a y a o f the
C e n tra l M exico, directions are freq u e n tly the lo rd o f the U n d e rw o rld , H u n A h au ,
indicated by the use o f the 20 day nam es. As is fre q u e n tly evoked. In this C o lo n ial tex t,
in the case o f the Classic and Postclassic diseases are tre a te d as p ersonified sen tien t
M a y a , the day nam es pass in counter-clock beings th a t can be addressed by the curer.
wise succession, w ith the first day, C ip a c tli - A m ong th e m aladies m en tio n ed a re p a rtic u la r
corresponding to the M a y a Im ix - beginning seizures, asthm a, and skin eruptions. A m ong
in the east. In o th er w ords, both the M a y a contem porary Yucatec M a y a , c e rta in diseases
and C e n tra l M exican versions o f the 20 day a re b eliev ed to be caused by insects sent from
nam es are o rien ted to precisely the same the U n d e rw o rld by e v il sorcerers.
directions. Since the fou r directions pass Uve In m any parts o f M eso am erica, diseases
tim es evenly through the 20 days, each d irec a re thought to be caused b y sorcery. In the
tion has five p a rtic u la r days. F o r exam ple, the e a rly C o lo n ial Yucatec d ictio n aries, th e re are
first, fifth , n in th , th irte e n th , and seventeenth term s describing sorcerers w ho can cause
day names o f C ip a c tli, C o atí, A tl, A catl, and blood or pus in u rin e , in te s tin a l w orm s,
O llin a ll correspond to the east. d ia rrh e a , and o th e r u n pleasant com plaints.
In the C e n tra l M exican codices, these fou r Sorcerers are w id e ly b eliev ed to attack the
five-day groups are often used to designate souls or sup ern atu ral a lte r egos o f in d ivid u als,
the cardinal directions. Thus pages 49 to 52 th e re b y causing illness and d eath . A p a rtic u
o f the Codex Borgia contain elab o rate scenes la rly fea red form o f sorcerer is the in d iv id u al
corresponding to the fo u r d irectio n al grou w ho can transform in to an an im al. T o the
pings o f day nam es. Each o f the fou r pages Aztecs, this in d iv id u a l was know n as f/ac afe -
79 DIVINATION
ACCOUNTS, b u t th e a c tu a l p ra c titio n e rs fr e
q u e n tly c o m p a re th e ir r itu a l acts to th a t o f
c re a tio n . Thus th e d iv in e r co m m o n ly
describes a n d in vokes th e im ages a n d forces
p re s e n t a t th e tim e o f c re a tio n . T h is m a y
b e seen in a p o rtio n o f a re c e n t M a z a te c
d iv in a to ry p r a y e r b y M a r ia S abina:
TAen fAe p/a/ns anc/ Ao//owy AarJenet/, ^ayy M a y a p a n and o th e r la te site* o f the n o rthern
7Aat Is wAat we are gom^ fo do, too, says. M a y a low lands. In scholarly lite ra tu re , this
fEy^rada and Mum? 19^2. 742^ b ein g is o fte n re fe rre d to as a bee god hut
th e re is little iconographic support for this
T h e M esoam ehcan id e n tiEca tion o f d iv in id e n tific a tio n . T h e vast m a jo rity o f d iv in g god
ation w ith creatio n is p ro b ab ly because it is, figures ap p e ar to rep resen t th e M a y a MAizH
by its n a tu re , a m iraculous act. T h ro u g h ritu a l coD , com m only re fe rre d to as God E (see
and p ra y e r, the d iv in e r sum mons the godly SCHELLHAS CODS).
pow ers o f creation to m an ifest them selves
again in a physical and tan g ib le m ed iu m . In dog T h e te n th d ay sign in the C e n tra l M e x i
contrast to the casting o f lots d u rin g gam bling can c ale n d ar rep resen ted th e dog, know n as
gam es, d iv in a tio n was not recreatio n but Itz c u in tli in N a h u a tl; in the Yucatec M a y a
re -creat/o n . c ale n d ar, the ten th d ay sign, O c, p ro b ab ly
In an cien t M eso am erica, d iv in atio n took also re fers to the dog, although no such
m any form s. T h e 260-d ay CALENDAR, so c en tral re ad in g is know n fo r the w o rd its e lf. xiPE
to M esoam erican life , served p rim a rily as a TOTEC and QUETZALCOATL presided o ver the
d iv in ato ry alm anac, and p ro b ab ly had its trecena 1 Itz c u in tli.
origins in d iv in ato ry rites p e rta in in g to m id T h e n a tiv e M eso am erican dog w as a h a ir
w ives and the hum an gestation p erio d . I t was less c re a tu re , p rin c ip a lly raised as a foodstuff.
often used in conjunction w ith sortilage, or M a le s w e re o ften castrated and fo rce -fed . In
the d iv in ato ry casting o f !ots, w hich was often C e n tra l M ex ico , a person born on the d ay 4
p erform ed w ith seeds th a t w e re random ly D og in the trecena I D e e r w o u ld be a g ifte d
cast and then counted for the augury. I t is b re ed er o f dogs and w o u ld n ev er lack fo r
probable th a t the vast num ber o f d iv in ato ry food.
alm anacs in the ancient screenfold books XOLOTL, a C e n tra l M e x ic a n god w ith in ti
w ere used w ith hand casting. Scrying w ith m ate ties to the UNDERWORLD, som etim es has
MIRRORS or pools o f w a te r was another form the head o f a dog. In both A ztec and M a y a
o f M esoam erican d ivin atio n . Am ong the b e lie f dogs, perhaps em bodying the ro le o f
Tarascans o f M ichoacán, the SHAMANS o f the X o lo tl, guided th e ir m asters in to the U n d e r
king could see a ll past and fu tu re events w o rld a fte r DEATH and w e re o f p a rtic u la r use
through bowls o f w a te r or m irrors. T h e events in crossing bodies o f WATER. T h a t this b e lie f
w itnessed by these seers could be used as is o f some a n tiq u ity is borne o u t by c a re fu lly
evidence in court cases. b u ried skeletons o f dogs in te rre d w ith
Aside from sortilage and scrying, hum ans a t L a te F o rm a tiv e C h up icu aro . Dogs
M esoam erican diviners com m only used th e ir also accom panied th e ir m asters in E a rly
ow n bodies fo r prognostications. Thus d iv Classic M a y a TOMBS, and fre q u e n tly ap p ear
iners could receive messages through muscle in U n d e rw o rld scenes on p ain te d Classic
tw itchings or the pulsing o f blood. In C e n tra l M a y a pots. In the POPOL vuH, w h en they
M exico, d ivin atio n was also p erfo rm ed by p erfo rm ed in th e court o f th e lords o f d eath ,
hand spans. H e re the d iv in er m easured the the H e ro T w in s sacriSced a dog and then
le ft arm o f the p a tie n t w ith the outstretched brought it back to life ; th e g ra te fu l dog
span o f the rig h t hand. Visions d erived from w agged his ta il.
H A L L U C IN O G E N S are another im p o rtan t form o f Dogs a re a fre q u e n t subject o f W est M e x
d ivin atio n , and are still w id e ly used am ong ican, p a rtic u la rly C o lim a , a rt. W h ile m any
contem porary diviners o f M exico. Am ong the app ear sim ply to be n atu ra lis tic represen
m ore common hallucinogenic plants used in tations o f the fa t, hairless dog, others w e a r
d ivin atio n are m orning glory, jinsom w eed, masks and belong to a su p ern atu ral realm .
and peyote.
dream s M eso am erican peoples recognized
D iv in g C od O ne o f the m ore com m on sculp dream s as special tim es o f com m unication
tu ra l m otifs o f L a te Postclassic Yucatán is a b etw een hum ans and the su p ern atu ral w o rld.
you th fu l figure th a t appears to be diving In dream s, hum ans can contact com panion
headfirst from the sky. A lthough the most spirits, or w h a t a re called UAYS or T O N A L S , and
elab o rate and best-know n exam ples occur in e n te r dialogues w ith ancestors and gods.
the arch itecture o f T u lu m , Q u in tan a Roo, the A ccording to D u rá n , a t the tim e o f the
d ivin g god also appears in the sculpture o f lan d in g o f the Spanish invaders in V eracru z,
81 DUALITY
glyphs fo r sun and darkness, Venus and e d ib le fungus know n today in C e n tra ! M exico
m oon, and w in d and w a te r precede distance as Au/dbcocAe, w hich invades and distorts an
num bers. T h e significance o f such coup!ets in e a r o f m aize. A t Y axchilán, tw o d w arves w ith
M a y a c ale n d rica l expressions rem ains to be star m arkings on th e ir backs atten d K ing B ird
exp iain ed . Perhaps the m ost advanced lite r Jaguar in a BALLCAME scene and m ay re fe r to
a ry use o f p a ire d expressions appears in the con stellatio n C e m in i, know n as the TURTLE
N a h u a tl ritu a l speech, w h e re a p a ir o f w ords or d w a rf star am ong th e M a y a .
is used to re fe r to a th ird concept. K n ow n by A m ong the A ztecs, TLALO c, lik e the M a y a
its Spanish nam e, d t/ras/sino, this lite ra ry ra in god CHAC, w as associated w ith dw arves,
device is re la tiv e ly com m on in N a h u a tl. hunchbacks, and d efo rm itie s. T h e king o f
A m ong the b e tte r know n exam ples a re Rre C haleo o ffe red a hunchback to the T la lo q u e
and w a te r to a llu d e to w a r (see A T L T L A C H iN (gods o f ra in and lig h tn in g ); he had him
O L L i) , red and black fo r w ritin g , and stone c arried to a cave in a d o rm a n t volcano, w h e re
and w ood fo r punishm ent. th e T la lo q u e w elcom ed him to th e ir palace.
W h e n the king la te r found h im a liv e , he took
dw arves and hunchbacks A t the tim e o f the it as an om en th a t C haleo w o u ld fa ll, as
Spanish C onquest, M otecuhzom a I I , lord o f it d id th a t y e a r, to the M e x ica . See a/yo
the Aztecs, kept a troop o f dw arves to e n te r A H U IA T E T E O ; D E F O R M IT Y ; T U E R T O S .
e n em as O n e o f th e m o re cu rio us th em es in
C lassic M a y a a r t is th e use o f g o u rd en em as
d u rin g r itu a l d rin k in g bouts. A lth o u g h it has
o fte n b e e n suggested th a t th ese en em as w e r e
used fo r co nsu m ing HALLUCINOGENS, it is fa r
m o re lik e ly th a t th e y co n ta in e d a n alcoh olic
b e v e ra g e , such as b a lc h é o r PULQUE. A t tim es,
th e en em as a re d e p ic te d in association w it h
a vessel g ly p h ic a lly la b e le d c /o r cAi, a M a y a n
te rm s ig n ify in g p u lq u e or o th e r alcoh olic
drin ks. A c c o rd in g to on e 16 th c. accou nt, th e
H u a s te c M a y a o f n o rth e rn V e ra c ru z used
en em as d u rin g tim es o f e x tre m e in to x icatio n .
In fa ct, m a n y o f th e C lassic M a y a scenes
re p re s e n t in d iv id u a ls c a v o rtin g , fa llin g , an d
e v e n v o m itin g . G iv e n th e su b je ct m a tte r, it
is n o t s u rp ris in g th a t m ost o f th e e n e m a
scenes a re n o t on p u b lic m o n u m e n ts b u t
r a th e r on c e ra m ic vessels fo r p e rs o n a l use.
O n e n o te w o rth y ex cep tio n occurs a t th e P u u c Male self-
ruin s o f R an cho San D ie g o , close to th e administering an
site o f U x m a l. H e r e o n e s tru c tu re o rig in a lly enema, stone
panel from
d is p la y e d a t le a s t 14 b a s -r e lie f ca rvings p e r
Rancho San
ta in in g to en em as a n d r itu a l in to x icatio n . Diego, Yucatán,
F o r h ig h la n d M e x ic o , th e r e is no c o n crete Terminal Classic
e v id e n c e fo r th e use o f a lc o h o lic en em as. Maya.
EXCREMENT
through th e SKY; it is also the w eapon c a rrie d lan d ed in cmcoMozToc, yield in g 1600 terres
by H u itziio p o c h th . A m ong th e M a y a , TOHiL tria l gods. C h ac usually carries a personiBed
is the god o f Bre in the POPOL vuH. G od K B in t in his h an d , b u t som etim es he is h im self
(P alen q u e T ria d C II; see PALENQUE TRIAD coos) a personiB ed B int. A m ong the A ztecs, Bint
m ay have been a Classic god o f Ere. blades a re also personiB ed, fre q u e n tly w ith
M eso am erican peoples recognized Bre as an open, g n aw in g m o u th , in d ic atin g th e ir
the fu n d am en tal catalyst o f change. T h e a b ility to te a r Besh. rrzTLACOLiUHQUi-ixQUiMiLLi,
Aztecs b eliev ed th a t th e c u rre n t sun and god o f castig atio n, m ay be a personiBed B int.
MOON cam e in to existence w h en tw o gods, F lin t w as w id e ly recognized as a day sign:
T ecu ciztecat! and N a n a h u a tzin , im m o lated as T e c p a tl am ong the A ztecs and E d zn ab
them selves in a g re at Bre a t T eo tih u ac an . am ong th e M a y a , fo r exam ple. T e c p a tl was
F o r the M a y a , as fo r o th e r M eso am erican one o f th e fo u r A zte c Y EAHBEARER day signs,
peoples, Bre was a w ay to com m unicate corresponding to the n o rth , and th e TRECENA 1
w ith gods and ancestors. O fferin g s, fre q u e n tly T e c p a tl w as p resided o ver by C h a lc h iu to to lin ,
b lo od-spattered PAPER, w e re set on Bre in T E Z C A T L iP O C A in th e fo rm o f a b lu e -g re en
b raziers, and in the b illo w in g sm oke, the tu rk e y . T h e usual, iconic fo rm o f th e M a y a
M a y a conjured up th e ir gods and ancestors. day sign bears the sam e B int m arkings
T h e Aztecs also used the m etap h or w a te r- d ep icted on M a y a w eap o n ry.
Bre, ATL-TLACHfNOLLi, to m ean w a rfa re .
Bowers F lo w e rs h eld ric h m etap h orical
F iv e Suns T h e F iv e Suns constitute the Bve m eaning in an c ie n t M eso am erica. T h re e
eras or w orlds o f A ztec m ythology, including A ztec deities h ave p a rtic u la r connections
the present sun o f N ah u i O llin , or 4 M o tio n . w ith them : xocHiPiLH, MACuiLXOCHiTL, and
Each o f the four previous suns is identiB ed xocHiQUETZAL, a ll o f w hom serve as patrons o f
w ith a p a rtic u la r god and race o f people, the b eau ty, p leasu re, and th e arts. F lo w e rs w e re
gen erally accepted ord er o f the fou r e a rlie r v iew ed as sacriB cial o fferings, and according
suns running as follow s: N ah u i O celo tl (4 to some stories, QUETZALCOATL le d his people
Jaguar), N ah u i E hecatl (4 W in d ), N ah u i Q u i- to oBer Bowers and BUTTERFLIES in lie u o f
a h u itl (4 R ain) and N ah u i A tl (4 W a te r). hum an Besh. F lo w ers w e re o ffe red on m any
F o llo w in g the m aking o f the present people occasions: a t th e b eg inning o f the cele b ratio n
and th e ir corn, the Bfth sun was created a t o f th e VEINTENA T la c a x ip e h u a liztli, fo r exam
T E O T IH U A C A N . ^ e e a / s o C R E A T IO N A C C O U N TS . p le , a fe s tiv a l o f Brst Bowers w as h eld in
honor o f xiPE TOTEC.
Bint Tougher and m ore du rab le than O B SiD - in jro c /u i/ n i cuica w as a N a h u a tl c%&a-
IA N , Bint was universally used to strike F IR E in sfsmo, or m etap h orical lin k in g o f tw o p h en
the N e w W o rld . I t easily yields sparks, and om ena in C e n tra l M e x ic a n h ie rarc h ic and
the rock its e lf sm ells o f smoke a fte r use. I t is p rie stly address, lite ra lly m eaning Bowers
a B ne-granular q u artz w hich abounds in the and song b u t re fe rrin g to a ll a rtis tic endeavors
M a y a low lands. and p a rtic u la rly p o etry. A n o th e r A zte c term
As the p rim a ry means o f striking Bre, B int in co rp oratin g Bowers was xociuyacyof/, lite r
was o f in estim able use to hum ankind and a lly " w a r o f B o w e rs /* it refers to th e p ractice
was thus personiBed and deiEed; it was also o f a p a rtic u la r typ e o f w a r in C e n tra l M exico
a sym bol o f H U M A N S A C R IF IC E and the d eb t carried out by th e A ztecs fro m m id -1 5 th c. on,
ow ed by hu m an ity to the C O D S. SacriBcial in w h ich b a ttle w as c arried o u t speciBcally
blades everyw h ere w e re m ade o f B int and to cap ture sacriBcial victim s fro m nearby,
obsidian, and are often depicted a t the joints o f in d ep en d en t p o lities.
A ztec deities. Gods and PRIESTS bear Bint knives Cem poahroc/Mt/, or m arigolds, w e re ancien t
in hand, freq u e n tly p ain ted w h ite and red. offerings to the dead and a re s till a p rim a ry
In M esoam erican thought, B int and obsid o fferin g on the D a y o f the D e a d , 1 N ovem ber,
ian w e re both created w h ere ligh tn in g strikes. A ll Souls* D a y . Some b eliev e th a t the C en tra!
C H A C and T L A L O C , respectively the M a y a and M exican goddess C O Y O L X A U H Q U I w ears a large
C e n tra l M exican hurlers o f thunderbolts, m arigold on h e r head, and d u rin g the vein
w e re thus the creators o f these valued tena celebrations o f T e c u ilh u ito n tli, w om en
m aterials. According to one A ztec version, danced tog eth er, hold in g m arigolds. In the
C itla lic u e (She o f the Star S kirt) gave b irth PO PO L v u H , m arigolds and y a rro w a re burned
to B int, and then h u rled it to e arth , w h ere it together, as a sim ple o ffering. OVo/mhgui,
89 CODS
m orning glories, w e re valu ed fo r the h a llu c i
nogenic properties o f th e ir seeds, and D u ra n
describes th e ir consum ption d u rin g feasts to
TEZCATLIPOCA (see HALLU CINO GENS). In th e a rt o f
Classic TEOTiHUACAN m any v arie ties o f Rowers
are depicted.
Dancers in celeb ratio n o f vein ten a festivals
freq u ently c arried or w o re Rowers and som e
times d istrib uted them to o th e r p articip ants
or observers. In th e celeb ratio n o f T o xcatl,
the Tezcatlipoca im personator c a rrie d Rowers
in his hand. In palace scenes w ith o u t obvious
sacriRcial overtones, M a y a kings and nobles
also carry sm all bouquets o f Rowers for
sniRing. M a y a JADES, p a rtic u la rly those w orn
as h a ir ornam ents, w e re o fte n m ade in the
fo u r-p etal shape ch aracteristic o f Rowers.
hearts M esoam erican peoples valued hearts God 7 Flower eating hallucinogenic mushrooms
as sacrificial offerings. T h e y recognized the while listening to music played by 9 Wind;
Codex Vindobonensis, p. 24, Late Postclassic Mixtee.
h e a rt as the v ita l organ o f the body and as
such, it was food fo r the C O D S. A t the tim e o f
the Conquest, the s till-b e a tin g hum an h eart
was the suprem e o ffering, p a rtic u la rly to the
SUN and to solar deities. A lthough long thought
to have been a p u rely Postclassic C en tra!
M exican phenom enon, h e a rt sacrifice can
now be id e n tifie d to have taken place w id e ly
in M esoam erica from Classic tim es onw ard
#and perhaps even e a rlie r, although there is
Pumas tearing the heart out of a deer, mural
no clear O lm ec evidence. from Techinantitla, Teotihuacan, Late Classic
T h e hum an h e a rt is o fte n depicted in period. Sacrificial hearts are commonly depicted
M esoam erican a rt as a trilo b e d organ, fre - in the art of Teotihuacan.
HERO TWINS wz
the very oldest god in the C e n tra l M e x ic a n pregnancy becam e a source o f h u m iliatio n tr
p an th eo n , T la lo c o ffe red le g itim ac y and his h e r c h ild re n , and th e y p lo tte d to kit! her.
tory to H u itzilo p o c h tli. T o g e th e r, th e y also B u t fro m w ith in th e w om b, H u itzilo p o c h tli
suggested ATL TLACHrsoLU, o r E re -a n d -w a te r, com fo rted h er. T h e C en tzo n H u itzn a h u a and
the A ztec m etap h or fo r w a r. H u itzilo p o c h tli C o yolxauhqui charged C oatepec, slicing o fl
led the A ztecs in w a r and in H U M A N S A C R IF IC E . C o atlic u e's h ead . O u t o f h e r tru n cated body
H u itzilo p o c h tli's geographical origins le a p t H u itzilo p o c h tli, fu lly form ed and
rem ain obscure, b u t according to A zte c m ig ra dressed, b rand ish in g his X iu h c o atl, w ith
tion legends, he led his p eople on a jo u rn e y w h ich h e in tu rn dism em bered his sister
for generations, com m anding them Erst to C o yo lxau h q u i, w hose body parts tum bled to
leave th e ir island hom e, AZTLAN, in th e e a rly th e foo t o f C oatepec. H u itzilo p o c h tli then
12th c. and to seek out a n ew island in a lake. a ttacked his h a lf-b ro th e rs , only a fe w of
D iv id e d in to seven trib es, the Aztecs soon w hom m anaged to Eee.
g ath ered at C H icoM O Zioc, the legendary G en eratio n s la te r, the A ztecs w ould re p ro
source o f o rigin fo r a ll C e n tra ! M ex ica n duce C o atep ec in the T e m p le o f H u itz ilo
peoples, and w h e re th ey, too, sojourned a p o ch tli a t T e n o c h titla n . G re a t serpents Bowed
w h ile , b efo re beginning th e ir w anderings dow n th e balustrades w h ile th e w ooden
again. H e re a t C hicom oztoc, H u itzilo p o c h tli's sculpture o f H u itzilo p o c h tli reig n ed from the
sister, M a iin a lx o c h itl (w hose pow ers over shrine a t the top - p ro b ab ly in the com pany
SPIDERS, scorpions, and snakes recall the o f th e im age o f his d ec ap ita te d m o th e r - and
pow ers held by the p rin cip al fem ale goddess the d ism em b ered C o yolxauhqui la y a t the
o f TEOTinuACAN) had gained follow ers, and base o f the p y ra m id , h er im ag e carved on the
m any Aztecs had grow n accustom ed to c iv i surface o f a round stone. W h e n bodies w ere
lized life . W hen a tree sp lit in tw o H u itz ilo tum bled dow n the steps, e ve ry hum an sacri
pochtli in te rp re te d it as a sign to lead the fice recre ated C o yolxauhqui s fa ll and p ublic
virtuous aw ay, leaving the rest behind. A t h u m ilia tio n .
this p oint, religion and history in te rtw in e , C oyolxauhqui m ay w e ll h ave belonged to
and the story o f a schism am ong the tribes a group o f o ld e r fe rtility goddesses in C e n tra l
probably reflects a historical re a lity in w hich M ex ico , and h er destru ctio n reveals th e rise
the group did d ivid e. Those le ft w ith M a li- o f H u itzilo p o c h tli's c u lt. O fte n id e n tifie d w ith
nalxochitl eventu ally cam e to settle a t M a li- the M O O N , C oyolxauhqui is in this aspect also
nalco, to the w est o f T en o c h titla n , and M a li- destroyed b y the solar H u itzilo p o c h tli; in fac t,
nalxochitl's son, C o pil, w ould la te r a tte m p t the round C o yolxauhqui stone a t the T e m p le
to avenge his m other's abandonm ent. o f H u itzilo p o c h tli is p e rio d ic a lly sliced by
H u itzilo p o c h tli m ean w h ile led his people the sun, as if to re p lic a te ongoing solar
on to C O A TE P E C , H ill o f the Serpent, w h ere his dom inance. T h e C en tzo n H u itzn a h u a can be
m iraculous b irth - or w h a t w e should call a id e n tifie d w ith in n u m e rab le stars, also chased
re b irth - then took place. I t m ay also have to the south b y th e solar H u itzilo p o c h tli.
been a t this ju n c tu re th a t a livin g ru le r, A lthough o fte n considered to be one o f the
H u itzilo p o c h tli, was transform ed into the new y o u th fu l goddesses, a t th e T e m p le o f H u itz ilo
cult d eity. O ne o f the g re at m ountains o f p ochtli, C oyolxauhqui is ren d e re d as an o ld er
A ztec legend, C oatepec was near T u la (see w om an, w ith sagging breasts and stretched
TOLLAN); the Aztecs celeb rated a N e w F ire stom ach; th e g re a t C o atlicu e sculpture
C erem ony there in 1163, ju s t about the tim e (w h ich m ay o r m ay n o t have been in the
o f the dem ise and abandonm ent o f T u la - a shrine o f H u itzilo p o c h tli above), has also lost
coincidence suggesting th a t the nom adic and a ll trace o f fe m in in e b eau ty. In H u itzilo p o ch
aggressive Aztecs m ay have played a role in tli's com pany, fem a le goddesses becom e h id
its d o w n fall. eous, subjects fo r d ism em berm ent.
A t C oatepec, the goddess coATucuE kep t In th e story o f A ztec p e reg rin a tio n , H u itz i
and sw ept the tem ple. O ne day, as she sw ept, lopochtli led his people on fro m C oatepec
she tucked a tu ft o f feathers in h er breast, in to the V a lle y o f M exico , w h e re they w ere
b u t w hen she had com pleted h er task, the settled a t C h ap u ltep ec by the end o f the
feathers w ere gone and she knew she had 13th c. G e n e ra lly unw elcom ed in th e V a lle y ,
becom e pregnant. A lre ad y the m other o f 400 H u itzilo p o c h tli's p eople soon found them
sons (know n as the C entzon H u itzn a h u a) and selves a t w a r w ith th e ir neighbors, led by
a d aughter, c o Y O L X A U H Q U i, C oatlicue and h er C o p il, th e son o f M a iin a lx o c h itl, the b etrayed
95 HUITZILOPOCHTH
sister o f H u itzilo p o ch tli ie ft b eh ind a t C h ic-
omoztoc. C opil's troops w on the b a ttle , b u t
Copil him self fe ll and w as sacrificed by H u it-
zilopochtli, w ho then took C o p il's h e a rt and
hurled it onto a rock in L a k e Texcoco, giving
rise to the very island on w hich the Aztecs
would la te r found th e ir city.
W ith in a fe w years, the Aztecs w e re forced
to leave C hapultepec, and H u itzilo p o c h tli led
them on to C ulhuacan, on the o th er side o f
the lake, w h ere they w e re little m ore than
slaves to the old T o ltec n o b ility th a t ru led
there. C om pelled to liv e on th e desolate
lava beds a t T iza p a n , the Aztecs w orked as
m ercenaries fo r the lords o f C ulhuacan and,
against the odds, th rive d . H u itzilo p o c h tli saw
that his people had not y e t a rriv e d a t the
prom ised destination, and th a t th e ir success
in T iza p an offered them too m uch com fort.
H e told the trib a l leaders th e re fo re to ask the
lords o f C ulhuacan fo r a noble b rid e ; fearin g
the Aztecs, the lords com plied. W h e n the
princess was d elive re d , the Aztecs im m ed i
ate ly Hayed h er, and a p riest p u t on h e r skin.
Huitzilopochtli wielding the Xiuhcoatl Hre
serpent, Codex Borbonicus, p. 34, 16th c. Aztec
W h en the C u lh u a cam e to celeb rate the
a rriv a l o f a new goddess am ong the Aztecs,
they found instead the p riest w earin g the
princess's skin. W ild ly incensed by this
barbarism , the C u lh u a set upon the Aztecs,
k illin g some and d rivin g others in to the lake.
T h e survivors took refuge on the island th e re ,
w h e re they found an eagle sitting on a cactus
grow ing from a rock, the very im age H u itz ilo
pochtli had told them to seek generations
before. T h e w anderings o f H u itzilo p o ch tli
and his people cam e to an end, according to
m ost sources, in 1345 w ith the founding o f
T en o c h titla n .
C elebrations in honor o f H u itzilo p o ch tli
dom inated the religious cerem onies o f T e
n o ch titlan , and he fre q u e n tly took a role in
festivities dedicated to o th er gods. O utside
T e n o c h titla n , T ezcatlipoca m ay have been
the most im p o rtan t god, and the tw o w ere
often honored together in T en o c h titla n . Thus,
d u ring To xcatl, the VEINTENA d edicated to
T ezcatlipo ca, H u itzilo p o c h tli played a p ro m i
nen t ro le, and during P a n q u e tza liztli, the
veinfena dedicated to H u itzilo p o c h tli, T e zc a t
lipoca was also p ro p itiate d . U n lik e most A ztec
gods, H u itzilo p o c h tli had a stan d-in , not ju s t
an im personator, du rin g m any actual fe s tivi
ties. K now n as P ain al, the substitute w ore
H u itzilo p o ch tli's attrib u te s and m ay be seen
as ano th er aspect o f his ow n num en. Huitzilopochtli in his temple, Codex Azcatitlan,
D u rin g T o xcatl, a g re at AMARANTH dough 16th c. Aztec.
HUMAN SACRIFICE
Bgure, or was o u tB tted w ith H u itz ilo - exaggerated its p re va len c e in o rd er to Justify
p o ch tli's a ttire , c a rrie d to his te m p le , and th e ir ow n violence in the N e w W o rld . Some
e v e n tu a lly eaten . Supplicants o ffe red him students o f an c ie n t M ex ico , th e re fo re , have
q u a il, in p a rtic u la r, and w om en g arlan d ed w o n d ered w h e th e r hum an sacriBce re a lly d id
w ith Rowers danced the serp ent dance fo r take p lace a t a ll, and , if so, on w h a t sort o f
h im . S everal veintenas o f p re p a ra tio n le d up scale. D u ra n expressed his ow n in c re d u lity at
to P a n q u e tza liztli, w h en th e an n iversary o f the 8 0,4 00 victim s supposedly sacriBced for
H u itzilo p o c h tli's m iraculous b irth a t C o a te - th e re d ed ic atio n o f the T e m p le o f nuiiziLO
pec on the day 1 F lin t in the y e a r 2 A c a tl pocHTLi in 1487 - b u t he also rep o rted th a t
was c ele b rated , again w ith a dough Bgure o f c lo tted hum an blood fo rm ed g re at pools
H u itzilo p o c h tli. A PMEST b earin g a Bgure w ith in th e te m p le p re cin c t, and th a t a n ew
o f P a in a l led a g re a t procession through skullrack (see TZOMPANTu) had to be b u ilt to
T e n o c h titla n and neighboring tow ns b efo re accom m odate th e thousands o f n ew offerings.
re tu rn in g to the cerem o n ial p recin ct in T e n T h e T ellerian o -R e m e n s is , a n a tiv e post-C on-
o ch titla n . F o u r victim s w e re sacriRced in the quest account, speciBes th e slau g h ter o f
b allco u rt, then m any m ore on the T e m p le 20,0 00 fo r th a t sam e eve n t.
o f H u itzilo p o c h tli. (H u itzilo p o c h tli w as also A rch aeo lo g ically, a fe w la rg e deposits o f
celeb rated d u rin g P ach to n tli and T laxo ch i- hum an skeletons h ave been recovered: 42
m aco.) ch ild ren w e re sim ultaneously sacriBced to
TLALOC and in te rre d on th e T la lo c side o f the
hum an sacriBce H u m an sacriBce p layed a C re a t T e m p le in T e n o c h titla n ; m ore re ce n tly ,
vita! role in M eso am erica, p robably from a larg e n u m b er o f w a rrio rs w e re recovered
e arly tim es onw ard, although it is d iffic u lt to from the T e m p le o f Q u e tza lc o a tl a t TEOTiHU-
docum ent before the L a te Preclassic period. ACAN, p ro b ab ly a single sacriB cial o ffe rin g fo r
According to most n ative w o rldview s, the a tem p le d ed icatio n e ven t. A m p le evidence
coos had o ffered th e ir ow n B LO O D in o rd er to o f hum an sacriBce survives fro m Prehispanic
g enerate hum ankind, and the sacriBce most a rt. T h a t th e p ractice existed is irre fu ta b le .
sought by the gods in re tu rn was hum an Besh W h a t w ill p ro b ab ly alw ays re m ain a m ystery
and blood. A fte r Cortés's a rriv a l in the N e w is its scale, p a rtic u la rly am ong th e A ztecs.
W o rld , the Aztecs sent him tam ales (ground A t M o n te A lb án , the T e m p le o f the D a n z
m aize cakes) soaked in blood, a foodstuff antes m ay be a clue to F o rm a tiv e perio d
a pp ro p riate for a god. H u m a n ity live d in the p u b lic hum an sacriBce am ong th e Zapotees.
th ra ll o f this blood deb t, and hum an sacriBcial M a n y panels th e re p o rtra y w h a t seem to
victim s w e re offered rep eated ly to forestall be sacriBced victim s, lim p and m u tila te d ,
the dem ise o f the w o rld and to seal the pro b ab ly displayed as a p u b lic m em o rial o f
com pact m ade w ith the gods. T h e Aztecs, fo r victory.
exam ple, b elieved th a t they w e re livin g in As d ep icted in L a te C lassic a rt, the M a y a
the Bfth sun, the gods having created and g en e rally d ec ap ita te d th e ir victim s, som e
destroyed fou r previous eras, and th a t hum an tim es o nly a fte r agonizing to rtu re . Some w e re
sacriBce h elped to keep the gods a t bay. scalped, others b u rn t o r disem bow eled and
M o s t M esoam erican peoples probably also some b eaten . Some captives w e re dressed
recognized th a t hum an sacriBce was a w ay and th en bound as DEER, perhaps as p a rt o f a
to extinguish enem ies, dim inish the num ber scapedeer ritu a l; others w e re trussed up and
o f young m en in an enem y's arm y, and bounced as if balls in the ritu a l BALLCAME.
to h u m iliate p ublicly one's opposition (see SacriBcial victim s m ay have been p arad ed in
C A P T IV E S ). Slaves w e re purchased fo r sacriBce, litte rs b efo re sacriBce on scaffolding. M a n y
and parents did ap p aren tly sell th e ir c hild ren depictions o f hum an sacriBcial victim s w e re
fo r the purpose, b u t there w ere p ro b ab ly fe w carved on the treads or risers o f steps, and
w illin g volunteers, despite the b e lie f th a t such a rc h ite c tu ra l featu res p ro b ab ly served
sacriBcial victim s ascended d ire c tly to as th e sites o f rep eated sacriBces. M a y a lords
heaven. H u m an sacriBce was not used as a sought to cap ture o th e r h ig h -ran kin g lords in
punishm ent w ith in society fo r crim es; and b a ttle , and th e ir subsequent sacriBce offered
E X E C U T IO N and hum an sacriBce w e re not con prestige - and possibly trib u te and pow er -
fused. to the victor. N o mass in term en ts o f M a y a
T ru ly horriB ed by the hum an sacriBce sacriBcial victim s have been recovered
they saw, the Spanish conquerors m ay have archaeologically. O n e M a y a king, B ird Jaguar
97 HUMAN SACRIFICE
of Yaxchilan, claim ed 21 captives over the
course o f his life tim e, and i f he sacrificed
that m any over the course o f his career,
archaeological evidence w ould be elusive.
The M a y a often carved hum an bones, possi
bly those o f sacrificed captives.
D is a rtic u la te d skeletons a c c o m p a n y in g p r i
m a ry in te rm e n ts m a y re p re s e n t sla u g h te re d
captives. A fe w b u ria l co nH gu ratio ns h a v e
suggested th a t liv in g offerin g s a c c o m p a n ie d
th e n o b le d e a d : a t P a le n q u e , th e d o o r to th e
to m b o f T e m p le 18a w as se a le d fro m th e
inside. A 2 5 -y e a r-o ld w o m a n le f t h e r h a n d
prin ts in th e c o n ta in e r o f p la s te r th a t she h a d
used; th e n , ta k in g a tib ia fro m th e Heshless
sk eleton h o n o re d b y th e TO M B , she sat d o w n
in a co rn e r to a w a it h e r DEATH.
A lth o u g h de p ic tio n s o f h u m a n sacrifices do
no t s u rv ive a t T e o tih u a c a n , th e p resence o f
hum an HEARTS on staffs a n d on costum es Human sacriHce, Codex Laud, Late Postclassic
argu es fo r th e p ra c tic e th e re . In V e ra c ru z , period.
sacrifice b y H aying took p lace fro m L a te
F o rm a tiv e tim es o n w a rd . A t C lassic E l T a jin ,
h u m a n sacrifice b y h e a r t ex tru sio n is d e p ic te d
as ta k in g p lace in th e b a llc o u rt, b u t m a y no t
h a v e b e e n lim ite d to th e b a llg a m e . In th e
T o lte c e ra , h e a r t sacrifice p re v a ile d a t b o th
T u la an d C h ic h e n Itz a , a n d th e C h ic h e n
exam p les a re th e m ost e x p lic it p re -C o n q u e s t
de p ic tio n s o f th e sacrifice. G iv e n th e p ro m i
n e n t s k u llrack (iz o m p a n f/t) a t C h ic h e n Itz a ,
d e c a p ita tio n p ro b a b ly fo llo w e d , o r m a y h a v e
b e e n an in d e p e n d e n t m ean s o f sacrifice.
H um an sacrifice o c cu rred w ith th e ce l
e b ra tio n o f m ost A z te c VEINTENA festivals. T h e
la rg e s t n u m b e r of hum an sacrifices w e r e
m a d e in h o n o r o f H u itz ilo p o c h tli a n d TEZCATLi
POCA, as w e ll as a t tim es o f d e d ic a tio n . H e a r t
sacrifice d o m in a te d th e p ra c tic e , a n d m ost
Hayings took place a fte r th e h e a r t h a d a lre a d y
b e e n e x tru d e d . M o d ern students o f h e a rt
sacriHce b e lie v e it to h a v e b e e n a q u ic k m eans
o f d e a th , p a rtic u la rly w h e n c a rrie d o u t by
sk illed p ra c titio n e rs w ith FLINT blades. H e a d s
w e r e o fte n se vered a fte r d e a th a n d d isp la yed
on th e skullrack.
H u m a n im itation o f natural events pro Aztec human sacriHce, Florentine Codex, Book 2.
p itiated nature and this mimesis o f agricul
tural phenom ena was m ade sacred through
hum an sacriHce. D u rin g O chpaniztli, in cel
ebration o f harvest and cmcoMECOATL (the
Aztec MAIZE goddess), a w om an was Hayed,
^ in this case the Hayed hum an skin represent
ing the ripening husk o f corn. F o r Tlacaxipe-
h ualiztli, the x iP E TOTEC im personator w ore
the Hayed Hesh o f another hum an: as the old
H U M M IN G B IR D W!
the scribal arts was also p resent d u rin g the th rea te n ed to d evo u r people d u rin g solar
Ctassic p erio d . In L a te C lassic vessel scenes, ECLIPSES. She w as a goddess o f the paradise
he is o fte n p o rtrayed as a scribe (see S C R IB A L re a lm o f TAMOANCHAN, a place identiA ed w ith
c o o s ). M o re o v e r, a t the T e rm in a l C lassic site the b ird o f th e gods and hu m an kin d .
o f X c a lu m k in , he bears the scribal title o f ah T h e e a rlie s t know n rep resen tatio n o f Itz p a
d z/b , or H e o f th e W ritin g . As w ith his p a lo tl appears on a fra g m e n ta ry re lie f from
probab!e consort o tc H E L , Itza m n a w as id e n t E a rly Postclassic T u la , w h e re she appears
ifie d w ith the pow ers o f C U R IN G . Thus d u rin g w ith a ske letalize d head and b u tterA y w ings
the Yucatec m onth o f Z ip , he was invoked as supplied w ith stone blades. A ltho u g h the
a god o f m edicine. id e n tity rem ains to be p ro ven , the Z apotee
In the Postclassic Yucatec codices, Itza m n a d e ity called Goddess 2 ) by A lfonso Caso and
appears as the aged d e ity know n as G od D Ig n a cio B ern a l found on ceram ic urns m ay
(see scHELLHAS coos). D u rin g both the Classic w e ll tu rn out to be a C lassic Z ap o tee form o f
and Postc!assic periods, he w ears a p ro m in e n t Itz p a p a lo tl. In a n u m b er o f instances, this
beaded disk upon his b ro w . A diagnostic Z ap o tee goddess is c le a rly identiA ed w ith the
e lem e n t o f Itza m n a , the sam e disk also bat.
appears in his nam e glyph. Q u ite fre q u e n tly ,
this disk contains the A kbal sign denoting Itz tla c o liu h q u i-Ix q u im illi To th e ancien t
darkness or blackness, and it is p robable th a t M exican s, stone and castigation w e re closely
the device represents an O B S ID IA N M IR R O R , such re la te d concepts, since m iscreants w e re fre
as was used in d iv in ato ry scrying (see D iv iN q u en tly punished by stoning. Thus the N á h u
ATtoN). D u rin g the Postclassic p erio d , C od D a tl expression fo r p u nishm ent w as fef/-cua/?u-
can appear in CAIMAN guise and in fact, m eaning "w o o d and stone. T h e C e n tra l
signifies CA!MAN, lizard or large Ash in M a y a n M exican d e ity o f castigation, Itz tla c o liu h q u i-
languages. It is probable th a t this caim an Ix q u im illi is also th e god o f stone and coldness.
aspect o f Itzam n a is id en tical to the C o lo n ial H e fre q u e n tly appears w ith a face and curv
Yucatec being know n as Itza m C ab A in , the ing foreh ead o f banded stone, m uch lik e
great earth caim an associated w ith the flood. varieties o f FLINT or agate. In som ething lik e
Itza m n a is also closely id e n tifie d w ith the the W estern concept o f "ju stic e is b lin d ," he
PRINCIPAL BIRD DEITY, the Classic M a y a form o f is usually b lin d fo ld ed o r sightless. In m any
v u c u B C A Q U ix , the m onster b ird o f PO PO L v u n cases, he blends w ith the b lack T E Z C A T H P O C A
fam e. T h e P rincipal B ird D e ity appears to and in this form appears as a god o f the n orth
be none other than the celestial aspect o f and p atro n o f the day A c a tl. In a d d itio n , he
Itzam n a . serves as the god o f th e T R E C E N A 1 C u e tzp a lin .
In m any instances, Itz tla c o liu h q u i-Ix q u i-
Itzp a p a lo tl O ne o f the m ore fearsom e god m illi is ren dered w ith a sto n e-tip p ed d a rt in
desses o f the C e n tra l M exican pantheon, his b ro w . T h is p ro b ab ly concerns an episode
Itzp a p a lo tl is com m only rendered as a skeletal fro m the L ey en d a d e Aw so/es account o f the
being w ith )A C U A R talons and kn ife -tip p e d creation o f th e A fth sun a t T E O T iH U A C A N . As
w ings. T h e term iizp a p a /o d c a n signify e ith e r the god o f the DAWN and the m orning star,
O B S ID IA N b u tte rfly or claw ed B U T T E R F L Y , b u t it TLAHUIZCALPANTECUHTLI shot a d a rt a t th e SUN
is lik e ly th a t the second m eaning is in ten d ed. w ho, in tu rn , transAxed T la h u izc a lp a n te c u h tli
R ath er than obsidian, the w ing blades are w ith a d a rt through the foreh ead . T h e account
c learly ren dered as F L IN T , or feepad. I t is states th a t once p ierced by this d a rt, T la h u iz
q u ite possible th a t the concept o f a claw ed calp an tecu h tli becam e th e god o f cold, th a t
butterA y refers to the B A T , and in fac t, in a is, Itz tla c o liu h q u i-Ix q u im illi. T h e C e n tra l
num ber o f instances Itzp a p a lo tl appears w ith M exican god o f stone, cold, and castigation
b at wings. H o w ever, she can also appear w ith also appears in the Venus pages o f the M a y a
clear b utterA y and E A G LE attrib u tes. D resden Codex. O n D resden page 50, he is
Itzp a p a lo tl is patron o f the day Cozca- ren dered not only w ith th e b lin d fo ld b u t also
cuau h tli and the TRECENA 1 House; the day 1 w ith a A int p o in t p rojecting fro m the top o f
House is also one o f the Ave w estern trecena his headdress. I t is possible th a t th e codical
dates dedicated to the ciHUATETEO, the C o d Q (see scHELLHAS G O D s ) is a Postclassic
dem onic w om en w ho died in c h ild b irth . M a y a version o f Itztla c o liu h q u i-Ix q u im illi.
Itzp a p a lo tl was not only a c/A uafeot/, b u t
also one o f the tzitz/fn im e, star dem ons th a t Ixch el A t the tim e o f the Spanish Conquest,
101
" c ru lle r" (so nam ed because it resem bles th e p a rtn e r, th e Stingray P a d d ler, the Jaguar
tw isted p as try) b etw e en th e nose and u n d er P a d d le r is an old god, w ith sunken cheeks.
th e eyes th a t characterizes the M a y a Jaguar O th e r M a y a sup ern atu rals w e a r ja g u a r
G od o f th e U n d e rw o rld and is c le a rly re la te d p elag e or a re jag u ars. T h e patro n o f the
to th a t d e ity . m onth Pax is a ja g u a r god w ho lacks a lo w e r
Perhaps because the M a y a and th e ja g u a r ja w and w ho occurs in th e com pany o f the
shared dom inion o ver the tro p ica l ra in fo rest, Jaguar C o d o f th e U n d e rw o rld on p ain te d
the M a y a had m ore ja g u a r d eities and d eities ceram ics, fre q u e n tly in the context o f HUMAN
w ith ja g u a r associations than any o th e r S A C R IF IC E . X b a la n q u e , one o f the H e ro T w in s ,
M eso am erican peoples. T h e M a y a p a rtic u o ften has ja g u a r p e lt on his face, arm s, and
la rly id e n tifie d the suN w ith the ja g u a r. T h e legs, and is th e p atro n o f th e n u m b er 9.
d ay tim e sun, o ften rep resen ted as p atro n o f In C e n tra ! M exico , T e p e y o llo tl was the
the n u m b er 4, can be rep resen ted w ith ja g u a r m ost im p o rta n t ja g u a r god, and as a d e ity
featu res, b u t the n ig h ttim e sun, the Jaguar re la te d to TEZCA TH PO C A , h eld a significant
C od o f the U n d e rw o rld , p atro n o f the nu m b er p lace in th e A zte c p an th eo n . T e p e y o llo tl,
7 , is c le a rly a ja g u a r in his fu ll-b o d y depictions " h e a rt o f th e m o u n ta in ," d w e lt in m ountain
and g en e rally has ja g u a r ears in a ll rep resen CAVES, and the v ery o ffe rin g o f so m any jaguars
tations. H e m ay also app ear as an anth ro p o in the G re a t T e m p le o f th e ir cerem onial
m orphic form , w ith ja g u a r characteristics p recin ct suggests th a t the A ztecs p erceived
lim ite d to the face. T h e Jaguar G od o f the this tem p le com pound, d ed ica te d to TLALOC
incorporates the head o f the Jaguar C od o f and the m orning star and suggested a
the U n d erw o rld . relatio n sh ip to Q U E T Z A L C O A T L and T L A L H U IZ C A L -
O th e r M a y a ja g u a r gods include the W a te r P A N T E C U H T L i th a t can no longer be supported.
L ily Jaguar, the Jaguar B aby, and the Jaguar R are a t T E O T IH U A C A N its e lf, th e fro n ta l w a r
P ad d ler (see P A D D LE R coos). A lw ays a zoo- serpent is m ost com m on am ong th e M a y a , a t
m orphic form , the W a te r L ily Jaguar w ears Piedras N egras and C h ich en Itz á , and a t
a w a te r lily on his head and usually a collar T u la . T h e p rim a ry association o f this com
o f extruded eyeballs around the neck or a posite im age is w a rfa re .
scarf. T h e W a te r L ily Jaguar serves as a
throne, m arches in U n d erw o rld processions, Jester C o d T h e Jester G od takes his nam e
appears occasionally w ith a STAR sign on his from the head o rn am en t th a t dangles over
back (perhaps to te ll us th a t he is also a his foreh ead lik e th a t o f a court je s te r. U sually
constellation), serves as the patron o f the trilo b e d and d epicted o n ly as a head (except
m onth Pop, and functions as an overarching a t P alenque, w h e re a body is in clu d ed ), the
brame fo r one o f the g ian t T ik a l litte rs . T h e d istinctive Jester G od head o rn am en t makes
Jaguar B aby is usually shown as a chubby its Erst appearance d u rin g O lm ec tim es - as
zoom orphic or anthropom orphic ja g u ar, a head o rn am en t a t L a V e n ta and on braziers
alm ost alw ays set in opposition to C H A C in from M o n te A lb an - although th e Jester God
scenes o f S A C R IF IC E . C hac w ields an axe, and occurs m a in ly am ong the Classic M a y a , and
the Jaguar Baby usually reclines on a stone m akes no Postclassic appearances. D u rin g the
A L T A R . O ne o f the p a ir o f P A D D LE R CODS th a t E a rly Classic p erio d , some M a y a Jester Gods
guide the M A IZ E G O D and others through the have the characteristics o f a S H AR K . G e n era lly ,
w aters o f the U n d e rw o rld , the Jaguar P addler the Jester G od functions as a head ornam ent
usually handles the fore o f the craft. L ik e his o f kings and was m ade o f JA D E , b u t lesser
105 JEWELRY
nobles w ear Jester Gods o f various colors in
Crouching Jaguar-
the Bonam pak m urals, so it was not the Serpent-Bird, a
exclusive p u rview o f kingship. T h e ja d e Jester version of the War
God depicted on Pacal's headband on the Serpent; Chichen
Palenque O val Palace T a b le t is p ro b ab ly the Itzá, Yucatán,
Early Postclassic
very one recovered from Pacal's tom b.
period.
K in ic h A h au D u rin g both the C lassic and lig h tn in g and th u n d e r A m ong the most
Postclassic periods the M a y a suN god was p o te n t and d ra m a tic n a tu ra l phenom ena o f
term ed K in ich A h au , m ean in g sun-faced or M ex ico a re lig h tn in g storm s w h ich lig h t up
sun-eyed lo rd . In proE le, the sun god appears th e SKY and shake th e EARTH w ith th u n d er. In
m uch lik e a younger version o f ITZAMNA. T h e p a rtic u la r, lig h tn in g is reg ard ed w ith special
s im ila ritie s a re not co in cid e n ta l; am ong the in te re s t. R a th e r than b ein g o n ly a dangerous
contact period Y ucatec, one aspect o f the p o w e r, lig h tn in g is considered to be life
aged c rea to r god was K in ich A h au Itza m n a . g ivin g and eng en d erin g . Because o f the basic
F o r the Postclassic codices, the sun god is association o f lig h tn in g w ith ra in , the gods o f
com m only re fe rre d to as C od G (s e e s c H E L L H A S lig h tn in g a re u su ally also the gods o f R A IN .
coos). In contrast to Itza m n a , the codical sun H o w e v e r, lig h tn in g its e lf was c le a rly consid
god is usually bearded and has sn ake-like ered as a m a n ifestatio n o f p o w e rfu l fe rtiliz in g
elem ents curving out from the corners o f the energ y, as, fo r exam p le, in the w idespread
m outh. H o w e v e r, one o f the most d istin ctive m yth o f the o rig in o f M A IZ E , w h e re lig h tn in g
traits o f K inich A hau, is the fo u r-p e ta le d Am splits open th e rock co n tain in g the hidden
often placed upon his brow o r body. W h en seed.
view ed face on, it m ay be seen th a t the M a y a In M eso am erica, the alm ost instantaneous
sun god is cross-eyed and has his u p p er Hash o f lig h tn in g is rep resen ted in a n u m b er
incisors hied into the form o f a " T ." D u rin g o f w ays. Q u ite com m only, th e sinuous aspect
both the Classic and Postclassic periods, the o f lig h tn in g bolts takes the form o f u n d u latin g
sun god is closely id e n tifie d w ith JAGUARS, and SERPENTS.G ive n the igneous n atu re o f lig h t
a t tim es appears w ith a ja g u a r ear. In Classic ning, these lig h tn in g snakes a re o fte n re p
period inscriptions, he serves as the head resented as b u rn in g F iH E serpents. T h e stone
v a ria n t o f the num ber 4, and patron o f the axe, usually o f F L IN T , is a n o th er w idespread
m onth Yaxkin. It is clear th a t the patron o f sym bol o f lig h tn in g . E v en today, stone axes
the m onth Pax is again the sun god, although found in the Helds a re com m only reg ard ed as
w ith o u t his lo w er ja w . A long w ith the M o n spent lig h tn in g .
key Scribe, the head o f the sun god can also A m ong th e Classic M a y a , th e so-called
denote the Long C ount position o f K in , or M A N IK IN SCEPTER refers to lig h tn in g sim u l
day (see CALENDAR). taneously as a serp ent, Hre, and axe. T h e
T h e sun god appears in s till ano th er e p i- M a n ik in Scepter takes the fo rm o f a deiHed
graphic context, C I I I o f the P A L E N Q U E T R IA D , axe, w ith one o f the legs te rm in a tin g in a
w h ere he bears an im p o rtan t title shared bu rn in g serpent foot, and is sim ply an aspect
w ith M a y a kings. A lthough this title has o f the d e ity com m only know n as C o d K (see
been com m only read as maA AmaA, recent S C H E L LH A S coDs), or Aau/Z in the Classic M a y a
is th a t it m ay revea! a zoom orphic o rig in . p erio d , m a ize (Z e a m ays) has been the most
U p w a rd -tu rn in g snouts, lik e th a t o f the JESTER im p o rta n t food crop o f M exico . T h e first
coo, in d ic ate a SERPENT o rig in . D o w n w a rd - know n dom estic m aize appears d u rin g the
curvin g snouts, lik e th a t o f the P R IN C IP A L B tR D A rch a ic p erio d o f th e Teh u acan V a lle y in
DEITY, suggest the beaks o f birds. B !u n t or P u eb la a t around 3500 Be. H o w e v e r, fa r
square snouts g e n e ra lly re v e a l a jACL AR o rig in . la rg e r and m ore p ro d u ctiv e form s o f m aize
developed d u rin g the F o rm a tiv e period.
M any researchers c u rre n tly b eliev e th a t
a n cien t p eople dom esticated m aize from a
closely re la te d grass know n as íeosm fe (Z e a
m exicana). T h e etym ology o f feaw n fe reveals
M ac u ilx o c h itl is nam ed fo r a specihc d ate in th a t th e n a tiv e peoples o f h ig h lan d M exico
the 260-d ay CALENDAR, 5 F !o w e r. H e is the also recognized th e im p o rtan ce and relevance
p rin c ip a l god o f the A H U iA T E T E O , w ho a re o f this p la n t to m aize. T h e term derives from
nam ed a fte r the five southern day nam es th e N a h u a tl w ords tee, sig n ifyin g "g o d " or
app earin g w ith the coefficient o f 5 and w ho "s a c re d ," and c m f/i, m eaning " m a iz e ." Thus
are gods sim ultaneously o f excess pleasure a s u itab le gloss fo r feosm fe is "g o d ly c o rn ."
and o f consequent punishm ent. O n pages 47 R epresentations o f m aize d ate fro m as e a rly
and 48 o f the Codex B orgia, they ap p ear w ith as the F o rm a tiv e O lm ec and abound in the
a hum an hand across the m outh, an im p o rtan t la te r iconography o f Classic and Postclassic
tra it o f M ac u ilx o c h itl. T h e patron god o f M exico . T h e C lassic M a y a seem to have had
palace folk as w e ll as o f gam es and gam bling - an especially close re latio n s h ip w ith m aize,
in p a rtic u la r, the gam e o f PATOLLi - M a c u il- and cran ia! d efo rm a tio n m ay have been p e r
xochit! is closely related to and freq u e n tly form ed to m im ic th e elongated form o f the
overlaps w ith ano th er you th fu l god, xocm- m aize e ar. T h e C lassic and Postclassic M a y a
P!LL!, the 'flo w e r p rin c e." also fre q u e n tly d e p ict m aize ears as hum an
heads, as if corn was a s en tien t being. In the
m aguey N a tiv e to highland M exico, m aguey M ix te c a -P u e b la style o f Postclassic highland
(A g ave spp.) is a p la n t o f m any diverse uses. M exico , m aize ears a re also d ep icted w ith
In ancient M exico, the thorns tip p in g the teeth and open eyes. E n tire ly d ep en d en t
leaves w e re w id e ly used as BLOODLETTING upon hum ans fo r pro p ag ation , m aize was
instrum ents. T h e thick fleshy leaves yield considered as a frie n d and a lly o f people. In
tough fib er for rope or coarse C L O T H . H o w ev er, fac t, in M a y a m ythology o f hig h lan d G u a te
the m ost renow ned product o f m aguey is m ala, th e p resent race o f hum ans are the
PULQUE, know n as o cf/i in N a h u a tl. T h e fe r people o f m aize, and w e re firs t fashioned
m ented sw eet sap, or aguam ie/, o f the m aguey from ground corn and p e n ite n tia l BLOOD.
p la n t, pulque is the most im p o rtan t alcoholic A m ong C o lo n ial and contem porary h ig h lan d
d rin k o f n ative M exico. M aya o f G u a te m ala and neighboring
M ag u ey was freq u e n tly personified as a C hiapas, th e u m b ilica l cord o f the new born
you th fu l goddess. F o r the ancient M ixtees, child is cut over a m a tu re m aize ear. T h e
the m aguey goddess is re fe rre d to as 11 bloodied seed is saved and becom es the
Serpent, and appears w ith h er severed head special crop o f th e child . E ven a t the m om ent
fa llin g fro m her bleeding throat. This m ay o f BIRTH, the in d iv id u a l becom es a v irtu a l
re fe r to the severing o f the cen tral stalk o f blood a lly o f m aize. <See aVso ciNTEOL; CREATION
the m aguey p la n t, a basic process in the ACCOUNTS; HUN HUNAHPU; MAIZE GODS.
production o f pulque. T o the inhabitants o f
C e n tra l M exico, MAYAHUEL was the young m aize gods A lthough representations o f
goddess o f m aguey. In a 17th c. N a h u a tl MAIZE a re know n fro m th e F o rm a tiv e p erio d ,
chant recorded by R uiz de A larcon, m aguey the id e n tific atio n o f O lm ec m aize gods is fa r
is re fe rre d to by the calendrical nam e o f 8 from clear. G od I I o f the Joralem on O lm ec
F lin t. T h e same d ate o f 8 F lin t appears on god classification (see O L M E C G O D s ) displays
the rim o f the A ztec B ilim ek Vessel, a P re- m aize sprouting fro m his or h e r c le ft head.
hispanic stone vase covered w ith allusions to H o w e v e r, it is not certain w h e th e r this d eity
m aguey and pulque. is a personification o f m aize o r perhaps the
e arth or m ountain from w hich m aize o rig i
m aize Since the beginning o f the F o rm ative nates. Several O lm ec representations o f chin-
109 MAIZE CODS
¡ess DWARVES display m aize signs on th e ir
bodies. A lthough it is possible th a t these
dwarves represent m aize, they also could
refer to ucHTNiNC, RAJN, or o th e r forces th a t
create corn. Am ong the Classic period Z ap o
tees, one e n tity com m only form ed on Zapotee
urns - the C od o f G lyp h L — o ften appears
w ith ears o f m aize. F o r this reason, he has
been identiB ed as the Classic form o f the
Zapotee m aize god, know n as P itáo C ozobi
during the e a rly C o lo n ial period. H o w e v e r,
the God o f G lyp h L shares m any characterist
ics w ith the Classic form o f cocijo, th e Zapotee
god o f rain and ligh tn in g . In fac t, C ocijo also
generally bears m aize ears in his hands or
headdress.
T h e e arliest id en tiB ab le M esoam erican
m aize god appears in E a rly Classic M a y a a rt
as a you th fu l m ale w ith stylized m aize placed
at the top o f the head. D u rin g the L a te Classic
period, tw o d istinct b u t overlapping form s o f
this d e ity develop. O ne o f these, the Tonsured Macuilxochitl, the Central Mexican god of
M a ize G od, appears w ith a m arked ly elon gaming and pleasure, Florentine Codex, Book 1,
gated hum an head often shaved in zones 16th c. Aztec.
across the B attened b row ; he is the Classic
M a y a prototype o f HUN HUNAHPU o f the Q uiche
M a y a P O P O L v u n . R ecently discovered m urals
at C acaxtla, T laxcala, po rtray heads o f the
Tonsured M a ize God as rip en ed ears o f
yello w corn. H e thus represents m atu re and
fe rtile m aize; the other L a te Classic m aize
d eity , h ow ever, depicts ten d er grow ing
m aize. This Bgure, the F o lia te d M a iz e G od, is
p o rtrayed w ith a stylized m aize ear sprouting
from the top o f the head. T h e M a y a m aize
god continues in this form through the L ate
Postclassic period. In the codices, he is com
m only re fe rre d to as God E, follow ing the
Schellhas system o f d eity classiBcation (see
S C H E L LH A S C O D S ). (Above) Depictions of maize
Aside from the notable appearance o f the in ancient Mesoamerica. a,
Tonsured M a ize God a t C acaxtla, th ere are Olmec, incised jade, Middle
no clear representations o f m aize deities in Formative, b, State of Mexico,
Late Classic, c, Maya,
C e n tra l M exico u n til the L a te Postclassic
Palenque, Late Classic, d,
period. T h e most im p o rtan t o f these is ciN- Codex Borgia, p. 27, Late
TEOTL, w ho is closely re late d to tw o other Postclassic.
you th fu l m ale gods, xocmpiLLi and MACUiL-
xocmTL. L ik e the Postclassic C od E o f the
M a y a codices, C in te o tl typ ic ally has a p air
o f th in , broken, v ertic al lines passing down
across the brow and cheeks. T h e Aztecs
t also had fem ale personiBcations o f m aize, in
p a rtic u la r, cmcoMECOATL, or 7 S erpent. T o the
Postclassic M ixtees, m aize was com m only (Left) Foliated maize god in
conceived o f as a w om an. In the Codex dancing pose, Copán, Late
Vindobonensis, th ree m aize goddesses are Classic Maya.
M A N IK t N SCEPTER !1(
m en tio n ed , 5 F lin t, 7 F lin t, and 7 C rass. .See fre q u e n tly a rran g ed through aged arbitrator!!
a / f O CREATION ACCOUNTS. or m atchm akers. R itu a l banquets o ften fo rm
ed an essential p a rt o f the m arriag e cere
M a n ik in S cepter T h e M a n ik in S cepter, a m onies; am ong both the Aztecs and the
te rm coined by H . Spinden, is th e p a rtic u la r Yucatec M a y a , th e fe e d in g o f the groom by
m an ifestatio n o f a M a y a god also know n as th e b rid e w as an im p o rta n t rite d u rin g the
C od K or C II o f the PALENQUETRiAD. H is nam e fe s tiv itie s . T h an ks to the F lo re n tin e Codex
was B olon D zacab in C onquest p erio d Yuca and th e C odex M e n d o za , w e know a consider
tán and he was p ro b ab ly know n as K a u il in a b le a m o un t re g ard in g A ztec m a rria g e cere
Classic tim es. T h is sam e d e ity m ay h ave been m onies. T h e F lo re n tin e C odex provides p a rt
called T o h i! am ong the Q u ich e. o f th e speech d ire cted to the fu tu re b rid e :
In g en e ral, th e M a n ik in S cepter is a fu ll-
O m y d au g h ter, tbou a r t h ere. F o r th y sake
Hgure b u t d im in u tiv e re p res en tatio n o f this
th y m others, th y tá th e rs h a v e becom e o /d
god designed to be held in the hand o f a ru le r
m en, o /d w om en. N o w thou approaches? the
as a sym bol o f ru lersh ip its e lf. W h e n CHAC
o /d w om en, a /re a d y thou commences? the
carries the M a n ik in Scepter, it sym bolizes
/d e o í an o /d w om an. F o re v e r n o w /e av e
ucHTUHNc. T h e god is ch aracterized by an axe cABcbsAnesy, g irh sh n ess... B e m ost consider
or sm oking tube th a t pierces his fo reh e ad , an
a te o f one; re g a rd one w ith respect; speak
u p w a rd -tu rn in g snout, and, m ost d istinc
w e //, g re e t one w e //. B y m g h t /o o k to, take
tive ly , one leg th a t turns in to a SERPENT, like
care o f th e sw eeping; th e /a y in g o f th e t?re.
the C e n tra l M exican d e ity TEZCATUPOCA, to
A ris e in the d eep o f n ight. D o n o t re /e c t us,
w hom some scholars have lin k ed h im . H is
do n o t em barrass us as o /d m en, do n o t re /e c t
first clear appearance is on E a rly Classic
th y m others as o /d w om en. (Fe: V I)
m onum ents, b u t the M a n ik in Scepter rem ains
an im p o rtan t a ttrib u te o f ru lersh ip rig h t A m ong th e A ztecs, the b rid e was c a rrie d at
through the Postclassic a t C hichen Itz á and dusk to the house o f th e groom . Seated on a
is probably the object held by the p atria rc h M A T b efo re th e household h e a rth , the couple
depicted in the 1557 X iu fam ily tree . T h e w e re presented w ith gifts. T h e union o f
form m ay w e ll be based on an axe or C E L T . m arriag e was ritu a lly expressed b y the old
m atchm akers tyin g tog eth er the couple's
m arriage T h e in stitu tio n o f m arriage was not clothing in a knot.
lim ite d in M esoam erica to the hum an plane In h ighland M ex ico , m a rria g e was com
b u t was present am ong the CODS as w e ll. m only rep resen ted by th e couple seated upon
In C en tra! M exico , gods w e re fre q u e n tly a m at or ly in g tog eth er u n d er a single b la n ke t.
described as having both fem ale and m ale A m ong M eso am erican n o b ility , m arriag e
aspects, as if they w ere m arried couples. cem ented alliances and le g itim ize d blood
Exam ples include O m etecu h tli and O m ecihu- lines. O n e o f the m ost d e ta ile d scenes o f an
a tl (see O M E T E O T L ), M IC T L A N T E C U H T L I and M ic - e lite n a tiv e m arriag e cerem ony appears in
tecacihuatl, and TONACATECUHTH and Tonaca- the C odex Selden o f th e Postclassic M ixtees.
cih u atl. M a rria g e also describes p a rtic u la r H e re L a d y 6 M o n k e y o f Jaltepec m arries a
relationships betw een deities. Thus fo r exam lo rd nam ed 11 W in d . DANCING and cerem onial
p le, C H A L c m u H T L i c u E - the goddess o f standing b ath in g by the couple form p a rt o f the m a r
WATER and rivers - is the w ife o f th e RAIN and riage rites. A m ong th e Classic M a y a e lite
L IG H T N IN G god T L A L O C . O r there is the goddess m arriag e o ften served to re in fo rc e alliances
o f M A G U E Y , M A Y A H U E L , w ho ÍS the SpOUSe o f b etw een cities and re v ita lize dynasties. T h e
Patecatl, a P U L Q U E C O D . In the M a y a area, the w ife o f th e C opán king Sm oke Shell cam e
M O O N goddess is fre q u e n tly described as the fro m th e d istan t site o f P alenque. K in g F lin t-
w ife o f the SUN. Pages 57 to 60 o f the C e n tra l Sky-G od K o f Dos P ilas m a rrie d a w om an
M exican Codex Borgia contain a rem arkab le from the site o f Itz á n , and la te r sent a
series o f 31 god couples, perhaps composed d au g h ter to be m a rrie d to a N a ra n jo lord. O ne
fo r m arriage prognostications. I t is possible o f the greatest kings o f N ara n jo , Sm oking-
th a t the p airin g o f the you th fu l Goddess I S q u irrel, w as born o f this union.
(see S C H E LLH A S GODs) w ith p artic u la r gods in
th e M a y a D resden Codex m ay s im ila rly have m at H e o f the M a t was an eponym o f ru le r
served to d ete rm in e m arriag e partners. ship am ong m ost people o f an cien t M exico.
In ancien t M esoam erica, m arriages w ere N o t every m a t, h o w ever, was a key to a ru ling
I ll MAYAHUEL
lord or high PRIEST h im self, fo r even assistants
slept on finely w oven m ats, according to
Burgoa's description o f the palaces a t M itla ,
where m ats w oven o f reed and rush w e re
im portant furnishings o f a ll noble and p rie stly
dwellings.
M ats, nevertheless, w e re th e settings fo r
many im p o rtan t ritu a l events. Kings sat on
them on the ground or d raped them over
stone THRONES. In the C odex M en d o za, M o te -
cuhzoma h im self is shown in his palace on a
m at, or /cpa/A. A m ong th e A ztecs, th e p re
cious skins th a t draped thrones w e re also
referred to as special types o f m at. M ats w ere
im portant places for D iv iN A T iO N and the casting
of lots. W eddings w e re som etim es conse
crated on mats (see MARRIAGE).
T h e M a y a called th e ir ru lin g lo rd the ah
pop, or H e o f the M a t, and the term was
synonymous w ith aAau, or lo rd , itse lf. In
Yucatán the p o p o / na, or m at house, was the
young m en's com m unity house fo r DANCE and
perform ance, as w e ll as a place fo r the
com m unity council to m eet. M a n y Puuc M a y a
buildings have w oven m a t-lik e m otifs on th e ir
exteriors, as do the palaces a t M itla , perhaps
because they once served as com m unity coun
cil houses. T h e p o p o L v u H , th e surviving
Q uiche epic, is usually translated as the Book
o f C ouncil, b u t the root o f p o p o / is m at,
lin k in g a com m unity council and the m ats on
w hich they w ould sit.
T w o Classic M a y a stelae bear texts in te r
w oven in the m at design, perhaps a d irect
referen ce to ah pop, or ru le r. Detail of Aztec marriage scene, the garments of
bride and groom symbolically tied, Codex
Mendoza, 16th c.
M a y a h u e l T h e C e n tra l M exican goddess o f
MAGUEY, M a y a h u e l is usually depicted as a
b e a u tifu l young w om an w ith a flow ering
m aguey p lan t. H e r earliest know n represen
tatio n occurs in the To ltec-style E a rly Post
classic rock p ain tin g a t Ixtapantongo, in the
State o f M exico. Dressed in a guecA guem /f/
(a draped blouse - see COSTUME), the goddess
appears w ith in a m aguey p la n t holding tw o
cups probably containing PULQUE. T h e L a te
Postclassic M a y a h u e l fre q u e n tly displays
attrib u te s o f the W A TE R goddess, C H A L C H iU H -
TLicuE, and, like that goddess, personifies fec
un d ity and fe rtility . In one account, she is
described as "th e w om an o f fo u r hundred
, breasts," q u ite probably a referen ce to the
rich, m ilky agu am fe/ sap o f th e m aguey p la n t
from w hich the alcoholic pu lq u e is m ade.
T h e /ZYsfoyre cfu m ecA /gue provides an
account o f the origin o f M a y a h u e l and
M ERCHANTS !11
icanos p o r sus p in tu ras , this becam e th e road o f th a t is, b efo re the app earan ce o f O lm ec
TEZCATUPOCA and QUETZALCOATL a fte r th e ir c iv iliza tio n . O lm ec m irro rs o f the E a rly and
creation o f the e a rth . In the M a y a region, the M id d le F o rm a tiv e perio d w e re usually
M ilk y W a y is conceptualized as the road to fashioned o f pieces o f iro n o re, such as
X ib a lb a , the UMDEnwoHLD, and the e n tire n ig h t m a g n e tite , ilm e n ite and h e m a tite (.see c iN N A
SKY m ay re p lic ate the U n d e rw o rld and the BAR A N D H E M A T IT E ) . Since these m irro rs w e re
m ovem ents o f its denizens. In Yucatec, it is created from single pieces o f stone, they
term ed zac be/?, or " w h ite ro a d ." A n o th er a re fa irly sm all, ra re ly m ore than 15 cm or
Yucatec M ay an w ord for it was lam caz, a 6 inches in to ta l w id th . M o s t O lm ec m irrors
curious term th a t also signiEes seizures. a re concave, g ivin g them m any unique
p ro p erties. The reE ected im age appears
m ilpa T h e m odern M esoam erican term for in v e rte d as w e ll as reversed, and the la rg e r
MAtZE held, m ilpa derives from the N ah u at! m/V- concave m irrors a re capable o f sta rtin g F IR E .
pan, "in the cultivated E eld ." As the source o f In O lm ec a rt, concave m irro rs com m only
m aize, beans, squash, and o th er plants o f v ita l app ear as pectorals w o rn on the chest.
necessity, the m ilpa Eeld is o f cen tral concern. In Classic M eso am erica, th e favo red
I t is thus not surprising th a t m any n ative m a te ria l fo r stone m irro rs was iro n p y rite . In
peoples are profoundly linked to th e ir Eelds. this case, artisans la id cut iro n p y rite upon a
T h e term s fo r tw o related M a y a peoples, the slate backing, c reatin g a reE ective surface o f
C hoi and C h o rti, d erive from th e ir n ative Enely E tted m osaic. T h e slate backing is
words fo r m ilp a, cAo/and cAor. T h e y are tru ly usually c ircu lar and is o fte n b e a u tifu lly
the "peo p le o f the m ilp a ." In m any instances, carved. Since th e p y rite m irro rs w e re
the m ilp a represents order and balance, as fashioned o f m osaic ra th e r than o f a single
opposed to the threaten in g chaos o f the sur stone, they could be o f g re a t size, and certain
rounding w ild bush. In M a y a m ythology, the p icto rial Classic scenes suggest th a t there w ere
cosmic act o f creation is com pared w ith m aking m irrors m easuring 30 cm (12 inches) or m ore
m ilpa: in the Q uiche PO PO L v u H , the m easuring in d iam eter. H o w ev er, u n like the ores used
and the m aking o f the w o rld is cast in term s o f fo r the concave O lm ec m irrors, iro n p y rite is
preparin g the m ilp a fo r the present race o f not a stable m in eral and quickly oxidizes.
hum ans, the people o f corn. L ik e the m ilpa F o r this reason, th e surfaces o f ancient p yrite
farm e r, the GODS are supported and nourished m irrors ten d to be poorly p reserved, and now
by th e ir crop - the people w ho in h a b it the sur o ften app ear no m ore than a reddish or y ello w
face o f the E A R T H . T h e conceptualization o f the coloration upon th e slate backing. D u rin g the
e arth as a rectan g u lar m ilp a is also found Classic p eriod, nobles w o re c ircu lar p y rite
am ong other M a y a groups, such as the C h o rti m irrors on the sm all o f the back, and m irrors
and Yucatec. In highland M exico, contem por have been found so placed in E a rly Classic
ary N ahuat-speakers in the S ierra de P uebla burials fro m T E O T iH U A C A N and K am in alju yu .
also describe the w o rld as a m ilp a. M o reo v er, Back m irrors continued to be w orn in
the S ierra N a h u a t also com pare hum ans to Postclassic C e n tra l M exico ; am ong the Aztecs
plants th a t are born or "p la n te d " upon the they w e re re fe rre d to as fezcacu/t/api/A . O ne
earth . form o f back m irro r, a c en tral p y rite disk
115 MIXCOATL
surrounded by a TURQUOISE mosaic containing
representations o f xiUHCOATL serpents, was
especially com m on a t E a rly Postclassic T u la .
This T o ltec form had an unusually broad
distribution during the E a rly Postclassic, and
examples have been found a t C hichen Itz á ,
Yucatan, and as fa r n o rth as d istan t Casas
Grandes in C hih u ah u a.
The black volcanic glass know n as OBSIDIAN
was a favored m irro r stone in L a te Postclassic
C entral M exico. A lthough it is lik e ly th a t
smooth surfaces o f frac tu re d obsidian w ere
used in Classic and F o rm a tiv e M esoam erica,
ground and polished obsidian m irrors are not
common u n til the L a te Postclassic. T h e g re at
C e n tra l M exican god TEZCATLiPOCA, H e o f the
Sm oking M irro r, appears to have been a
personification o f the polished obsidian
m irro r. Q u ite freq u e n tly , a sm oking obsidian
m irro r appears a t the back o f the head and
as one o f the fe e t o f T ezcatlipo ca.
Carved slate backing of pyrite mosaic mirror,
In ancien t M esoam erica, m irrors o ften re p
Teotihuacan, Early Classic period. This image
resented objects and concepts occurring in appears to represent a fire goddess holding broad
n atu re and society. By representing a w o rld torches.
th a t could be looked in to b u t not passed
through, m irrors could be considered as CAVES
or passageways for the supernatural. Because
o f th e ir b rig h t, re flective surfaces, they w ere
also com pared to fiery hearths or shining
pools o f WATER. Q u ite fre q u e n tly , they are
id e n tifie d w ith the suN , and this is probably
also the case w ith the turquoise-rim m ed
p y rite m irrors o f the E a rly Postclassic T o ltec.
A t T eo tih u acan , circu lar m irrors w e re sym
b o lically linked to eyes, faces, shields, and
FLOWERS. C onsiderable n ative m irro r lo re sur
vives am ong the m odern H u ich o l o f N a y a rit.
H e re circu lar glass m irrors are considered to
be supernatural passageways, as w e ll as being
conceptually related to the sun, M OO N, faces
eyes, and Rowers.
pochth is id en tiB ed w ith the s u \, h o w ever, e n tire ly d istinct calen d rlca! nam es, and m ore
M ixc o atl is c!ear!y associated w ith the STARS. o ve r, c e rta in M ix te e d eities a p p ear but rare!y
M ix c o a tl s most d is tin c tive physical charac o r n ev er in C e n tra ! M exican iconography
teristic is the red and w h ite "ca n d y -c a n e " Exam ples a re th e fanged stone beings often
striped body p a in t he w ears. H e shares this re fe rre d to by th e in a p p ro p ria te C e n tra ! M e x i-
ch aracteristic w ith TLAHUtzcALPANTECUHTLi, can term o f " x o L O T L ." I t is now know n that
an o th er star god, and they both w e a r black these beings w e re re fe rre d to as nuAu by the
masks over the eyes, som etim es trim m e d w ith M ixte es , and w e re gods o f the EARTH and
stars. M ix c o a tl, u n lik e T la h u izc a lp a n te c u h tli, v eg etatio n . In C e n tra l M exican m anuscripts,
m ay carry h u n tin g g ear, p a rtic u la rly a bow th e y a p p ear o n ly in th e B orgia and Vaticanus
and a rro w and a n etted basket fo r c arryin g B codices. S till an o th er im p o rta n t M ix te e
siaughtered gam e. d e ity is a Hying fig u re fre q u e n tly w e arin g a
M ix c o a tl plays a n um ber o f im p o rta n t roles Bre serp ent headdress and a TURTLE carapace
in scattered references, m a in ly iocated in the upon his back. H e com m only holds FLINT
H is to ria d e /os m exicanos p o r sus prn turas. blades in his hands, and it is possible th a t he
O n e o f the fou r child ren o f TO NACATECUHTLi is a LIGHTNING god. T o the M ixte es , this figure
and T o n acacih u atl, he was a!so id e n tifie d as was know n as Y A H u i, and appears am ong
the Red Tezcatlipo ca. In a n o th er ch a p te r o f the n eig hb o ring Zapotees as ear!y as the
the account, TEXCATLiPOCA transform ed h im self Protoclassic p erio d , o r M o n te A lb án n. F o r
in to M ixco at! in o rd er to o ffer a c eleb ratio n the M ixtees, this b eing m ay be id én tica! to
to the o th er gods; w ith his in ven tio n o f the one o f the sons o f the m ythica! c rea to r coup!e
(ire d ri!!, this T ezcad ip o ca-M ixco at! brought 1 D e e r recorded by th e D o m in ican G reg o rio
HUE to m ankind. T h e first to use FLINT to strike C a rc iá . In the Selden RoH, th e y a /m i figure
fire, M ixcoat! took on fire associations along is nam ed I Jaguar.
w ith those o f w a r and the hunt. H e was a!so T h e m ost im p o rta n t p ic to ria! source fo r
the fa th e r o f the 400 sons (th e C entzon M ix te e gods is the obverse side o f the screen
H u itzn a h u a ) and five w om en created to feed e d know n as the Vindobonensis o r V ien n a
the sun. A fte r the sun had consum ed the Codex. T y p ic a lly , the M ix te e gods b ea r nam es
HEARTS o f the 400, one o f the surviving w om en from the 260 -d a y C A L E N D A R , presum ab!y re fe r
gave BIRTH to M ixcoat!'s most fam ous progeny, rin g to dates o f b irth . T h e crea to r couple w ho
QUETZALCOATL. are both nam ed 1 D e e r in the crea tio n account
T h e 14th VEINTENA, Q uechoüi, was d ed i m entioned by C a rc iá ap p e ar on page 51
cated to M ixco at!. T h e feast was ce!ebrated o f the Codex Vindobonensis w ith skeletal
by one or tw o days o f hunting and feasting m ouths and w e a rin g the headdress o f the
in the countryside during w hich the hunters cu ltu re hero 9 W in d . T h is sam e c a le n d rica lly
adorned them selves lik e M ixco atl him self nam ed couple is also illu s tra te d in the Selden
and kindled new fire to roast the gam e. R oll, w h e re they a re show n sim ply as an old
Subsequently, a m an and a w om an w ere m an and w om an. O n e o f the m ost im p o rta n t
sacrificed to M ixc o atl in his T E M P L E . T h e goddesses o f th e M ix te e pantheon was L ad y
fem ale victim was slain like a w ild anim al: 9 Crass. U su ally d epicted w ith a s keletalized
h er head was struck fou r tim es against a rock face, she seems to have been a goddess o f
u n til she was half-conscious; then h e r th ro at DEATH and th e fe rtile e arth . In th e Selden
was s lit and the head decapitated. T h e m ale RoH, L a d y 6 M o n k e y o f Jaltepec m akes p ilg ri
victim displayed the head to the assem bled mages to th e oracle o f 9 Crass a t C halcatongo.
crowds before he him self was sacrificed by In the Codex Vindobonensis, an old m an
h e a rt extrusion. nam ed 2 D og is p o rtray ed as a PRIEST, and
o ften appears w ith the TOBACCO gourd o f the
M ix te e gods D u rin g the pioneering in vesti p rie stly ofBce. A n o th er aged being, L ad y 1
gations o f the 19th and e arly 20th c., the gods E ag le, is goddess o f the sw E A TB A T H , and by
o f the Postclassic M ix te e screenfolds w ere extension, m ay also have been a goddess o f
thought to be essentially id en tical to those m idw ives and CURING.
appearing in A ztec and Borgia groups o f A m ong th e M ixtees, personifications o f p a r
codices. H o w ev er, it has becom e increasingly tic u la r plants or th e ir products are often
a p p a ren t th a t the M ix te e pantheon was dis po rtrayed as goddesses. Thus in the Codex
tin c t from th a t o f L a te Postclassic C e n tra l Vindobonensis, the goddess o f MACUEY is Lady
M exico. Thus the M ix te e gods tend to have 11 Serpent, w h ile PULQUE is personified by tw o
117 MONKEY
goddesses n a m e d 2 F lo w e r a n d 3 A llig a to r.
Young te n d e r MAIZE seem s to b e e m b o d ie d b y
two goddesses n a m e d 5 F lin t a n d 7 F lin t.
M a tu r e m aize, h o w e v e r, seem s to b e id e n ti
fied w ith a goddess n a m e d 7 C rass. In th e
Codex V in d o b o n e n sis, th e h a llu c in o g e n ic
psilocybin m ush ro o m is p o rtra y e d by tw o
s e rp en t-m o u th ed goddesses n a m e d 4 L iz a rd
and 11 L iz a rd . Creator coupie 1 Deer 9 Wind
A lth o u g h th e re lig io n o f th e Postclassic
M ixtees w as b y no m ean s id e n tic a l to th a t o f
C e n tra l M e x ic o , a n u m b e r o f M ix te e gods
have c le a r analo gues w it h C e n tr a l M e x ic a n
deities. T h u s th e M ix te e c u ltu re h e ro 9 W in d
is v e ry s im ila r to th e C e n tr a l M e x ic a n WIND
god, EHECATL-QUETZALCOATL. T h e solar god 1
D e a th is th e M ix te e fo rm o f TONATiuH, th e
C e n tra l M e x ic a n SUN god. L ik e T o n a tiu h , 1
D e a th is u s u ally re d a n d w e a rs a JADE b r o w
2 Dog 1 Death
piece an d a n EAGLE fe a th e r h eadd ress. T h e
M ix te e god 7 F lo w e r a p p ea rs to b e re la te d
to th e y o u th fu l solar d e ity k n o w n in C e n tra l
M e x ic o as xocHiPiLLi. T h e M ix te e fo rm o f xiPE
TOTEC is n a m e d 7 R a in , a n d lik e his C e n tra l
M e x ic a n c o u n te rp a rt, c o m m o n ly w e a rs a
H ayed h u m a n skin a n d re d an d w h ite v e s t
m ents. F in a lly , th e Postclassic M ix te e s h a d a
fo rm o f th e RAIN a n d lig h tn in g god TLALOC. O n
pa g e 5 o f th e C o d ex N u t ta ll, h e a p p ea rs w ith
7 Rain 11 Serpent 9 Grass
th e fa n g e d m o u th , goggle eyes, a n d u p w a r d ly
tu rn in g lip o f th e Postclassic T la lo c . In his Mixtee gods appearing in the Codex
hands, h e w ie ld s a b u rn in g lig h tn in g b o lt an d Vindobonensis, Late Postclassic period.
ju g o f o u tp o u rin g WATER, c le a rly a p o rtra y a l
o f ra in . O n pa g e 28 o f th e C o d e x V in d o
bonensis, a s im ila r T la lo c is n a m e d 5 W in d .
.See a / y o CREATION ACCOUNTS; HALLUCINOGENS;
M AIZE CODS.
Sahagún describes w h a t is p ro b a b ly a
spider m onkey: " A n d as to its actions: it is a m oon T h e second b rig h test h eaven ly body,
shouter, a s h rill w h is tle r, m akin g gestures th e m oon w as u n ifo rm ly associated w ith the
to w ard one. I t stones one, it hurls sticks a t ra b b it in M eso am erican tho u g h t. O n the
one. I t has a face w hich is a little hum an. surface o f a fu ll m oon, th e ra b b it is v isib le in
(F C : xi) p ro file , and various m yths account fo r its
T h e m onkey is re la te d to Q UETZALCO ATL in presence. S ilv e r was considered to be an
his guise as EHECATL. A ccording to th e F IV E SUNS excretion o f th e m oon (see EXCREMENT).
cosmogonic accounts, Q u e tza lc o a tl presided A ccording to C e n tra l M ex ica n theology,
over the second sun, eAecafonatm A, the sun th e SUN and th e m oon w e re crea te d together
o f w i N D , u n til it w as destroyed by g re a t w inds. a t TEOTiHUACAN, in th e d aw n in g o f the c u rren t
T h e people o f th a t e ra w e re tu rn e d in to e ra. N a n a h u a tzin and T e c u cizte ca tl p rep ared
m onkeys. W h e n the M a y a gods destroyed to im m o late them selves b efo re the assem bled
the people form ed o f w ood in the POPOL vuH, gods. W h e n T ec u cizte ca tl h es itated , N a n a h u
they too tu rn ed them in to m onkeys. a tzin w e n t firs t, becom ing th e sun, and then
Because they had m ore m onkeys close by T e c u cizte ca tl fo llo w e d , m aking an o th er sun,
in the tropica! rain forest, the M a y a tended b u t the gods d arken ed his face, h u rlin g ashes
to m ake m ore distinctions b etw e en the spider or a ra b b it a t h im to d im his rad ian ce.
m onkey (cAuen) and the h o w le r m onkey T h e 400 rab b its (C e n izo n fofocA&n) o f
(A atz). In Classic a rt, the spider m onkey C e n tra l M e x ic a n lo re w e re d ru n kard s, associ
fre q u e n tly personifies licentiousness and sex ate d w ith MAYAHUEL, goddess of PULQUE.
ual abandon; M a y a clowns a t highland fe s ti W ith in the TEMPLE p re cin c t o f T e n o c h titla n ,
vals today often im personate m onkeys w hen the 44th tem p le , th e C en izo n fofocA #n in
they act out im m oral and in a p p ro p riate fecpan, w as d ed icated to these rab bits.
behavior. T h e presence o f g reat num bers o f R ab b it, or T o c h tli, w as the 8 th day sign in
m onkey figures in the a rt o f Classic V eracru z the C e n tra l M e x ica n CALENDAR and one o f the
m ay re flec t a sim ilar association o f the m on fo u r YEARBEARERS. In th e TRECENA 1 M a z a tl, the
key and sexual license. day sign 2 R a b b it was p a rtic u la rly u n fo rtu
In the P opo/ VuA, H u n B atz (1 H o w le r n ate: those born on this d ay and fo r several
M o n k ey ) and H u n C huen (1 Spider M o n k ey ) th e re a fte r w e re given to drunkenness.
w e re the tw in h a lf brothers o f the H e ro COYOLXAUHQUI, HUITZILOPOCHTLl's sister, was
T w in s. G ifte d in a ll the arts, p a rtic u la rly song, id e n tifie d by E d u ard Seler as a m oon goddess,
D A N C E , W R IT IN G , and carving, H u n B atz and h er ow n lig h t shattered and d im inish ed by
H u n C huen w e re not beyond jealousy o f th e ir H u itzilo p o c h tli, although th e re is no textu al
younger brothers, and trie d hard to subdue confirm ation o f the id e n tific a tio n . In tw o
them , leaving them w hen young to perish separate im ages a t th e sacred p re cin c t o f
on an a n th ill and in bram bles and la te r T e n o c h titla n , C oyolxauhqui's d ism em bered
dem anding th a t the younger brothers do th e ir tw o-dim ensional im age was carved on a
h u nting fo r them . As usual, th e H e ro T w in s round stone a t th e base o f H u itzilo p o c h tli's
had the last laugh: they convinced th e ir tw in p yram id , and h e r la rg e, lifeless, th re e -d im e n
h a lf brothers to scale a tree to b ring dow n sional head p ro b ab ly rested on the tem p le
birds stunned by a blow gun. W h en H u n B atz steps, both possibly references to th e m oon.
and H u n C huen reached the birds, they found Am ong the Classic M a y a , a young, b e a u ti
th a t the tree had grow n, liftin g them so high fu l w om an was th e m oon goddess, and she
th a t they could no longer descend. T h e H e ro fre q u e n tly sits on th e crescent o f th e M a y a
T w in s advised them to u n tie th e ir loincloths to glyph fo r m oon, b earin g a ra b b it in h er arm s.
tra il behind them w hereupon these suddenly Am ong the M a y a , although the m oon was
becam e tails - H u n B atz and H u n C huen had also id e n tifie d w ith the ra b b it, the fu ll moon
tu rn ed in to monkeys. in p a rtic u la r - as opposed to any o th er phase -
These m onkey tw ins occur w id e ly in Classic m ay have been associated w ith the moon
M a y a a rt as the patron gods o f a rt, w ritin g , goddess. T h e nam e o f this goddess is not
and calculating. Som etim es rendered as know n, b u t she is not ixcHEL, as is often
actual m onkeys, a t o th er tim es as hum ans alleged; Ixch el is an old goddess.
w ith certain m onkey a ttrib u tes, the M o n k ey M a n y m odern M a y a b elieve th a t the
119
M OUNTAINS
fem ale moon was dim m ed a fte r a squabble
w ith her husband the sun, and th a t she m ay
have lost an eye in the q u a rre l. In a m odem
Zapotee story, a p a ir o f orphan ch ild ren w ho
later become the sun and m oon escape from
a sweathouse before th e ir apotheosis. See
a /s o CREATION ACCOUNTS.
d ra m a tic locations, fre q u e n tly w ith CAVES. and v isit them in cuwNC ritu als. A t each m oun
A m ong the M a y a , M ixte es , and A ztecs, com ta in cross, fresh p in e boughs and fin w o w are
m u n ities w e re nam ed a fte r th e ir m ountains; o ffe red , candles lit, prayers said, and c u rer and
in d e ed the v ery N a h u a tl w o rd fo r com m u nity, p a tie n t d rin k rounds o f hom em ade sugar cane
a/fepefV, m eans w a te r-m o u n ta in . C e n tra l ru m . Ancestors liv e in the sacred m ountains
M ex ica n p lace-nam es o ften in clu d e th e th a t rin g Z in a c a n ta n , and each is classiEed as
m o untain g lyp h , re flec tin g th e g re a t n u m b er m ale or fe m a le . Each m o untain has speciEc
o f places nam ed in this w ay. associations; one can b rin g RAIN, fo r exam ple,
F ro m e a rly tim es, m ountains fre q u e n tly and a n o th er h ea t. In th e 20th c., the K ekchi
d e te rm in e d the siting o f com m unities. T h e practiced continence and fasted b efo re m aking
O lm ec s e ttlem e n t a t C h alcatzin g o lies in the PILGRIMAGES to CAVES on m o u n tain tops.
shadow o f a d ra m atic igneous plug o f a M esoam erican peoples fre q u e n tly b u ilt th e ir
m o u n tain , and M o n te A lb an is a m ountain TEM PLES in the form o f sym bolic m ountains.
its e lf, flatten e d and shaped by generations o f M a y a tem ples in the Chenes region are entered
people to accom m odate hum an settlem e n t. through g reat m onster m ouths th a t lead sym
T h e unusual flu te d shape o f the Erst O lm ec b o lically to the h e a rt o f th e EARTH, o r the in te rio r
PYRAMID, a t L a V e n ta , suggests an a tte m p t a t o f the m ountain. C opán T e m p le 22 is such a
m aking an a rtific ia l "vo lcan o " along the non- sym bolic m ountain w ith a m onster m outh fo r
volcanic G u lf C oast, although some scholars m ing a cave en tra n ce ; the M A izE C O D s Eourishing
b eliev e that tim e and w e a th e r have sim ply from its cornices suggest th a t it m ay have sym
eroded w h at was a four-sided p yram id . T E O T i- bolized the m ountain w h e re m aize originated.
HUACAN s north-south axis leads d ire c tly north E p ig rap h ic research by D a v id S tu art and
to C e rro G ordo; tra d itio n a lly know n also as Stephen Houston re ve ale d th a t the C lassic and
T en a m , M o th e r o f Stone, this dead volcano Postclassic M a y a re fe rre d to pyram ids as
gurgles from w a te r trapped inside, the very m ountains, or u/tz. T h e so-called C auac M o n
im age o f the a /fe p e f/. T h e M a y a c ity o f ster, nam ed a fte r the stony cauac m arkings
A guateca is positioned beside a deep fissure, app earin g on this beast, is a c tu a lly a M a y a re n
and this c le ft m ountain is the actual sym bol d erin g o f a zoom orphic m o u n tain . In the sacred
o f th a t city's toponym in M a y a hieroglyphic p recin ct o f the A ztecs, the tw in p y ra m id d e d i
W R IT IN C . cated to T la lo c and H u itzilo p o c h tli sym bol
T h e tw in p yram id dedicated to TLALOC ic ally recreated COATEPEC, H ill o f the S erpent,
and H u rrziL O P O C ü T L ! in the sacred p recin ct o f w h ere H u itzilo p o c h tli's m iraculous BIRTH took
T en o c h titla n was positioned against the tw o place. T o d rill N e w F ire , th e A ztecs re tre a te d
sm oldering volcanoes to the east - Popoca to C itla lte p e c , H ill o f th e Star. C H ic o M O Z T O C , the
tep e tl (Sm oking M o u n ta in ) and Ixtaccih u atl Seven C aves, th e place o f o rig in fo r m ost C e n
(W h ite W om an) - w hom the Aztecs id e n tifie d tra l M exicans, is usually d ep icted w ith in a
as a m arried couple, d eified and revered . m ountain, and C u lh u acan , C u rv e d M o u n ta in ,
L iv e rock shrines w e re carved a t M a lin a lc o was a tra d itio n a l p lace o f ancestors.
and Texcotzingo, and, in e a rlie r tim es, at In the 13th V E IN T E N A , T e p e ilh u itl, th e Aztecs
D ain zu . Shrines w e re fre q u e n tly erected a t celeb rated w h a t w as know n as the M o u n ta in
the peaks o f m ountains. Feast. D ed ic ate d to P opocatepetl and Izta c c i-
T o the east o f T en o c h titla n , the T lalo q u e h u atl by the A ztecs, the cele b ratio n was
w e re thought to re tre a t w ith th e ir th u n d er w id e ly c arried out by C e n tra l M exican
bolts to the T lalo c M ountains. QUETZALCOATL peoples in honor o f various m ountains. Dough
jo u rn eyed to T o n acatep etl (Sustenance im ages in the shape o f m ountains w e re
M o u n ta in ) to End the origin o f MAIZE; in fashioned o f ground A M A R A N T H seeds to honor
o rder to obtain m aize fo r hum ankind, he the dead, p a rtic u la rly those w ho had d ied a
transform ed h im self in to an a n t and stole DEATH associated w ith the T la lo q u e - by
some kernels. S im ilar accounts o f the origin Hood, d row ning, or L IG H T N IN G - rein fo rcin g the
o f m aize are know n am ong the M a y a , and connection b etw een T la lo c , m ountain, and
the Q uiche called the m ountain o f o rigin W A T E R . F iv e sacriHcial victim s, fo u r w om en
TAe good singer /is/ o í sound voice. Good, m entioned specific cases o f n a tiv e fo rm -
sound /is/ Ais voice; weZ/ rounded /are/ changers and explained th e ir pow ers by claim
Ais words. /He is/ of good sAarp memory, in g th e y had pacts w ith Satan. A ltho u g h the
keeping ¿Ae songs in mind; refen dve, nof concept o f naAuaZ recalls E uropean concepts
ibrgedu/. He sings, cries ouf, enunciates o f w itc h c ra ft, it is c le a rly o f n a tiv e o rigin and
cZear/y; /Ae sings/ wiiA wed-rounded voice, is closely tie d to n a tiv e concepts o f sham anic
in fud voice, in iaiseffo. /H e sings/ soif/y; Ae p o w er and tran sfo rm atio n . T E Z C A T L IP O C A , the
tempers Ais voice, accompanies /udicicusiy, sorcerer p a r exceZ/ence o f L a te Postclassic
gives fAe pifcA, iowers /¿Ae voice/, raises C e n tra l M exico , was b eliev ed to be able to
if. He reduces if to medium; Ae uses if transform h im s elf in to a ja g u a r. T h e concept
moJenafeZy. He practices; Ae improves Ais o f ja g u a r form -changers also appears am ong
voice. He composes, sets to music, originates the F o rm a tiv e O lm ecs in the form o f "tra n s
/songs/. He sings songs, sings others' songs, form atio n fig u res," stone sculptures th a t dis
provides music for others, instructs others. p lay a kneelin g m an being tu rn e d in to a
The had singer /is/ hoarse, AusAy, coarse ja g u ar. A long w ith th e a n im al alter-egos, the
voiced; crude, dud, Aeari/ess, uninfe/Agenf. naAuaZ could be transform ed in to a n atu ral
He revo/ts me; Ae is fraudulent, vaing/orious, force, such as LIGHTNING. A lthough naAuaZ
arrogant. /H e is/ haughty, fboAsh, oAstrnafe, sorcerers w e re fre q u e n tly fea red fo r th e ir
123 NAMES AND TITLES
ability to com m it m alig n an t acts, they could
also serve as protectors o f the com m unity.
D uring the C o lo n ial e ra , m any n ativistic
movem ents w ere led by n a h u a / sorcerers.
T h e nahuaV is g en e rally id e n tic al to the
M aya concept o f the UAY. R ecent epigraphic
advances reveal the presence o f u ay a lte r-
egos am ong the Classic M a y a e lite . H o w e v e r,
it is uncertain w h e th e r these Classic texts
refer to actual form -changers or to s p irit
com panions. .See a/so SHAMANISM ; TONAL.
ch aracteristic o f a p a rtic u la r lin eag e: B ird o r the d au b in g ). W h ile an a rtis t m ight sign
Jaguar the G re a t (reig n ed AD 7 5 2 -c . 7 7 0 ), as as m aker, th e o w n e r too m ight proclaim
he has been dubbed by m odem investigators possession, e g. "m y cacao p o t" or "m y e ar-
(his nam e glyphs are p ro b ab ly to be read spool" o r "m y te m p le ."
Yaxom B alam ) was the fou rth king o f Yax
chilan to b ear th a t nam e, and both his fa th e r N e w F ire cerem ony .see CALENDAR; EIRE
and his son had the nam e Shield Jaguar (again,
a m odem nicknam e: the glyphs m ay have n ig h t In tra d itio n a l M eso am erican thought,
been read Itz B alam ), though his son was also th e n ig h t was w id e ly reg ard ed w ith a certain
know n as C hac C h el. A com pletely distinctive am o un t o f d re ad and fe a r. A t n ig h t, form -
set o f nam es characterized the Palenque ru lin g changers and .dem ons from the perim eters of
fam ily, and the same can be said o f most th e social w o rld could w re ak havoc upon
M a y a cities and th e ir ru lin g fam ilies. T h e hum ans. D u rin g th e tim e o f darkness, spooks
evidence from P alenque shows too th a t and dem ons o f th e UNDERWORLD rose to the
w om en in d iffe re n t generations m ight have surface o f th e EARTH and the heavens. I t was
the same nam e. M a y a nam es freq u e n tly incor com m only b e liev ed th a t the sou! traveled
porated the significant anim als o f th e ir n atu ral about w h ile one slep t, exposing the in d iv id u a l
w orld: the jACUAH, SNAKE, QUETZAL, BAT, ta p ir to g re a t danger. D ream s w e re o ften consid
and PECCARY for exam ple. O fte n , am ong the ered to be m em ories o f the soul's nocturnal
glyphic symbols used for w u rriN C th e ir ow n journeys and exploits. Thus in most M a y a n lan
guages, the term UAY o ften bears connotations
nam es, M a y a kings nam ed th e ir parents as
o f sleep, d re am , fo rm -ch an g er, or s p irit com
w e ll.
panion. T h e forces o f the night often d ia m e tri
M ay a hieroglyphic w ritin g also reveals that
cally oppose the o rd ered w o rld o f the SUN and
the M ay a n o b ility held a great m any titles,
d ay lig h t. Thus fo r exam ple, d u rin g the N e w
only some o f w hich can now be deciphered.
F ire v ig il (see FIRE), the A ztecs g re a tly fea red
Specific rankings w ere spelled out, such as
th a t the s te lla r dem ons o f darkness, the
lord (aJiau), sacred lord (ch'uJ aAau, applied
TZiTZiM iM E, w o u ld plunge the e n tire w o rld
only to a king), or sun lord (m aA A?na or
in to darkness and chaos, ^ee a/so CREATION
chiÁFna or Avn/ch). A secondary stratum o f
ACCOUNTS; DAWN.
rulers, probably regional governors, w ere
known by the title saha/, to w hich they could
num bers A ll M e s o a m e r ic a n p e o p le s used a
be eith e r born or appointed. Both a saA a/and
v ig e s im a l, o r base 2 0 , system fo r co u n tin g ,
a c h u /a h a u could append CAPTIVES' nam es to
r a th e r th a n th e d e c im a l, o r b ase 10, system
th e ir own (e g. "captor o f F lin t B a t") as w e ll
d e v e lo p e d fo r A ra b ic n u m e ra ls . T h e M ix te e s
as a count o f captives. K ing B ird Jaguar
a n d A ztec s, a m o n g o th ers, used dots to re c o rd
the G re a t o f Yaxchilán counted h im self the
n u m b e rs : 12 dots w o u ld m e a n 12 th ing s o r
"capto r o f 20 captives" most o f his life , b u t
th e co efB cient 12, w h ile th e M a y a used b a r-
on one o f his last m onum ents, his count w e n t
a n d -d o t n u m e ra tio n : th e b a r eq u als E ve, so
up to 21.
tw o ba rs a n d tw o dots w o u ld m e a n 12 things
Some captives m ay have been given new
o r th e co efB cien t 12. I n C e n tr a l M e x ic o , th e
nam es upon th e ir d efeat: a t Y axchilán, some
te rm c e a iz o n lit e r a lly m e a n t 400, p a rtic u la rly
cap tive nam es re fe r to the day nam e on w hich in counts o f tr ib u te , b u t i t c o u ld also be
they w e re taken: both " M o l" and "C h u e n ," used fig u ra tiv e ly to m e a n a la rg e q u a n tity
fo r exam ple, w e re captured on those p a rtic o f u n s p e c ifie d a m o u n t, as in th e C e n tz o n
u la r days. A fam ous captive lik e the Palenque # u itz n a h M a , th e 400 sons o f coATLicuE, p e r
king K an X u l was p u b licly nam ed and p o r sonifications o f th e m a n y STARS o f th e h e ave n s.
trayed a t T o n in a a fte r his d efeat. C ap tives' T h e Classic M a y a could configure any
nam es often appear on th e ir thighs, up p er n um ber not only in b a r-a n d -d o t n u m eratio n
arm s, or clothing - perhaps as signs o f b u t by a head or fu ll-fig u re v a ria n t. In this
h u m iliatio n or because they w ere indeed m ore e lab o rate fo rm at, th e num bers 1 to 12
tattooed or em blazoned fo r p ublic recognition. are a ll d istinct, b u t the num bers 14 to 19
Specific titles distinguish o th er noble m em re p e a t the heads o f 4 to 9, w ith the a dd itio n
bers o f society: scribes and artists signed not o f a skeletal ja w or a skeletal hand over the
only th e ir nam es to w orks o f a rt b u t also th e ir ja w . This skeletal ad d itio n m ust have had
titles (ah dzib: he o f the w ritin g ; id za f: a rtis t m uch th e sam e m eaning as the " te e n " th a t
or w ise m an; ah naah: he o f the w a te r lily English speakers add to the num bers 13 to 19.
125 OLMEC GODS
O M E N S or messengers b etw een hum ans and A ccording to M a y a h ieroglyphic texts, the
the d iv in e. Because o f th e ir n a tu ra l affin ities Paddlers are created or born w hen a M a y a
to n ig h t and caves, owls h eld special ties to king lets B L O O D . In scenes o f B L O O D L E T T IN G ,
129 PALENQUE TRIAD
they freq u e n tly occur in sw irls o f clouds
created w hen blood is le t on PAPER and then
set afire. T h e ir presence is m ost lik e ly to be
invoked on period ending dates.
W h en they paddle th e ir canoe, the P ad-
dlers are o ften ushering the M A IZ E C O D to his
next engagem ent. T h e canoe its e lf m ay have
a relationship w ith bowls used fo r SACRmcE
and offerings, ap p ro p riate fo r e ith e r MAIZE or
blood.
P ainal s e e H u r r z iL O P O C H T L i
Be) and son (b o m in 2360 B e) on th e T e m p le his head has no anth ro p o m o rp hic fo rm , his
o f the Cross, possibly because th e sam e nam e body, w ith th e exception o f th e serpent leg,
was h eld in tw o generations. is hu m an . H is foreh ead is usually punctured
W h ereas C Í has a m a tu re , anth ro p o b y an axe o r sm oking tube o r M!RHOR. In one
m orphic face, th e anth ro p o m o rp hic C hac is p a rtic u la rly unusual re p resen tatio n on the
young. G Is squared eye has a c u rl th a t piers of th e T e m p le of Inscriptions at
turns in w a rd from th e e x te rio r c o m er; his P alen q u e, an a d u lt carries a large b u t in fa n tile
"b a rb e ls " o r Bsh 6ns a re a t th e c o m er o f the G II as i f it w e re a hum an c h ild ; w ith the
m outh, and his only tooth m ay be a p ro m in e n t a d u lt p ro b ab ly in ten d e d to rep resen t C han
SHARK tooth. L ik e C hac, h e w ears la rg e spon- B ahlum h im s elf, such a stucco ren d erin g
dylus (spiny oyster) shells as e ar Hares. U n lik e shows the ru lin g fa m ily to he d iv in e in th e ir
C hac, he fre q u e n tly w ears the sam e q u a d ri ow n life tim e .
p a rtite headdress w orn by th e re a r head On M aya ceram ics, G II appears fre
o f the BiCEPHALic MONSTER: a stingray spine, q u e n tly , u su ally in passive ra th e r than active
spondylus shell, and crossed bands inside a situations, and ra re ly in n a rra tiv e . O n some
cache vessel, im agery th a t m ay be conHated codex-style pots, his serp ent leg is a visiON
w ith a heron w hen w orn by G I. H is im age, SERPENT. C IT s nam e glyph is a com m on com
usually w ith the q u a d rip a rtite headdress, is p o n en t o f ru le rs ' nam es. H e can sym bolize
one o f the most com m on on E a rly Classic LIGHTNING, and his re p res en tatio n overlaps
censers from the P etén, and he was a p rin cip al w ith th a t o f C hac, lin k in g RAIN and lig h tn in g .
re cip ien t o f M a y a oíTerings. M a y a kings a t G U I is p ro b ab ly the SUN god, KiNiCH AHAU
Copán and T ik a ! w e re rendered in the (lo rd sun), b u t G U I is th e m ost obscure
costum e o f G l. H e ra rely appears as an actor m em b er o f the P alen qu e T ria d . P ro b ab ly to
on M a y a polychrom e vessels. be idendH ed w ith the G od o f N u m b e r 4,
G II is one m ore nam e for the M a y a d eity G U I appears as the head th a t fram es the
also know n as God K in the Schellhas system e arth b an d on the base o f the T a b le t o f
(see S C H E L LH A S C O D S ) and the M A N IK IN SCEPTER. the Sun. T h e c en tral im age o f th a t p an el,
T his is a very an cien t being, and m ay be seen h o w ever, is the Jaguar C od o f the U n d e r
on A b aj T a k a lik Stela 5, a m onum ent dating w o rld (^ee JAGUAR cops), the SUN a t NIGHT and
to the early second century A D . C a lle d Bolon a p rin c ip al Classic M a y a im age o f w a rfa re .
D zacab a t the tim e o f the C onquest, G od K T h e relad o n ship o f G U I to the Jaguar G od
was probably know n as K au il du rin g the o f the UNDERWORLD is not clea r, b u t C I I I
Classic era, and as T o h il am ong the Post m ay encompass both d iu rn a l and no ctu rn al
classic Q uiché. H is nam es suggest bounty aspects o f the sun.
and abundance (Bolon D zacab means nine B orn only fo u r days a p a rt, G I and G U I
generations; K a u il, abundance; T o h il, very have som edm es been idendH ed w ith the
roughly, storm ), and the T e m p le o f the F o li H e ro T w in s o f the POPOL vuH. These pairings
ated Cross, w h ere his b irth is recorded, occur p a rd c u la rly on codex-style vessels o f the
depicts abundant MAIZE rising up fro m a 8th c., and suggest the a lte rn a d n g SACRIFICES
personiHed kern el. C han B ahlum , w ho has p erfo rm ed by th e H e ro T w in s . T h e re is every
a ttire d h im s elf as the M A IZ E C O D , stands on a reason, h o w ever, to disdnguish G I and G U I,
personiHed m ountain in the T e m p le o f the as w e ll as C hac and th e Jaguar B aby, fro m the
F o lia te d Cross, in whose eyes are glyphs th a t H e ro T w in s. P a ire d opposidons (Fee DUALITY),
read L%z naV, o r H ill o f M a ize , probably TWINS, and brothers, h o w ever, a re a ll com m on
analogous to the Sustenance M o u n ta in w h ere in M a y a and M ex ica n m ythology, and struc
Q U E T Z A L C O A T L sought the source o f m aize. G II tu ra l p arallels w ith th e H e ro T w in s m ay w e ll
h im self does not appear on the T a b le t o f the be expected.
F o liated Cross, although he is held in the hands
o f C han B ahlum on the T a b le t o f the Sun. p alm a T h e ta ll, p alm ate stone called the
In his various form s, as the M a n ik in Scepter paAna is one o f several standard elem ents o f
or an elongated staff, em erging fro m a C E RE BALLCAME e qu ipm en t th a t survive in stone
M O N IA L BAR, or as a h an d -h eld object, G II is fo rm , p ro b ab ly as trophies. PaAnaF w ere w orn
usually shown to be m uch sm aller than a t the fro n t o f the body and inserted in to the
hum ans. H is zoom orphic head has a long YOKE. M a n y take th e form s o f hum an arm s
snout, p robably SERPENT in o rig in , and one o f and hands, standing b allp layers, or fa n -ta ile d
his legs g en erally turns in to a snake. A lthough birds. I f a ctu ally w o rn a t the w aist, some
131 PARROTS AND MACAWS
examples w ould block the vision o f the p la ye r.
U n like other item s o f b allg am e equ ip m en t,
A
few pa/m as have been recovered aw ay from
- Q
the G u lf Coast, b u t they a re dep icted in the
sculpture a t C hichen Itz á and C o tzu m a l-
huapa.
chance in w hich gam e piece m arkers m ove and lecherous old m an, h ard ly a paragon o f
through a set course depending upon the ro le security and resp o n sibility. A long w ith his
o f the dice, m uch lik e a m odern board gam e. d istinctive n etted cloth headdress, he often
T h e 19th c. anthropologist E d w ard B. T y lo r appears w ith in a conch or tortoise shell. A t
noted th a t p a to lli is m arked ly sim ilar to the tim es, he w ears a spider's w e b ra th e r than
In d ia n parchesi, and suggested th a t p a to lli the conch or carapace. As w e ll as being a
o rig in ated in A sia. H o w ev er, although the skybearer, P auahtun seems to be a god o f
sim ilarities are indeed striking, th e re is no th u n d e r, M O U N T A IN S , and the in te rio r o f the
evidence th a t p a to lli is h istorically re late d to E A R T H , m uch lik e the m odern M a m god o f
parchesi. hig h lan d G u atem ala. In th e Postclassic codi
Q u ite com m only, the p a to lli gam e course ces, he appears as C o d N in th e Schellhas
resem bles a cross enclosed w ith in a square. system o f d e ity classification. See a/so L iC H T -
T h e y are not discrete units, h o w ever, b u t are N IN C A N D T H U N D E R ; S C H E L L H A S GO DS.
Rom e, and so th ey used to go to visit these been tran slated m any tim es and In to m any
places and to o ffe r presents th e re , especially languages.
to C o zum el, as w e do to holy places; and if T h e P o p o / Vuh has essentially th re e parts:
they d id not go them selves, th e y alw ays sent 6rst, th e creatio n o f the EARTH and its Brat
th e ir offerings, and those w ho w e n t th e re in h a b ita n ts ; second, th e story o f the H ero
w e re in the h a b it o f e n te rin g th e abandoned T w in s and th e ir foreb ears; and th ird , the
tem ples also, as they passed by th em , to o ffe r leg en d ary h istory o f the founding o f the
prayers th e re and to b u rn c o p a l/' Q u ich é dynasties, con tin u in g up to the years
In the Postclassic p erio d , b eginning w ith fo llo w in g the Spanish C onquest. T h e m id d le
the fa ll o f Classic cities, the Sacred CENOTE section o f th e P o p o / Vuh, tre a tin g not only o f
a t C hichen Itz á was the m ost im p o rta n t the H e ro T w in s b u t also o f th e ir fa th e r, uuN
p ilg rim ag e d estin atio n fo r the M a y a , and HUNAHPU, is the m ost an c ie n t, app earin g in a rt
so it rem ained u n til 1539. A ltho u g h L an d a from L a te F o rm a tiv e tim es o n w ard . From
considered C ozum el the g re a te r p ilg rim ag e th a t p o in t on, M a y a kings seem to have
d estin atio n , it was p ro b ab ly in fa c t th e lesser. em u lated th e H e ro T w in s and th e ir exploits.
txcHEL's c u lt was celeb rated th e re , as it was T h e tales a re not re la te d in a lin e a r fashion
on the neighboring island, Is la M u je re s , and and presum e a fa m ilia rity w ith the characters
m any pilgrim s to these islands w e re w om en on th e p a rt o f the audience.
w ho sought fe rtility and guidance from the U n lik e the c reatio n a t th e beg inn ing o f the
goddess. A ccording to L an d a , p ilgrim s cam e B ib le , the M a y a c reatio n in the P o p o / Vuh
from g reat distances - som etim es from as fa r takes p lace in g re a t q u ie t. C u g u m a tz, the
aw ay as the Putun M a y a region, or w h a t is Q uiché tran slatio n of Q UETZALCO ATL, and
the m odern M exican state o f Tabasco. H u ru ca n , p ro b ab ly to be id e n tifie d w ith Town./
Religious pilgrim ages rem ain im p o rtan t in C od K (see S C H E L L H A S coos), first shape the
M exico and G u atem ala today, based on p rac earth and its fea tu re s, and then raise the SKY
tices coincident both from the past in the N e w overhead. T h e SUN does no t rise u n til m uch
W o rld and from E urope. T h e shrine o f the la te r. T h e gods then p o p ulated the e a rth w ith
V irg in o f G u adalupe a t the h ill o f Tepeyac, a ll its anim als, b u t w h en th e y fou n d th a t the
the most im p o rtan t p ilgrim age destination for anim als w e re u n ab le to speak and praise th e ir
M exican C atholics today, was once the site m akers, they condem ned them fo re v e r to
o f w orship to T o n an tzin , a C e n tra l M exican being the food o f h ig h er beings.
goddess re late d to Toci. C h alm a, a tow n once In a second a tte m p t to crea te a being th a t
know n fo r its ancient CAVE shrine, now houses w ould praise its m akers, th e gods shaped a
w ith in its C ath o lic church a black C h rist hum an o f m ud, b u t it dissolved in fro n t o f
claim ed to w o rk m iracles, and an adjacent them . F o r a th ird a tte m p t, H u ru c a n and
sacred a h u e h u e f/ tree receives m odern o ffe r C u gu m atz called on ancestral d ivin ers, X p i-
ings from the pilgrim s w ho Rock to the tow n. acoc and Xm ucane, to g en e rate m an kin d .
This tim e hum ans w e re carved o f w ood, and
Popol V uh T h e most im p o rtan t surviving although they q u ickly p o p ulated the e a rth ,
sacred book o f the Q uiche M a y a is called the they forgot th e ir m akers and w e re destroyed
P opo/ Vuh, or "council book." As the D ennis by the gods, w ho sent various destructions
T ed lock tran slatio n o f the text tells us, "th e re fro m the sky and w ho tu rn e d the pots, the
is the o rig in al book and ancien t w ritin g , b u t griddles, th e g rin d in g stones, and even the
he w ho reads and ponders it hides his fa c e ," DOGS, against the people o f w ood.
so e a rly in the era o f C h ris tia n ity , some tim e A fte r this destruction, the P o p o / Vuh begins
in the m id -16 th c., a Q uiche noblem an sat to re la te stories o f the H e ro T w in s , H u nah p u
dow n w ith w h a t m ust have been a h ie ro and X b alanq u e. D em igods, th e H e ro T w in s
glyphic book and w ro te a transcription in d e fe a t the false sun and vanquish the gods
the Rom an alp h ab et. A t the beginning o f o f the X ib a lb a , o r UNDERWORLD, setting the
the 18th c., a Q uiché-speaking Spanish fria r, stage fo r the gen eratio n o f tru e hum ans la te r
Francisco X im en ez, learn ed o f the m anuscript in th e P opo/ Vuh.
in Chichicastenango. H e copied the Q uiche H u n ah p u and X b alan q u e took on vucuB
text and w ro te a p a ra lle l Spanish text: CAQUD( (7 M a c a w ), w ho had set h im s e lf up as
his is the e arliest surviving version o f the a false sun w ith the support o f his sons
P o p o / VuA, and it is preserved today in the Z ip acn a and C abracan. G re a t blow gunners,
N e w b e rry L ib ra ry in C hicago. T h e book has the T w in s took th e ir weapons and struck the
135 POPOL VUH
bejew eled tee th o f V ucub C aq u ix, and then
tricked him into accepting ground corn as the
replacem ent. U n ab le to e a t and d ep rived o f
the jew els th a t gave him his false radiance,
Vucub C aquix was d efe ated , and his sons
w ere defeated th e re a fte r.
T h e story then Bashes back to the g en er
ation o f H u n H u nah p u and his b ro th e r Vucub
H u nah p u , such s k illfu l b allp layers (see
BALLGAME) th a t th e ir constant p lay disturbed
the lords o f X ib a lb a , w ho com m anded th a t
they com e to X ib a lb a for a contest. M essenger
OWLS from X ib a lb a guided the brothers into
the U n d e rw o rld , w h e re they fa ile d one test
a fte r another. T h e day a fte r they a rriv e d ,
they w ere sacrihced by the lords o f X ib a lb a
and b u rie d in the b allco u rt, w ith the exception
o f the head o f H u n H u n a h p u , w hich was
stuck in a calabash tree , as if it w e re a Head of Hun Hunahpu, father of the Popol Vuh
skullrack, or TZOMPANTLi. Hero Twins, placed in a fruit-laden tree, detail
W h en X q u ic, a young X ib a lb a goddess, from a Late Classic Maya vase. Although the
Popol Vuh states that the head of Hun Hunahpu
le arn e d o f the strange fru it o f this tre e , she
was placed in a gourd tree, this image clearly
visited it, and H u n H unahpu's head spat in to represents a cacao tree. A cacao pod with human
h er hand, im p reg n atin g h er w ith w h a t w ould features can be seen in an upper branch, which
be H u nah p u and X balanque. W h en h er con probably refers to the transformation of Hun
d itio n becam e ap p aren t, she was d riven out of Hunahpu's head into the fruit.
X ib alb a and w e n t to liv e w ith H u n H unahpu's
m other, w ho tested h er before allo w in g h er
to stay and d e liv e r the T w in s. H u n H unahpu
had a lread y fath ered another p a ir o f tw ins,
H u n B atz and H u n C huen, g re at artists and
m usicians, w ho resented, abused, and took
advantage o f th e ir baby brothers. B u t w hen
they g rew old enough, the H e ro T w in s out
sm arted th e ir brothers and lu red them into
a tre e , w h ere, unable to get dow n, they
becam e MONKEYS.
T h e ir grandm other h id th e ir fath er's
ballgam e equ ipm en t from the H ero T w in s,
bu t they tricked her and becam e even m ore
p ro ficien t ballplayers than th e ir fa th e r and
uncle. Once again, the lords o f X ib alb a sum
m oned the ballplayers to the U n d e rw o rld ,
b u t the H e ro T w in s w ere not defeated by
the tests and traps set fo r them . In stead , the
gods fe ll in to the T w in s ' traps. T h e y used a
m osquito to b ite each god in sequence, and
so the gods revealed th e ir nam es, p a rt o f
th e ir d efe at. Each day, the H e ro T w in s played
the X ib a lb a lords on the b allco u rt; each n ight, A monkey scribe dancing with a mirror, detail
they w ere sent to a d iffe re n t house to be from a Late Classic Maya vase. The monkey
tested. W h en told to keep th e ir cigars lit for scribes appearing in Classic Maya iconography
are now known to be early forms of Hun Batz
a n ight, they com plied by using fireflies on
and Hun Chuen of the Popol Vuh. Although
the ends; w hen told to p ro vid e cut FLOWERS, widely recognized to be gods of the scribal arts,
the T w in s sum m oned c u tter ants to cut the Hun Batz and Hun Chuen were also identified
Rowers o f the X ib a lb a . W h en sent to the C old with music and dance.
PRIESTS 116
th a t had th e ir ow n raised tem ples in th e th e h ill o f H u itzilo p o c h tli's b irth , w h ile at the
sacred p recin ct a t T e n o c h titla n , and am ong sam e tim e the offerings deposited in the
these w e re QUETZALCOATL, TEZCATLIPOCA, XIPE tw o tem ples suggest th a t the tem ples w ere
TOTEc, HumnLOPOCHTLi, and TLALOC. S urviving conceived o f as one o f the m ountains d ed i
illu stratio n s o f A zte c p yram ids show th a t cated to T la lo c . T h e deposit o f crem ated
the iconography o f th e roofcom bs re ve ale d ashes o f n oble predecessors dem onstrates
p a rtic u la r associations: T la lo c's p y ram id , fo r th a t such p yram ids w e re also centers of
exam ple, had a b lu e roofcom b w ith aq u atic ancestor w orship fo r p o w e rfu l lineages.
m otifs. D u a l pyram ids, such as the T em p lo The e a rlie s t p yram id in M exico , the
M a y o r o f T e n o c h ü tla n , had a single g re at e arth en m ound a t L a V e n ta from c. 800 Be,
p la tfo rm , tw o staircases, and in d iv id u a l is ro ughly in th e form a flu te d cupcake and
shrines a t the top, and w e re g en e rally d e d i m ay w e ll be an efHgy o f a volcano, although
cated to tw o d istinct cults. its unusual contours m ay sim ply be the result
For e a rlie r M eso am erican civilizatio n s o f n a tu ra l erosion o f a four-sided structure.
such specific associations a re not know n w ith N a tu ra l rises a re used to e le v a te pyram ids,
assurance. A tT E O T iH U A C A N , the p rin c ip a l p y ra such as th e T e m p le of Inscriptions at
m ids w e re said by the Aztecs to be d ed icated P alen q u e, and in the ro llin g p la in o f the
to the SUN and MOON, and this m ay w e ll be P eten , th e g re a t pyram ids o f T ik a l ap p ear
tru e. Because o f its association w ith the long lik e m an -m ad e m ountains, cresting above the
d o rm ant, gurgling volcano w hich fram es it, canopy o f th e tro p ical ra in forest.
the Pyram id o f the M oon a t T eo tih u acan was
q u ite possibly dedicated to a WATER or fe rtility
cult. A t M o n te A lb án , little elu cid atin g icono
graphy survives to id e n tify any pyram id o th er
than the D anzantes, w hich, w ith its icono
graphy o f sacrificial victim s and h u m iliatio n , Q u a d rip a rtite m onster see BiCEPHALic MON
m ay w e ll have been dedicated to a cult o f STER; PALENQUE TRIAD
w ar.
Some M a y a pyram ids w e re d edicated to q u etzal K n ow n as th e quetza/Zi in N a h u a tl
specific d eity cults, for exam ple, the G roup and in M a y a , the resp len d en t trogon,
o f the Cross a t Palenque, w ith its d edicatory .Rharom acArus m ocm no, was p rize d fo r its
links b etw een the BIRTH o f the PALENQUETRIAD extrao rd in a ry feath ers. T h e q u etzal lives in
gods and the ru lersh ip o f C han B ahlum . M o re cloud forest, th a t ra re and v u ln e ra b le ecologi
c h aracteristically, though, M a y a pyram ids cal niche o f tropical ra in forest b etw e en 3000
w e re dedicated to ancestor w orship. W hen and 4000 fe e t (ab o u t 900 m and 1200 m ) in
kings and o th er h igh-ranking nobles d ied , a ltitu d e . S o litary creatures th a t a re ra re ly
pyram ids w e re raised over th e ir TOMBS. T e m glim psed o th er than a t DAWN or dusk, quetzals
p le I a t T ik a l housed R u ler A and the T em p le feed on the w in g and o ften h o ver w h ile eatin g
o f Inscriptions a t P alenque h eld the rem ains fru its , bugs, tre e frogs, o r snails. A lthough
o f Pacal: fro m the tim e these pyram ids w ere both m ale and fe m a le o f th e species a re
com pleted, they em bodied g re at kings and b rillia n tly colored, w ith b lu e -g re en feath ers
acted as the cen ter o f th e ir w orship. on w ings, ta il, and crest, and scarlet ones on
A lthough m ost M a y a pyram ids h eld the th e breast, it is th e iridescence and unusual
tom bs o f ancestors, some w e re dedicated to len g th o f the m ale ta il feath ers - o ften about
o th er purposes. R ad ial pyram ids, such as E - a yard in len g th - th a t m ade the b ird th e
V H -su b a t U axactun or the C astillo (T e m p le m ost desired in a ll M esoam erica.
o f K ukulcan) a t C hichen Itz á , w ere places o f Because o f th e ir ro le in e lite and ritu a l
celeb ratio n for the com pletion o f periods o f costum es, q u etzal feathers w e re an im p o rtan t
tim e. Pyram ids w ith surrounding colonnades e lem en t in M esoam erican trib u te . T h e fam
a t C hichen Itz á , such as the T e m p le o f ous headdress housed in V ien n a th a t is often
the W a rrio rs, m ay have been dedicated to called M otecuhzom a's headdress (b u t w hich
ru lersh ip and w a rfa re . he p ro b ab ly n ever w o re ) includes 500 q u etzal
Pyram ids o ften re p lic ate MOUNTAINS, p a r feath ers. H u n ters w e re fo rb id d e n to k ill the
tic u la rly sacred m ountains. T h e dual pyram id birds; ra th e r, they stunned th em w ith a
d edicated to H u itzilo p o c h tli and T lalo c a t blow gun, rem oved the feath ers, and set them
T en o c h titla n sym bolically recreates COATEPEC, fre e . T h e m ales a re best spotted d uring the
141 QUETZALCOATL
nesting season: the birds nest in holes in tree
trunks and w hen th e m ale sits on th e eggs,
his !ong ta il feathers tra il out o f the nest.
A lthough few M exican or M a y a ancien t
cities w ere in q u etzal h a b ita t (th e M a y a city
of C h in k u ltik is an exception), the b ird and
its distinctive crest and feath ers w e re w e ll
know n throughout M esoam erica. B ern al D ia z
reported seeing quetzals in M otecu h zo m a II's
zoo. XuTr was included in the nam e o f a
num ber o f M a y a kings, and q u efza/, o f course,
form ed p a rt o f QUETZALCOATL. In N ah u a tl
poetry, the q u etzal fe a th e r was o ften m en
tioned m etap h orically, and the idea o f its (Above) Disguised Aztec
tearin g or decay re fe rre d to the transience o f merchants obtaining
l i f e O n EARTH. quetzal plumes from
Zinacantan, Chiapas,
Florentine Codex, Book 9.
Q u etzalcoatl O n e o f the g re at gods o f ancient
M esoam erica, Q u etzalcoatl is a m iraculous
synthesis o f SERPENT and b ird . T h e Postclassic
N a h u a tl nam e Q u etzalcoatl derives from the
N a h u a tl term s fo r the em erald plum ed QUET
ZAL ( P h a r m n a c h r M F m oc/nno) and the SERPENT,
or coa ¿7. Thus the term could be glossed as
"q u e tza l s erp en t," although the serpent is
specifically a rattlesnake. T h e earliest know n
3 ^
representations o f this avian serpent appear
am ong the F o rm ative O lm ecs. M o n u m e n t 19
from L a V e n ta portrays a rattlesn ake w ith an
avian beak and fea th e r crest. N e x t to this
snake, tw o q u etzal birds Hank a SKY BAND.
A lthough the language o f the Olm ecs is s till
unknow n, in M ay an languages the words for
snake and SKY are id en tical. Thus it is possible (Above) Quetzalcoatl atop a
pyramid, Codex Telleriano-
th a t this sign is a reference to q u etzal sky or
Remensis, 16th c. Aztec.
q uetzal snake.
T h e earliest know n appearance o f the q u et
zal serpent in C e n tra l M exico occurs a t the
T em p le o f Q uetzalcoatl atT E O T iH U A C A N , dating
to the 3rd c. A D . R epresentations o f plum ed
serpents a lte rn a tin g w ith the mosaic head
dress o f the WAR SERPENT - a probable ancestor
o f the xiuH C O A T L Hre serpent - cover this
rem arkab le structure. In the m urals o f T e o ti-
huacan and the la te r site o f C acaxtla, Q u e tza l
coatl is ren dered as a snake covered w ith
q uetzal plum es. A t both sites, this being
appears w ith both drops o f RAIN and standing
WATER, suggesting th at it was considered a
s p irit or d e ity o f w a te r.
M o d e rn Pueblo peoples o f the A m erican
Southw est id e n tify a plum ed serpent w ith
(Agbf) Quetzalcoatl with
w a te r. L ik e Q u etzalco atl, th e Z u n i K olow isi
bicephalic serpents, cut conch
and the H o p i P alulukong plum ed w a te r ser pectoral and hands in the form
pents can b rin g abundance and fe rtility . of quetzal heads, detail of a
A lthough the fe a th e red serpent appears a t Late Classic pa/ma, Veracruz.
RABBIT 142
the know n day glyphs o f the contact perio d the lin eag e heads: " f t rem ains fo r you to give
thanks, since you have y e t to take care of
ru b b e r O b ta in e d fro m th e latex sap o f th e b le ed in g your ears and passing a cord through
ru b b e r tre e (GastáMa e /as#ca), ru b b er had a your elbow s. You m ust w orship. T h is is your
v a rie ty o f uses in an cien t M eso am erica. T o w ay o f g ivin g thanks b efo re your god. "
the A ztecs, ru b b e r was know n as c/%i, from A t th e tim e o f the C onquest, HUMAN sAcm
w hich the Spanish w ord fo r ru b b e r, h u /e , FiCE was seen as the fa ir exchange for the
derives. T h e w o rd o/A c le a rly relates to the sacrifices th a t the gods had m ade to create
N a h u a tl term o/An, or m o tio n , p ro b ab ly the EARTH and h u m an ity . T h e violence o f
because o f the re m a rk a b le bouncing and hum an sacrifice w as also p a rt o f the appease
elastic q u alities o f ru b b e r. T h e b est-know n m en t of the vio len ce o f creation itself.
use o f ru b b er was as the b a ll p layed in the A ccording to the version o f the creation
M eso am erican BALLCAM E, know n as o/^ama or o f th e e a rth in the ZV/yfoyre t/u m ácA/gue,
u /ia /n a in N a h u a tl. R ecent excavations a t the Q UETZALCO ATL and TEZCATHPOCA took TLALTE
O lm ec site o f E l M a n a tí have y ield e d the first cuHTLi fro m the heavens, turned them selves
know n ru b b er balls in M eso am erica. D a tin g in to tw o SERPENTS, and th en , each taking
roughly to the 9th c. B e, the balls a re p a rt o f a hand and opposite foo t o f the goddess,
a rich assem blage o f offerings placed in a squeezed h er u n til she s p lit in h a lf. O f one
SPRING. It is e n tire ly ap p ro p riate th a t the h a lf, they form ed the SKY and o f the o th er
first know n ru b b er derives from the O lm ecs, h a lf, the e a rth . A ll the gods then descended
whose nam e (given to them by the A ztecs) to console h e r, "an d they o rd ain ed th a t from
can be tra n s ite d as 'th e ru b b er p e o p le ." h er w ould spring a ll the fru it necessary fo r
T h e hum id O fm ec h eartfand o f the southern the life o f m an. A n d in o rd e r to do this, they
G u lf Coast was a w ell-kn o w n ru b b er produc m ade o f h e r h a ir trees and Rowers and
ing region. grasses, o f h e r skin m any com m on and sm all
In a dd itio n to its use in the M esoam erican flow ers, o f h e r eyes w ells and fountains
ballgam e, ru b b er also served m edicinal and little caverns, o f h e r nose valleys and
purposes. According to the F lo re n tin e Codex, m ountains, and o f h er shoulders m ountains.
the latex was drunk w ith chocolate to re lie ve A n d this goddess c ried m any tim es in the
stomach and in testin al upset. As a sap, ru b b er n ig h t d esiring the hearts o f m en to e a t. A n d
was also treated as an INCENSE much lik e copa/. she w ould not be q u ie t ju s t w ith those th a t
In the offerings recovered from the Sacred w e re given h er, nor w o u ld she take fru it
C enote o f C hichen Itz á , ru b b er was fre unless it was sprin kled w ith the blood o f
q u en tly m ixed w ith copa/. T h e ru b b er latex m e n ." H um ans liv e d in the d e b t of, and a t
was o fte n burned as a b a ll, in efBgy form , or the grace of, the gods: th e ravaged body
as drops sprinkled upon PAPER. Because o f the o f T la lte c u h tli p ro vid ed the sustenance fo r
thick clo u d-like sm oke, ru b b er was a favored h u m an ity, and she h o w led a t N IG H T unless
offerin g to the R A IN gods. offered hum an B L O O D .
M esoam erican gods could see through
insincerity. In the A ztec account o f the creation
o f th e fifth sun (see F IV E s u N s ) , the gods sought
volunteers to becom e the S U N . T ecu ciztecat!
p u t h im s elf fo rw a rd , and th en , m ore hesi
sacrifice M esoam erican CO DS re q u ired sacri ta n tly , N a n a h u a tzin cam e fo rw a rd w hen
fice. A ccording to the PO PO L v u H o f the Q uiche called to do so. As a p re p a ra to ry sacrifice,
M a y a , the gods re q u ired praise from th e ir the tw o fasted fo r fo u r days and p erfo rm ed
subjects, w hom they had m ade; w hen praise penance. A ccording to Sahagun, " th a t w ith
was not forthcom ing, they destroyed them . w hich [T e c u c izte c a tl] d id penance was a ll
O nce the gods had created hum ans w ho d id costly. H is fir branches [w e re ] q u etzal fea th
praise them , these people w e re given th e ir ers, and his grass balls o f gold; his m aguey
ow n god B U N D L E S , and the c h ie f Q uiche lineage spines o f green stone; the red den ed , bloodied
received T O H iL , w ho dem anded the sacrifice spines o f coral. A n d his incense was very
o f HEAR TS in exchange for his g ift o f F IR E . T h e good incense. A nd [as fo r] N an a h u a tzin , his
trib a l leaders offered precious m e ta l, but fir branches w e re m ade only o f green w a te r
T o h il insisted on costlier sacrifice: hum an rushes - green reeds bound in threes . . . A nd
flesh. T o h il then m ade fu rth e r dem ands o f his grass balls [w e re ] only d rie d p ine needles.
145 SACRIFICE
ground AMARANTH m ixed w ith hum an b!ood C o d A A lth o u g h not isolated by Schelthsa,
and a sticky sw ee te n er, o fte n honey, to b in d C od A ' is a d istin ct d ea th god w ho usually
th e m ix tu re tog eth er. D u rin g ce!ebrations fo r has a h o rizo n tal black band across the eyes
the VEINTENA o f P a n q u e tza liztli, a la rg e dough and th e A k b a l sign o f darkness upon his
im age o f H U iT Z iL O P O C H T L i was m ade o ver a b ro w . T h is god is o f considerable a n tiq u ity ,
w ooden fra m e ; d u rin g T e p e ilh u itl, dough ap p e arin g in E a rly C lassic M a y a a rt as w e ll
m o untain efEgies w e re m ade. U su ally in as in th e Postclassic codices. C o d A ' is a d eity
conjunction w ith hum an sacrifice, celeb ran ts o f v io le n t SACRIFICE, such as d ecap itatio n .
ritu a lly broke a p a rt the tzoa/A and a te C o d F : T h is d e ity is the Postclassic form o f
them to com m une w ith the gods. See a/so CHAC, one o f the m ost continuously w o r
C R E A T IO N A C C O U N T S ; C U A U H X IC A L U . shipped gods- o f an c ie n t M eso am erica. T h e
M a y a god o f R A IN and L IG H T N IN G , C hac is
Schellhas gods D u rin g th e p io n eerin g eRorts rep resen ted on S tela 1 from Protoclassic
o f the ¡ate 19th c., researchers faced a com p¡ex Iza p a . M a y a ep ig rap h y reveals th a t during
and poorly understood a rra y o f su p ern atu ral both th e Classic and Postclassic periods, this
beings in th e th ree ancien t M a y a screenfblds d e ity w as a c tu a lly nam ed C hac.
know n as the D resd en , Paris, and M a d rid C o d C : A ltho u g h fre q u e n tly and erroneously
codices. Paul Schellhas, the first to id e n tify id e n tifie d as the god o f the north star, Cod
system atically the various gods and accom C is a c tu a lly a personiH cation o f the concept
panying nam e glyphs occurring in these Post o f sacredness. Thus d u rin g both the Classic
classic screen folds, organized and lab eled the and Postclassic periods, the p o rtra it o f this
various gods according to the L a tin alp h ab et. god p ro vid ed th e ph o netic valu e o f Au or
B eginning w ith A , each isolated god was thus ch'u, a p a n -M a y a n term s ig n ifyin g d e ity or
provided w ith a le tte r designation. sacredness.
T h e Schellhas system o f le tte r designation C o d D : O n e o f the g re a t gods o f the M a y a
has proven to be o f g re at use for several pantheon, G od D appears to be the M a y a
reasons. F o r one, the poorly understood form o f the aged c rea to r god, m uch lik e
id e n titie s o f p artic u la r gods can be re fe rre d T O N A C A T E C U H T L i o f C e n tra ! M exico . D u rin g
to by non-com m ittal letters, ra th e r than by a both the Classic and Postclassic periods, God
tenuous or uncertain m eaning, such as WIND D was re fe rre d to as iTZAMNA. H e seems
C od, or EARTH G od. F u rth e rm o re , le tte r desig to be a god closely id en tiH ed w ith esoteric
nations avoid the use o f w h o lly in ap p ro p riate p rie stly know ledge, such as D iv iN A T iO N and
M a y a n term s. A lthough the M A IZ E C O D , C od W R IT IN G .
pendulous lo w e r lip and long P in occh io-like com m only d ep icted patrons o f w ritin g and
nose. T h is d e ity is a M a y a form o f Y acate- tim e ke ep in g , h o w ever, a re th e m onkey
c u h tli, th e long-nosed m e rch an t god o f C e n tra l scribes and artists o f th e POPOLVUH, H u n B atz
M ex ico . G od M is p rim a rily a Postclassic and H u n C h uen (see MONKEY). T h e y usually
M a y a god th a t appears to have g ra d u a lly have a DEER e ar o ver the hum an one, and
eclipsed th e e a rlie r M a y a m erch an t d e ity , hold an in k p o t, p en , or coDEx; the face m ay
C o d L . T h e contact perio d nam e o f this god be a m onkey grotesque o r th a t o f a b e a u tifu l
was E k C h u a h , eHr b eing th e M a y a n w o rd fo r young hu m an , and a s trip o f " p rin t-o u t" m ay
black. be attach ed to the body.
C o J JV: In th e codices and C lassic M a y a a rt,
the aged G od N com m only appears w e arin g sea T h e sea w as w id e ly b elieved to be the
a TURTLE carapace or conch upon his back. p rim o rd ia l WATER upon w h ich the EARTH
D u rin g both the Classic and Postclassic p e r flo ated . Since this w a te r lay u n d ern eath the
iods, the nam e o f this god was p h o n e tica lly e a rth , sub terran ean and surface bodies o f
w ritte n as PAUAHTUN. Q u a d rip a rtite in n a tu re , fresh w a te r w e re also id e n tifie d w ith th e sea.
God N seems to have had th e w e ig h ty In an e a rly Classic m u ral from th e T e m p le o f
responsibility o f supporting th e SKY. A g ric u ltu re a t TEOTiHUACAN, fre s h w a te r WATER
C o& fess O : A n aged and fearsom e goddess, HUES flo a t atop w aves con tain in g sea SHELLS.
Goddess O usually has ja g u a r claw s as hands M a rin e shells fro m both the G u lf C oast and
and w ears a serpent in h er headdress. In the th e P acific abound in T eo tih u acan represen
codices she is p h o netically nam ed C hac C h el. tations. A t the T eo tih u ac an a p a rtm e n t com
Goddess O appears to be an aged gen etrix, pound o f T e titla , a p a ir o f m urals illu strates
much lik e the A ztec rLAMATECUiiTLi-ciHUA- divers c ollectin g shells in n etted bags.
COATL. T h e C lassic M a y a c le a rly id e n tifie d th e sea
Coc/ P: A lthough term ed a frog god by w ith fresh w a te r and the w a te ry UNDERWORLD.
Schellhas, C od P m ay not be a d istinct d eity . As a t T eo tih u ac an , the w a te r lily is id e n tifie d
A p pearin g only in the M a d rid Codex, this w ith the p rim o rd ia l sea. T h e M a y a n w o rd fo r
being m ay sim ply be a version o f C od N . w a te r lily , na6, can also d en o te th e sea and
o th er standing bodies o f w a te r. O n e head
scribal gods A num ber o f M esoam erican gods v a ria n t o f the n u m eral 13, th e WATER LILY
served as the patrons o f WRITING and the arts. SERPENT, ty p ic a lly appears w ith a bound w a te r
T h e Aztecs a ttrib u te d a ll such lo re g en erically lily pad headdress. A n e lab o ra te stucco frie ze
to the Toltecs: They w ere thinkers, fo r they a t the T e m p le o f the Seven D o lls a t D z ib il-
o rig in ated the yea r count, the day count; they chaltu n depicts this w a te r lily serp ent w ith
established the w ay in w hich the n ig h t, the w a te r signs and m a rin e life ; accom panying
day, w ould w o rk; w hich sign was good, fav o r caches contained ab u n d a n t rem ains o f m a rin e
a ble; and w hich was e v il, the day sign o f w ild shell. I t is q u ite possible th a t this b eing is a
beasts. A ll th e ir discoveries form ed the book sea god.
fo r in te rp re tin g d re am s /* (F C : x) Those born T h e A zte c T em p lo M a y o r contains one o f
d u rin g the TRECENA 1 M o n k ey w e re m ost lik e ly th e clearest id en tificatio n s o f the sea w ith
to be artists and scribes. As patro n o f the fresh w a te r and a g ric u ltu ra l fe rtility . O n the
trecena 1 M o n k ey , xocm riLLi m ay be the TLALOC side o f the te m p le , corresponding to
C e n tra l M exican p atro n o f scribes and WRIT th e w a te ry m o untain o f fe rtility and susten
ING. ance, e lab o rate caches contained sea shells,
F o r the M a y a , scribal gods are both m ore coral, and even m arin e fish.
exp lic it and m ore num erous. A ccording to
various sources, rrzAMNA invented w ritin g , serpent In religious term s, serpents m ay
and he appears as a scribe on Classic M a y a have been the m ost im p o rta n t fau n a o f
pots; occasionally he teaches o th er scribes M esoam erica. N o single o th er type o f crea
and instructs them in th e ir counting. A super tu re receives such e lab o ra te tre a tm e n t in
n a tu ra l RABBIT scribe sits as if he w e re a Sahagun*s F lo re n tin e C odex, fo r exam ple,
stenographer and records a scene on a M a y a in term s o f e ith e r text or illu stratio n . A nd
pot. In the M a d rid Codex, CHAC w rite s, paints, although m any p o w e rfu l anim als - JAGUARS
and spews a stream o f "p rin t-o u t,** as M a y a n - and EAGLES, m ost n o tab ly - p lay an im p o rta n t
ists have term ed num bered strips o f p ap er ro le in iconography, snakes, perhaps because
th a t scribal gods occasionally b ear. T h e most o f th e ir num ber and v a rie ty in the n atu ral
149 SERPENT
w orld, have the broadest and m ost v arie d
roles in relig io n and religious sym bolism : in
states o f ecstasy, lords dance a serpent DANCE;
great descending rattlesnakes adorn and sup
port buildings from C hichen Itz á to T e n o c h tit-
lan, and the N a h u a tl w ord coat/, m eaning
serpent or tw in , form s p a rt o f th e nam es o f
prim ary deities such as MDtcoATL, QUETZAL
COATL, and COATLICUE.
Am ong the most im p o rta n t snakes in
M esoam erica are the boa constrictor, the fe r-
de-lance, the rattlesn ake, and the bushm as-
ter. T h e harm less boa constrictor (C b n stn cfo r
constrictor), called c/ncchan by the M a y a and
m azacoat/ by the Aztecs, m ade d p rized
costum e elem en t, as evidenced by the stuffed
boa skins w orn by M a y a lords in the B onam -
pak m urals. T h e fe r-d e-la n ce (B othrops
a tro z), silen tly coils befo re striking, u n like its
fe llo w p it v ip er, the rattlesn ake (C ro fa/u s The monkey scribal gods painting a codex, detail
durissus), w hich gives a w arn in g w ith its from a Late Classic Maya vase.
tw itch in g rattles. T h e deadly bushm aster o f
C e n tra l A m erica (LecAesis m u ta) is second
in size only to the In d ia n king cobra am ong
the w orld's poisonous snakes and often
reaches 10' (3 m ) in length.
T h e Aztecs m ade a large num ber o f sculp
tures o f rattlesnakes, m any o f them extrem ely
n atu ralistic, and they are characteristically
carved on a ll sides, including the underside.
In both C e n tra l M exican and M a y a day
counts, the fifth day is snake. Snakeskin,
w ith its d ram atic geom etric p attern in g , is
fre q u e n tly em ulated in textiles and architec
tu ral ornam ent. E xp licit rattlesnakes are rare
in Classic M a y a a rt b u t occur w ith g reat
frequency in the a rt o f C hichen Itz á . A lthough
serpents com bine w ith other creatures to
m ake m any fantastic anim als found in no
zoological guide, the open snake m outh is the
fe a tu re on w hich m any deities, g en erally
those w ith upturned snouts, are based. T h e
forked tongue is a characteristic unique to
Coral, shell, and other sea offerings deposited in
serpents; it is not to be confused w ith the a cache on the Tlaloc side of the Templo Mayor,
long, curling proboscis o f the BUTTERFLY. Tenochtitlan, Late Postclassic Aztec.
T w o features o f serpentine behavior w ere
probably o f p aram ount in terest to M eso am eri-
can peoples: first, snakes sw allow th e ir prey
w hole, le ttin g it decompose inside th e ir bod
ies; and second, snakes shed th e ir skins. T h e
skins split along th e ir backs, allo w in g the
snake to slith er out, leaving behind the old
skin, and in the case o f rattlesnakes, even the
rattle s. Both these features o f snake behavior
m ay have supported the p an -M esoam erican
notion th a t snakes w e re vehicles o f re b irth
SERPENT
and tran s fo rm a tio n , fo r g re a t superna tu ra! ucHTM Nc bolts they hurt from the wouwTAma
serpents fre q u e n tly belch a n o th er c re a tu re w h e re RAIN gods m ake th e ir re tre a t. A lthough
from th e ir m ouths - a w a rrio r, a h u m an , a E uropeans g en e rally see lig h tn in g as jagged
god, or a skeleton. ra th e r than u n d u latin g lik e a serpent, w hen
T h re e fu n d a m en tal notions accom pany the lig h tn in g strikes sand it can form an u n d u lat
M eso am erican serpent: one, th a t th e serp ent in g solid strand o f glass, and M esoam erican
is WATER, the con d u it o f w a te r, or th e b e a re r peoples m ay have been fa m ilia r w ith this
o f w a te r; tw o , th a t its m outh opens to a CAVE; phenom enon.
and th re e , th a t the serpent is th e SKY. A m ong T h e serp ent w as the body fo r m any speci-
the M a y a , linguistic support survives fo r the Hcally M a y a gods and deiHed objects. T h e
la tte r concept: the w ords snake and sky e a rlie s t versions o f the CEREMONIAL BAR are
a re hom ophones, g e n e ra lly caan or chan, Hoppy d o u ble-h ead ed serpents from w hich
dep en d in g on the language, and th e sam e em erge th e heads o f gods and ancestors; la te r
w o rd is usually the n u m b er 4 as w e ll. M a n y exam ples a re g e n e ra lly s tiff stylized bars.
M eso am erican d eities , in clu d in g serpent O ccasionally b ea rin g iconography o f th e sky
d eities, a re considered to exist as fours, o r as b an d , th e cerem o n ial b ar p ro b ab ly sym bol
fo u r-in -o n e , o ften w ith separate color and ized the sky its e lf. T h e ru le r w ho held it thus
d ire c tio n a l associations. h eld th e sky.
M esoam erican people b elieved in serpent W ith his u p tu rn e d snout and serp ent leg,
d eities from e arliest tim es. T h e fea th e red C I I o f the PALENQUE TRiAD gods is based on the
serpent occurs from O lm ec tim es on, and serpent. T h e serp ent leg form s th e s ta ff to be
although it is rare am ong the Classic M a y a , h eld by rulers w h en C I I is in the form o f the
it is com m on a t contem porary TEOTmuACAN. MANIKIN SCEPTER. T h e only analogous fe a tu re
A t Postclassic T u la , C hichen Itz á , and T e n - o f any C e n tra l M e x ica n god is th e serp ent foot
o ch titla n , the feath ered serpent was g en erally th a t som etim es replaces one o f TEZCATLiPOCA's
know n as Q u etzalco atl, and u n til the Spanish fe e t.
C onquest, was g en erally conHgured as a In states o f ecstasy and u su ally fo llo w in g
rattlesn ake w ith b rig h t green p arro t or Q U E T BLOODLETTiNC, p a rtic u la rly as g ra p h ica lly
ZA L feath ers, ra th e r than as a hum an. T h e depicted a t Yaxchilán, M a y a n o b ility conjure
fea th e red serpents ra re ly hold another crea up the visiON SERPENT. T h is g re a t u n d u latin g
tu re in th e ir m ouths; w hen they do, it is often serpent rises fro m b u rn in g bloody PAPER, and
the hum an im personator o f Q u etzalcoatl. In from its m outh em erges an ancestor or,
various A ztec accounts, Q u etzalcoatl turns occasionally, a d e ity . T h e serp ent its e lf, then ,
h im self in to a serpent and then back in to an is p ro b ab ly w h a t one sees in the clouds o f
anthropom orphic god. smoke rising fro m the b u rn in g SACRIFICE, and
T h e feath ered serpents a t Teo tih u acan and cloud symbols m ay Hank the vision serp ent s
C acaxtla have specific aquatic associations. body. T h e vision serp ent can b e th e veh icle by
O n the T em p le o f Q u etzalcoatl a t T e o tih u a w hich ancestors or d eities m ake them selves
can, fea th e red serpents w ith ru ffed collars m an ifest fo r h u m an ity , and is p ro b ab ly the
How dow n the balustrades and form u n d u lat sky serpent com m only dep icted a t C h ich en
ing friezes across the tem p le; m arin e SHELLS - Itz á , p a rtic u la rly on th e gold plates dredged
conch, pecten, and spondylus - H!1 the in te r fro m the Sacred C en o te.
stices and g re at WAR SERPENT headdresses ju t A s im ila r deiHed serpent, th e xiuHCOATL,
out fro m the frie ze a t re g u lar in tervals. In know n as th e Hre serpent, b u t m ore lite ra lly
th e m urals a t C acaxtla, a lo rd in a b ird suit turquoise snake, plays an im p o rta n t ro le in
stands on top o f a b rillia n t green fea th e red A ztec religious iconography. HurrziLOPOCHTH
serpent w ho Hows dow n the side to the base brandished the X iu h c o atl as his w eapon w hen
o f the p ain tin g , a ll the w h ile atop fres h w ate r he was born, and the X iu h c o atl fre q u e n tly
aqu atic life . T h e fea th e red serpents th a t appears in d ep en d en tly. O n th e A ztec C a le n
function as columns (i.e . serpent colum ns) a t d ar Stone, h o w ever, tw o Xiuhcoatls carry the
C hichen Itz á , T u la , and other Postclassic SUN on th e ir backs, and from th e ir m ouths
cities m ay w e ll in d icate the channeling o f em erge w h a t m ay be deiHed ancestors; the
w a te r and life -g iv in g forces from the sky to tied knots o f paper on th e ir bodies are the
th e EARTH. same b lo o d lettin g knots used a m illen n iu m
B oth TLALOC and CHAC carry snakes in th e ir before by the M a y a . T h e snakes, then , are
hands horn tim e to tim e; these snakes are the the vehicle fo r the m ovem ent o f the sun, the
151 7 AND 9 ZOOMORPHIC HEADS
bearers o f ancestors, and carry references to
bloodletting.
A coATEPANTLi, o r snake w a ll, was con
structed a t m any Postclassic cities to shield
sacred buildings or precincts. T h e earlies t
know n exam ple is a t T u la , w h e re a frie ze o f
rattlesnakes spews or devours hum an skele
tons.
T h e m ain C e n tra l M ex ica n serpent gods
at the tim e o f the Spanish C onquest w ere
Q uetzalcoat! and M ixc o atl. T h e y w e re both
celestial serpents, Q u e tza lc o a tl as th e WIND,
a sky serpent, and the b ea re r o f bounty;
M ixco atl as the personification o f the MILKY
WAY. C oatlicue is characterized by h er skirt
o f snakes, b u t she does not take the form o f
a serpent. cmcoMECOATL, 7 Snake, is a MAIZE
CODDESS w ith a calen d rical nam e; in one
instance she is v iv id ly represented by cobs o f
m aize carved on a rattlesn ake ta il.
Dances w ith snakes or in im ita tio n o f ser
p entine m ovem ents played an im p o rtan t role
in ancient rituals (see DANCE). B oth M a y a pots
and carved m onum ents d ep ict dances w ith
snakes, and in a t least one case, the text
specifically reads th a t a M a y a king "p e rfo r
m ed the snake dance." D u rin g the A ztec
VEINTENA o f P achtontli, m en, w om en, and
child ren adorned in feathers lin ked hands
Aztec serpent sculptures. (Top) Turquoise mosaic
pectoral of a double-headed rattlesnake. (A&ove)
and sang w h ile perform ing the serpent dance. Stone carving of a coiled rattlesnake.
D u rin g To xcatl, young seasoned w arriors
lin ked hands and m oved in an undulating
p attern , p erform ing the serpent dance w h ile
young w om en sim ultaneously danced the
popcorn dance, w ith carefu l supervision a ll
the w h ile th a t none o f the w om en be seduced
by the serpent dancers.
the sky was a source o f m ystery, a super sky band w ith the sam e o u tw a rd ly sloping
n a tu ra l re a lm e n tire ly d istin ct fro m th a t o f diagonal bars and in v e rte d " U " elem ents as
hum an beings. T h e concept o f sacredness those th a t a p p e ar on Stela I a t L a V en ta.
w as o fte n tie d to the d eg ree o f p ro xim ity to C a rv e d som e 500 years a fte r L a V en ta
th e heavens. Thus sacred shrines and TEMPLES Stela 1, th e A lv ara d o Stela is roughly contem
w e re fre q u e n tly placed ato p especially poraneous w ith Iza p a , K am in alju y u and o th er
hig h p rom ontories, such as MOUNTAINS and Protoclassic sites o f the M a y a region. A t
PYRAMIDS. Iz a p a , sky bands also ap p ear w ith the p a ir o f
Since a t least the F o rm a tiv e O lm ec p erio d , o u tw a rd ly lean in g diagonal bands, although
specific signs d e lin e a te d the sky. In th e a rt h ere the lo w e r in v e rte d " U " elem ents are
o f C lassic M eso am erica, d eities fre q u e n tly missing. In s te a d , the lo w e r p ortion typ ically
em erge from the sky or heavens. A m ong the contains a c en tral v e rtic a l tab Hanked by a
Zapotees, the m o tif know n as the "ja w s o f p a ir o f o u tw a rd ly cu rlin g elem ents. Classic
the sky" is based on the jo in e d profiles o f the M aya sky bands a re usually represented
e n tity know n as E / A v e de A ncho, the by a segm ented band. W ith in the re g u larly
Zapotee version o f the PRINCIPAL BIRD DEITY. In spaced segm ents are signs d e lin e a tin g the
L a te Classic Z apotee a rt, figures descend fro m S U N , M O O N , STARS, darkness, and o th e r celestial
these celestial ja w s . Ancestors and d eities are phenom ena. A t tim es, the lo w e r p o rtio n o f
fre q u e n tly depicted in the u pper portion o f the sky band m ay be m arked w ith the b elly
Classic M a y a stelae, in the region correspond scutes o f the SER P E NT. T h is p ro b ab ly derives
ing to the sky. from the fac t th a t the M a y a n w ords snake
In ancien t M esoam erica, the sky was and sky a re hom onym s. T h e sam e punning
believed to have d istinct levels, often cited o f snake and sky m ay be seen in m any
as 13, p a rtic u la rly am ong the Classic and instances o f the Classic M a y a C E R E M O N IA L BAR,
Postclassic M a y a . A sky sign w ith the w hich can a p p ear as a bicep h alic serpent
coefficient o f 13 fre q u e n tly accom panies the w ith a sky band body. T h e segm ented sky
MUAN owL in M a y a representations. T h e C o l band continues in M a y a a rt u n til the L a te
onial A ztec V atican us A m anuscript provides Postclassic, and m ay be seen in the m urals o f
us w ith a d eta ile d account o f the 13 levels o f T u lu m as w e ll as in the M a y a codices. á*ee
the sky, w ith the creato r couple TONACATE- a / s o SKY; SKYBEARERS.
L iv e ly MONKEYS jo in hum ans, and a fe w o th e r a re reg ard ed as the source o f WATER, including
an im als, such as DEER and RABBITS, a re associ even th e RAIN clouds. T h e re ce n tly discovered
a te d w ith the sm ilin g figurines, though fe w O lm ec site of El M a n a tí, V e ra cru z, has
o f the anim als sm ile. Som e o f th e anim als y ie ld e d offerings o f carved w ood, JADE, RUBBER,
tu rn on w h e e le d fe e t, and such toys are th e and o th e r goods th a t w e re placed in the
o n ly know n exam ples o f th e w h e e l in a n cien t crystal c lea r w aters o f a n a tu ra l spring. T h e
M eso am erica. m any CENOTES and w a te r-fille d CAVES o f Yuca
T h e sheer d elig h t o f these figurines long tán can be considered as form s o f springs, and
m ade them a focus fo r collectors w ho sought have been places o f w o rsh ip fo r m ille n n ia . For
an a lte rn a tiv e to the ico nographically dense ra in cerem onies, th e con tem po rary Yucatec
a rt o f the M a y a o r A ztecs. Some investigators M a y a s till collect the sacred 'v irg in w a te r," or
have suggested th a t th e sm iling figures m ay zu h u y ha, fro m isolated sub terran ean pools.
be in states o f ecstatic tran sfo rm atio n or D u rin g the Tarascan fe s tiva l o f Sicuindiro,
perhaps d ru g -ind u ced trances; h o w e ve r, it is th e BLOOD fro m tw o sacrificed slaves was
m ore lik e ly th a t m any o f the sm iling figures p oured in to tw o hot springs ded icated to
rep resen t perform ers. C u e ra v a p e ri, the m o th e r o f the gods, and
vapors rising from these h o t springs brought
the ra in clouds. A m ong the Aztecs o f C e n tra l
snake see SERPENT
M ex ico , springs w e re fre q u e n tly id e n tifie d
w ith the ahuehue% or " w a te r d ru m " tree
spider In ancient M eso am erica, spiders w e re (TTarodiuin m ucronaiM /n). A ccording to F ra y
com m only id e n tifie d w ith fem ale goddesses D ieg o D u rá n , these g re a t trees alw ays g re w
and the EARTH. A t TEOTiHUACAN, an im p o rtan t a t springs. S till today, p ilg rim s collect spring
goddess id e n tifie d by a fanged nose b ar w a te r fro m the roots o f a g re a t a h u e h u e t/
appears w ith spiders. It seems th a t this e n tity tree on the outskirts o f C h alm a.
was considered to be a spider earth goddess,
much lik e Spider G ran d m o th er o f the contem stars and planets A n c ie n t skyw atchers
p o rary A m erican Southw est. ixcHEL, the aged keenly observed th e m ovem ents o f a ll h eav
Postclassic Yucatec goddess o f DiviNATioN, e n ly bodies in M eso am erica th a t could be
m id w ife ry and cuRiNC, was also idenüE ed observed w ith th e naked eye, in clu d in g the
w ith the spider. D iv in a tio n stones re fe rre d to SUN, MOON, M e rc u ry , VENUS, M a rs , Jup iter,
as spiders played an im p o rtan t p a rt in the and Saturn. T h e y observed the MILKY WAY,
cerem onies dedicated to Ixchel d u rin g the perceived groups o f stars to fo rm constel
m onth o f Z ip . In the C o lo n ial A fu a / o í the lations, and M a y a astronom ers - lik e th e ir
Bacahs, Ixchel is m entioned p ro m in e n tly in counterparts in the an cien t O ld W o rld - m ay
a p ra ye r concerning venom ous spiders. have recognized a zodiac along th e eclip tic.
In Classic and Postclassic M a y a iconogra Glass, and, by extension, lenses, w e re n ever
phy, the old Pauahtun SKYBEARER can appear in ven ted in the N e w W o rld ; astronom ers
w earin g a spider's w eb . T h is correlated w ith used pairs o f crossed sticks and observed
C e n tra l M exican conceptions o f the skybear- featu res on th e horizon through the notches.
ers, w ho threaten ed to descend to the earth T h e anom alous round b u ild in g called the
in the form o f dem onic T zrrziM iM E . Because o f
C aracol ("s n a il") a t C h ich en Itz á p ro b ab ly
th e ir headlong descent, th e ¿z/&únúne w e re
functioned as an observatory, its n arro w w in
com pared to the spider descending by its
dows a t th e upperm ost story guid in g observa
thread . O n an A ztec stone copy o f the
tions o f the m ovem ents o f Venus. O n e M ix te e
jMuhmo/pi7h y ear BUNDLE, a tz itz im it/ star
city was know n as N d is i nuu (n o w T laxiaco ),
dem on is depicted descending from the starry
or "c le a rly seen"; it was th e site o f a p ro m i
sky as a spider, com plete w ith a w eb placed
nen t observatory. M o u n d J, one o f the oldest
a t the tip o f the abdom en. A lthough by no
buildings a t M o n te A lb a n , p ro b ab ly acted as
m eans a n a tu ra l tra it, the curious p a ir o f
an observatory fo r the rising o f the star
antennae is found w ith o th er A ztec spider
C a p e lla , w hich m ay have been understood to
representations.
guide the sun on the day o f the Erst zen ith
passage a t the la titu d e o f M o n te A lb án .
springs F ro m the F o rm a tiv e period to con (Z e n ith passage occurs w h en the sun passes
tem p o rary tim es, springs have been places o f d ire c tly overhead, a phenom enon w hich
religious w orship. In m any religions, springs occurs tw ic e an n u ally a t the E q u ato r, on the
157
STELA
equinoxes, once an n u ally a t the T ro p ic o f (AgAf) Spider
Cancer and the T ro p ic o f C ap rico rn , a t th e ir descending from the
respective sum m er solstices, and tw ice ann u starry sky as a iz/tzKcut/;
note the web at the
ally in b etw een , ranging according to la ti
tip of its abdomen.
tude.)
Detail from a stone
A lthough n e ith e r the Erst nor last astron copy of a year bundle,
omers in M esoam erica, th e Classic M a y a Late Postclassic Aztec.
becam e the most s k illfu l skyw atchers w e
know of. R ecent investigations in to Classic
texts have revealed a high le v e l o f sophistic
ation in M a y a observations, p a rtic u la rly o f (Be/ow) Stela D,
planets. T h e M a y a v iew ed the M ilk y W a y as Quiriguá, Late
the road to X ib a lb a and saw in the seasonal Classic Maya.
m ovem ents o f constellations along the ecliptic
th e ir fun d am en tal CREATION story. T h e y tim ed
events o f w a r and SACRIFICE to coincide w ith
the m ovem ents o f Venus and Jup iter. A ccord
ing to his inscriptions, C h an B ahlum , a la te
7th c. P alenque king, not only live d by the
m ovem ents o f Jupiter, b u t the m ajor events
o f his life dovetailed w ith the m ovem ents o f
th a t p la n et deep in the past.
o f the im a g in atio n , the locus o f religious larg e tee th . Paaztory Id e n tifie d tw o form s
g en eratio n , w h e re the Aztecs b eliev ed the o f T la lo c. O n e fo rm , T la lo c A , displays a
gods had conjoined to c re a te the fifth sun. p ro m in en t set o f JAGUAR canines; q u ite fre
A ccording to som e accounts, T eo tih u ac an was q u e n tly , a WATER ULY is placed in the m outh.
also the b irth p la c e o f th e gods them selves. T h e o th e r aspect, T la lo c B , has a sei o f
A ccording to the F lo re n tin e C odex, d u rin g id e n tic a lly sized conical tee th and a p ro m in en t
the long p ereg rin a tio n from AZTLAN th a t b ifu rc a te d tongue, m uch lik e the pendulous
e v e n tu a lly le d to T e n o c h titla n , th e Aztecs tongue o f cocqo, th e Zapotee god o f rain and
w e n t from TAMOAKCHAN to T e o tih u ac an , w h e re lig h tn in g .
they m ade offerings and b u ilt PYRAMIDS o ver G re a t G oddess. A ltho u g h this term is w id e ly
the bu rials o f ru lers, thus g iving them life used in re ce n t lite ra tu re , it p ro b ab ly sub
everlastin g . sumes a n u m b er o f d istin ct goddesses. O ne
In 1971, archaeologists found the opening fem a le e n tity c u rre n tly placed in this category
to a CAVE u n d er the P yram id o f th e Sun a t w ears a fanged nose b ar. D u e to the a p p e ar
T eo tih u acan . Archaeologists found th a t this ance o f SPIDERS w ith this fig u re, she has been
cave extended fa r b eneath the P yram id o f the term ed the T eo tih u acan S pider W om an. Yet
Sun, w ith sm all a n c illa ry cham bers ra d ia tin g a n o th er T eo tih u ac an goddess appears w ith a
from the centra! passagew ay. C eram ic e v i stepped facia! p a tte rn in g around the m outh
dence indicates th a t the cave was in use from and lo w e r cheeks. T h e significance o f this
Protoclassic u n til A ztec tim es, and it m ay goddess is s till unknow n.
w e ll have been an ancien t site o f w orship N e tte d /a g u a r. T h is po o rly understood e n tity
hallo w ed by the construction o f the g re at is a jACUAR covered w ith in te rla c e d cords,
pyram id above it. T h e Aztecs claim ed to have resem bling a n et. T h is n e t p a tte rn in g is also
com e from a place called cmcoMOZTOc, or found on T eo tih u acan representations o f
Seven Caves: perhaps this sacred place lay MiRRons, and it is possible th a t lik e the Post
under the ground at T eo tih u acan . In any classic TEZCATLiPOCA, th e N e tte d Jaguar re p
case, the Aztecs c ertain ly considered the resents a personification o f the stone m irro r,
abandoned city sacred: they carried out ritu fft/e /m e te o t/; T h e aged FIRE god o f the h e a rth ,
als th e re , brought pieces o f its sculpture and H u eh u ete o tl com m only appears a t T e o ti
p ain tin g back to T en o c h titla n , and m ade it huacan in the fo rm o f a stone efEgy censer.
the site o f royal PILGRIMAGE. See a/so CREATION C eram ic H u e h u e te o tl censers can be traced
A C C O U N T S ; F IV E SUNS. back to Protoclassic C u icu ilco , and th e re are
still e a rlie r M id d le F o rm a tiv e exam ples from
T eotihuacan gods In the com plex and poorly T laxcala.
know n iconography o f T eo tih u acan , a series Q u e & a /c o a f/. O n e o f the e a rlie s t appearances
o f characters th a t appear to p o rtray d istinct o f the plu m ed SERPENT a t T eo tih u ac an occurs
deities occur tim e and tim e again. A lthough upon the o rig in al facade o f the T e m p le o f
certain o f these gods can be re ad ily id e n tifie d Q u etzalco atl. H e re fe a th e re d serpents pass
as ancestral form s o f deities know n am ong through fe a th e re d m irro r rim s and sw im in a
the L a te Postclassic Aztecs, other figures S H E LL-filled SEA. A t T eo tih u ac an , th e fe a th e re d
app ear to be unique to Teotihuacan. In con serpent is usually dep icted w ith symbols o f
trast to the Classic M a y a , fem a le d ivin ities ra in and standing WATER. T h e T eo tih u acan
have a p ro m in en t position. In this respect, plum ed serpent is ty p ic a lly rep resen ted w ith
T eo tih u acan is sim ilar to L a te Postclassic a c an in e -like m uzzle and a ra ttlesn ake body
C e n tra l M exican relig io n , w hich also has a covered w ith the green plum es o f th e QUETZAL.
g re at m any goddesses. A lthough anthropom orphic form s o f Q u e tza l-
TTaVoc. U n til recen tly, m any d istinct T e o ti coat! are v irtu a lly unknow n a t T eo tih u acan ,
huacan gods w e re confused w ith T la lo c, the th e p lum ed serpent can ap p ear upon a w oven
C e n tra l M exican god o f RAIN and LiGHTNiNC. MAT, a w idespread sym bol o f ru lersh ip in
A ltho u g h Alfonso Caso and L a u re tte M esoam erica. I t is thus possible th a t as in
Séjourné both m ade progress in d eterm in in g Postclassic M eo sam erica, the T eo tih u acan
T lalo c's characteristics, E sther Pasztory first Q u etzalco atl was identiR ed w ith an im p o rtan t
successfully isolated and defined the T e o ti office o f ru lersh ip.
huacan T lalo c from other gods. A t Teotihuacan, W a r S e rp en t. O n the T e m p le o f Q u etzalcoatl,
T la lo c ty p ic a lly appears w ith goggle eyes and the p ro jectin g fe a th e red serpent heads a lte r
a p ro m in en t u pper lip containing a set o f nate w ith another being freq u e n tly m isidenü-
163 TERMINATION RITUALS
iBed as T lalo c. R ath er than T la lo c , this form
depicts a mosaic headdress in the form o f a
serpent head. A lthough p ro b ab ly o rig in atin g
a t T eotihuacan, this serpent being is also
com m only found in Classic M a y a a rt. E ith e r
as a headdress or as a com plete serpent, it
occurs in the context o f w a r. F re q u e n tly
appearing w ith smoke or Barnes, the WAR
SERPENT is probably an ancestral form o f the T!a!oc A
x iu H C O A T L Bre serpent o f Postclassic C e n tra l
M exico.
P u/gue Cocf. Since the tim e o f the Spanish
C onquest, Teotihuacan has been a fam ed
center for the production o f P U L Q U E . A lthough
ra re, th e re are exam ples o f a Teotihuacan
pulque d eity . This being appears w ith a
sim ple m ask, possibly o f the p a p e r-lik e MAGUEY
skin. U n d ern eath the mask, in the region o f
the eyes and m outh, it m ay be seen th a t the
face is blackened. In one instance, the head
is surrounded by pointed m aguey leaves
spouting w h ite pulque. In another exam ple,
the pulque spills from the m outh o f the god.
F a t Cocf. A com m on d eity o f Classic
M esoam erica, the F A T G O D often appears on
m old-m ade Teotihuacan Bgurines. In v a ri
ably, the h eavily lid d ed eyes are shut, as if
the Bgure is dead. In a num ber o f instances,
the F a t God appears w ith the sign o f the
REPTILE EYE or a FLOWER upon his forehead.
See a /S 0 F A T C O D ; H U E H U E T E O T L ; P U L Q U E CODS;
base o f S tela 31, cached the u p p er p a rt o f the o f ea rth and w in d , or by extension, m a tte r and
m onum ent in S tru ctu re 33 tog eth er w ith s p irit. H o w e v e r, T ezcatlip o ca encompasses
b u rn t offerings, and then b u ilt a new super m ore than the e a rth . A ccording to the Fhyren-
stru ctu re. T h e subject o f S tela 31, K in g tin e C odex, T ezc atlip o c a is om nipresent, and
Storm y Sky, m ay w e ll be th e in te rre d subject causes discord and conflict e v e ryw h e re he
o f the tom b below S tru ctu re 33, and this passes. N onetheless, the sam e passage also
destruction o f his stela w as q u ite possibly describes h im as a c reato r as w e ll as destroyer,
p a rt o f a te rm in a tio n ritu a l in w h ich th e last a b rin g e r o f fo rtu n e as w e ll as disaster. In
vestige o f his presence was rem oved from C e n tra ! M exican b eliefs, T ezcatlip o ca not
v ie w . A t L a g a rte ro , Susanna Ekholm un o n ly b attles against b u t also assists Q u e tza l
covered m iddens o f sm ashed cerem o n ial coatl in th e Creation o f the w o rld and its
p o ttery fre e o f any household debris, and in h ab itan ts. M o re than anyth in g , T e z c a tli
despite the presence o f vast q u an tities o f poca appears to be the e m b od im en t o f change
fig u rin e bodies, no m atching heads w e re through conflict.
found. In a ll like lih o o d , such a deposit w as In v ie w o f his o m nipresent and v o la tile
m ade as a term in atio n ritu a l, perhaps to m ark n a tu re , it is not surprising th a t Tezcatlipo ca
the com pletion o f a period o f tim e. was re fe rre d to by m any epith ets. D oris
B efore the d rillin g o f the last N e w F ire H ey d en has counted an astonishing 360 dis
(see FiRK) b efo re the Spanish C onquest, the tin ct phrases fo r h im in Book 6 o f the F lo re n
Aztecs carried out a term in atio n ritu a l: a ll the tin e C odex. A m ong them a re df/acuaA uan,
old pots w e re sm ashed, a ll fires extinguished, "h e whose slaves we a re ," y a c í/, "th e
and pregnant w om en hidden from v ie w in e n e m y ," y o u a //i ehecaf/, "n ig h t w in d ," and
o rd er to start the m undane w orld an ew once /M u lcah u a í/a7í7qpaque, "possessor o f the sky
the N e w F ire was kindled in the open chest and e a rth ."
o f a slain CAiTivn. T h e first c lea r representations o f T e z c a tli
poca ap p e ar on T o lte c -s ty le stone sculptures
t e x t i l e s s e e CLOTH; COTTON from E a rly Postclassic C hichen Itz á . L ik e
la te r im ages o f this being, he displays a
T czcatlipoca O n e o f the m ore fascinating sm oking m irro r upon his head and a SERPENT
gods o f Postclassic C en tra! M exico, T e zc a tli- foot. D u rin g the L a te Postclassic p erio d , T e z
poca was the o m in ip o ten t god o f rulers, catlipoca m ay ap p e ar w ith a serp ent foot,
sorcerers and w arrio rs. T h e nam e o f this although in this case the serp ent usually
being signifies "sm oking m irro r," and is a appears em erging from the sm oking m irro r
term rich in sym bolic m eaning. F o r one, th a t ty p ic ally replaces his foot. T h e m irro r or
MIRRORS o f OBSIDIAN and o th er stone w ere serpent foo t p ro b ab ly alludes to the creation
w id e ly used in necrom ancy and sorcery in m yth in w hich T ezcatlip o ca loses his foot
ancien t M esoam erica. H o w e v e r, in the early w h ile b attlin g w ith the e a rth m onster. A side
17th c. chants recorded by R uiz de A larcón, from the sm oking obsidian m irrors m arking
the surface o f the EARTH its e lf is re fe rre d to his head and foot, the L a te Postclassic T e zc a t
as a sm oking m irro r. In the m yth o f the FIVE lipoca tends to have broad a lte rn a tin g bands
SUNS, T ezcatlipo ca presided over the SUN o f o f y ello w and black across th e face. T h e
earth . According to th e H is to ria d e Aw m ex nocturnal JAGUAR, th e m ost p o w e rfu l a n im al
icanos p o r sus p m furas, a b a ttle raged o f M esoam erica, was th e a n im al c o u n terp a rt
betw een the god o f this first sun, the sun o f T ezcatlipo ca. T e p e y o llo tl, or H e a rt o f the
o f e a rth , and QUETZALCOATL, the god o f the M o u n ta in , was a ja g u a r aspect o f T e zc a tli
follo w in g sun o f WATER. Thus the first sun poca. I t is thus e n tire ly fittin g th a t T e z c a tli
ended w h en Q uetzalcoat! struck Tezcatlipoca poca was p atro n o f the TRECENA 1 O celo tl. A n
dow n, turnin g h im in to a JAGUAR. In tu rn , o m nipotent god o f fa te and p u n itiv e ju stice,
Tezcatlipo ca term in ated the sun o f WIND by he often m erges in to iTZTLACO LiUH Q ui-ixQ ui-
knocking over Q u etzalcoatl. This cosmic b a t M iL U , the b lin d fo ld ed god o f stone and casti
tle b etw een T ezcatlipo ca and Q u etzalcoatl is gation. In this com posite form , T ezcatlipo ca
also reflected in the legends o f TOLLAN, in appears as th e black god o f the n o rth , and
w hich T ezcatlipo ca eve n tu ally bests Q u e tza l patron o f the day A ca tl.
coatl through a series o f ruses. T h e conflict M ic h a e l C oe firs t noted a series o f striking
b etw een Tezcatlipo ca and Q u etzalco atl could correspondences b etw e en T ezcatlipo ca and
be v iew ed in term s o f a d u alistic opposition the ancien t M a y a d e ity com m only know n as
165 THRONE
T la h u izca lp an tec u h tli hurls his b a lefu l rays M O U N T A IN abode. Excavations in the fou n d a
in the form o f a t/-a t/ darts (see W E A P O N R Y ). In tions o f this tem p le have re ve ale d rich o ffe r
the L eyen d a de /os so/es, T la h u izca lp an te ings, m any o f w hich a re re la te d to w a te r
cu h tli hurls a d a rt a t the n ew ly created suN and the SEA. N e a r T e n o c h titla n , th e re was a
a t T E O T in u A C A N . In response, the sun god special m ountain tem p le d ed icated to T la lo c.
transfixes T lah u izca lp an tec u h tli, transfor Located on th e peak o f M o u n t T la lo c, some
m ing h im in to IT Z T L A C O L IU H Q U I-IX Q U IM IL L I, the 13,500' (c. 4100 m ) above sea le v e l, it housed
god o f coldness, stone, and castigation. a shrine containing stone im ages o f M o u n t
T h e first clear representations o f T la h u iz T la lo c and o th er neighboring h ills and m oun
calp an tecu h tli appear d u rin g the E a rly Post tains.
classic p eriod. T h e T o ltec-style rock p ain tin g P atro n o f the day M a z a tl and th e TRECENA
a t Ixtapantongo bears an eroded b u t id e n tifi o f 1 Q u ia h u id , T la lo c also presided over the
a b le representation o f the skull-faced T la h u iz th ird sun o r w o rld , 4 Q u ia h u itl, the sun o f
calp an tecu h tli w ith a plum ed SERPENT m arked ra in destroyed by a Rery deluge.
w ith star signs. A t Ixtapantongo and C hichen T la lo c and his consort CHALCHiUHTLicuE
Itz á , the E a rly Postclassic T la h u izca lp an te- governed th e T la lo q u e, lite ra lly the " T la -
167
TLALTECUHTLI
io c s /' w ho w e re recognized to be the m u ltip le The Central Mexican
spirits o f m ountains and p o w e rfu l w e a th e r god of the morning star,
phenom ena. See a/so cocijo; FIVE SUNS; ucHT Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli,
Codex Telleriano-
N IN C A N D T H U N D E R ; M O U N T A IN S ; R A IN ; T E O T IH U A C A N
Remensis, 16th c.
GODS.
Aztec. In this scene,
Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli is
Tlalocan N ahu atl-speald ng C e n tra l M e x i named 1 Reed, the
cans a t the tim e o f the C onquest called the calendrical name of
fourth le ve l o f the heavens or u pper w o rld Quetzalcoatl.
Tlalocan, m eaning the place o f T L A L O C .
Because it was in the heavens, T lalo can is
often thought o f as T lalo c's paradise. Accord
ing to the Vaticanus A codex, those who
drow n or d ie from o th er aspects o f W A T E R ,
such as Roods and the strikin g o f L I G H T N IN G ,
go d ire ctly to T lalo can , as do the deform ed -
D W ARVES, cripples, and so fo rth - th a t are the
BEARERS
1 1 C ip ac tli T onacatecuhdi
2 1 O celotl Q u etzalcoat!
3 1 M a za tl T ep e yo llo d , Q u etzalcoatl, or T la zo lte o tl
4 1 Xóchitl H uehuecoyod or M acu ilxoch id
5 1 Acad C h alch iu h tlicu e and T la zo lte o d
6 1 M iq u iz tli T o n atiu h and Tecuciztecad
7 1 Q u ia h u id T la lo c and C hicom ecoatl or 4 Ehecad
8 1 M a lin a lli M a y a h u e l and X o c h ip illi or C in te o tl
9 1 C oad T la h u izca lp an tec u h d i or X iu h te cu h tli
10 1 T ec p atl T o n atiu h and M ic d a n te c u h tli
11 1 O zo m atli Patecatl and C u au h tlio celo tl
12 1 C u etzp allin Itztla c o liu h q u i
13 1 O llin Ixcu in a or T la zo lte o tl and Tezcadipoca
or U acd i
14 1 Itz c u in tli X ip e T o tee and Q uetzalcoatl
15 1 C a lli Itzp a p a lo tl
16 1 Cozcacuauhdi X o lo tl and T la lch ito n atiu h or 4 O llin
17 1 A tl C h alch iu h to to tl
18 1 E hecatl C hantico and 1 A cad or 1 C ip ac tli
19 1 C u a u h tli Xochiquetzal and Tezcadipoca
20 1 T o ch tli Iztap a lto te c and X iu h te cu h tli
d efo rm ities, and the very w ord xo /o f/ means Stone turtle bearing a Katun Wheel on its back,
Mayapan, Late Postclassic Maya. This sculpture
tw in in N a h u a tl, and m ay also m ean a doubled
constitutes the only Prehispanic Katun Wheel
M A IZ E p la n t or, as m exo/ol/, a doubled M A G U E Y
known.
p lan t. X o lo tl and Q U E T Z A L C O A T L are often
p aired , although probably not tw ins; because
o f this relatio n ship , c o a l/ has been corrupted
in M exican Spanish to cuafe, pal or buddy,
and cuafay, tw ins.
In the Codex B orgia, T E Z C A T L iP O C A and
Q u etzalcoatl are tw ins as they jo u rn ey
through the U N D E R W O R L D . T h e PO PO L v u n
relates the adventures o f tw o sets o f tw ins
fa th ere d by H U N n u N A H P u : H u nah p u and X b a -
lan q ue, the H e ro T w in s, and H u n B atz and
H u n C huen, the M o n k ey Scribe tw ins (see
MONKEY). P ain ted M a y a ceram ics reveal o th er
p aired in d ivid u als, b u t no o th er pairs o f tw ins
can be surely id e n tifie d . Some M a y a pairs,
such as the P A D D LE R C O D S , express opposition
^ ra th e r than id e n tity and can be like n e d to The Hero Twins, Hunahpu and Xbalanque,
A ztec di/rasis/nos, p aired oppositions. 5*ee painted within Naj Tunich Cave, Guatemala,
a / y o B IR T H ; D E F O R M IT Y ; D U A L IT Y . Late Classic Maya.
rXiTZÍMÍMK 176
tz itzim im e A m ong th e most feared super containing shalb and banners, or panf/f, O n
natural beings o f L a te Postclassic C e n tra l page 19 o f the Codex Borgia, the fzo m p an d/
M exico w e re the íz/tzñ n ñ n e (singular fz/tz/ is also depicted as a tre e w ith p a n t// banners
m vf/), the star demons o f darkness. According 5e e a/yo TROPHY HEADS.
to C e n tra l M ex ic an b elie f, planets and con
stellations could be transform ed into fierce
devouring demons durin g p a rtic u la r calen-
drical and celestial events. Solar ECLIPSES w e re
an especially feared phenom enon, since it
@U
was b elieved th at the star demons w e re uay In M a y a n languages, the term n ay com
attacking the sux. This concept is probably m only refers to sorcerers and form-changers.
based on the fact that durin g total solar Am ong contem porary Yucatec, th ere is a
eclipses, STARS can be discerned close to the great deal o f concern and fear regarding uay
sun, as if they w e re attacking and o verp o w er sorcerers. In fact, the w ord even appears in
ing it. F o r the Aztecs, the end o f the 52 -ye ar local Spanish as an expression o f alarm and
cycle was an o ther fea rfu l tim e. I f N e w F ire fear. B u t although the u ay sorcerer corre
was not created on the H ill o f the Star sponds closely w ith the highland M exican
(see F!RE), the tz/tzúnñne w ould descend and NAHUAL, in certain M a y a n languages the term
destroy the w orld. signifies a soul-like spirit companion sim ilar
T h e iz/tz/m u n e w e re believed to dive h ead to the M exican TONAL. In M a y a n languages,
first from the heavens, and for this reason, uay can also m ean d ream in g or sleep. This
they w ere com pared to the sptDEH hanging m ay w ell re fe r to the w idespread M a y a b e lie f
head d ow n w ard from its thread. T h e four SKY that the soul or spirit com panion travels in
BEARERS, TLAHU!XCALPANTECUHTU, X1UHTECUHTLÍ, dream s w h ile one is asleep.
EHECATL-QUETXALCOATL and MHTTLANTECUHTL!, Stephen Houston and D a v id S tuart have
could also take on the role o f tzdzñnúne star isolated a glyph denoting uay. This sign is
demons, b ut the tz/fz/m /m e themselves w ere composed o f a stylized hum an face serving
usually considered to be fem ale. T h e Codex as the sign for a/ia u or king, b u t w ith one
M agliabechiano contains skeletal tz/fzñnúne im p ortan t difference - h a lf the face is covered
w earing shell-fringed skirts. Am ong the
by a jACUAR pelt. In Classic texts, anim als and
most im p ortan t íz/fzúnñne was the skeletal
supernatural figures com m only serve as the
/fzp a p a /o d , the goddess o f TAMOANCHAN.
uay o f p articu lar M a y a lords. E ven gods are
described as having uay counterparts. Thus
tzom pantli O ne o f the m ore striking struc
a skeletal SERPENT is described as being the
tures o f M esoam erican public architecture
uay o f C o d K, or K a u il (see scuELLHAS CODS).
was the fzom pand/, or skullrack. This was
In the Classic inscriptions, it is uncertain
a wooden scaffold containing hum an skulls
w h e th e r form -changers or spirit companions
pierced horizontally by crossbeams. T h e term
are being described. F o r this reason, Houston
izompand? is N a h u atl, and it has been w id ely
and Stuart p re fe r to describe the u a y as a
assumed th at this structure derives from
"co-essence." .See a /fo TONAL.
Postclassic C entra! M exico. H o w e v e r, a pro
bable Protoclassic tzom panf/f was excavated
a t L a Coyotera, Oaxaca. M o reo ve r, there are U a ye b Am ong the most im p o rta n t cerem on
indications th at they w e re present a t U xm al ies described for the contact-period M a y a o f
and other T e rm in a l Classic M a y a sites in the Yucatan w e re the rites concerning the U ayeb,
Puuc region o f Yucatan. the five unlucky days a t the end o f the
In the Q uiche M a y a P O P O L V U H , the severed year. D e ta ile d descriptions o f the U a ye b rites
head o f H U N H U N A H P U was placed in a gourd appear in the 16th c. account by D ieg o de
tree next to the ballcourt. This gourd tree is Lan da, and in the C olonial Yucatec Cantares
clearly a reference to the izom pa nf/i filled de Dzff&a/cAé. In addition, passages p e rta in
w ith hum an skulls. In N a h u atl, the term for ing to the U a ye b rites appear in the Prehis-
head is fzonfeccvnaf/, w ith feccvnaf/signifying panic D resden, Paris, and M a d rid codices.
gourd tree. I t appears th at like the Sumbanese T h e Yucatec term U a ye b probably signifies
skull trees o f Indonesia, the tzompand? was the sleeping or resting place o f the year.
considered as a tree laden w ith fru it. In a H o w e v e r, the U a ye b period clearly had more
Toltec-style rock painting a t Ixtapantango, sinister connotations. T h e C an fares de D z ff-
there is a izo m p a n d / portrayed as a tree baVcAá describes this period as a tim e o f evil
177
UNDERWORLD
w hen the UNDERWORLD is open. T h e Prehis-
A tzitzimitl demon,
panic g!yph for the U ayeb p erio d is the 360- Codex Magliabechiano,
day fun sign topped by a U -shaped skeletal 16th c. Aztec.
m aw , q u ite probably the cav e-lik e entrance
to the U n derw o rld . T h e U ayeb cerem ony
continues to be celeb rated by the T zo tzil o f
C ham ula as a n ative form o f C ath o lic C a rn i
val. In this Eve-day festival, perform ers
im personating MONKEYS and o th er dem ons
from the perim eters o f the social w o rld take
control o f the com m unity. A ccording to the
C ham ula people, this festival is p erfo rm ed
during the Eve days o f U ayeb. See aVso
CALENDAR.
BLOOD oE ering. In a ll like lih o o d , these Vision Classic e n tity does not display th e beaded
Serpents fun ctio n as visual m etaphors fo r round eye and thick beak o f the m acaw , and
BiBTH and re b irth , w h e th e r o f d iv in itie s o r m ay ra th e r be based upon the king vi LTLw
hum ans. Vision Serpents usually have a single (Sarroram pA u^ p a p a ). Supplied w ith a WATER
head and p ro m in e n t snake m arkings; they LILY pad headdress and a SERPENT body, this
m ay u n d u la te , although th e y ra re ly a p p ear b ird h ead can serve as the head v a ria n t of
on the ground, and they som etim es have th e 3 60-d ay tun p erio d and th e num eral 13.
fe a th e r crests. In a d d itio n , this sam e character is re p
As SKY d eities , V ision Serpents also a p p ear resented as th e personified b lo o d le tte r re n d
on the C hichen Itz á gold disks, some w ith ered w ith a headdress o f tied knots. See a/so
cloud m arkings along th e ir bodies. Some WATER LILY SERPENT.
codex-style C lassic vases d ep ict the serpent
foo t o f C od K (see scHELLHAS coos) as a Vision v u ltu re T h e king v u ltu re (Sarcoram phus
S erp en t or in the process o f becom ing one, p a p a ), one o f the larg est birds o f M eso am er-
lin k in g the Vision S erpent to the M a y a god o f ica, reaching a size roughly e q u iv a le n t to the
ucHTMmc. M o rp h o lo g ic a lly , th e M a y a vision h arp y E A G L E , ra re ly ventures above 4 000'
serpent closely resem bles the Postclassic C e n (c. 1200 m ), and so was best know n to
tra! M exican xiuncoATL, or fire serpent. L ik e M esoam erican civilizatio n s outside the V a lle y
the X iu h co atl, the Vision S erpent m ay ap p ear o f M exico , although the s m aller tu rkey v u l
in clouds, em bodying ligh tn in g and FIRE, and tu re (C a lA a rfe s a u ra ) and th e black v u ltu re
perhaps, by extension, p o w erfu l storm s. (C bragypes a ira lu y ) a re com m on e ve ryw h e re
in M eso am erica. T h e C e n tra l M ex ica n day
Vucub C aquix In the popoLvuu (th e creation sign C o zcacu auh tli is th e v u ltu re .
epic describing the deeds o f the H e ro T w in s ) A lfonso Caso and Ig n acio B ern al id en tiE ed
a g reat m onster b ird know n as V ucub C aq u ix, a Z apotee d e ity , E l A ve de Pico A ncho, as a
or 7 M a c a w , presides over the m urky tw ilig h t v u ltu re . This Zapotee d e ity is id e n tic al to the
w o rld follo w in g the flood. A lthough he pro PRINCIPAL BIRD DEITY o f the M a y a , w ho is also
claim s h im self to be the SUN and MOON, the a v u ltu re . Protoclassic kings a t K am in alju y ú
d aw ning and separation o f day and N icm have and L a M o ja rra a rra y e d them selves as this
not y e t occurred. A ngered by his arrogance, god. O fte n adorned w ith a h eadband, the
H u nah p u and X b alanq u e w a it for the m on king v u ltu re head substitutes fo r aAau in
ster b ird un d er his fav o rite fru it tree , and M a y a n w n m N C , both fo r th e d ay sign and to
then shoot him dow n w ith th e ir blowguns. m ean " lo rd ."
D u rin g the fierce b a ttle th a t ensues, H u nahpu
loses his arm . H o w ev er, through m agic and
tric ke ry, the H ero T w in s even tu ally d efe at
and k ill Vucub C aquix and restore the arm
o f H u nah p u .
A lthough the P opo/ VuA is a C olonial M a y a W a r Serpent C re a te d d u rin g th e 3rd c. A D , the
docum ent, the episode o f Vucub C aquix can T e m p le o f Q u etzalcoat! o rig in a lly contained
be traced to th e Protoclassic beginnings o f one o f the m ost e lab o ra te a rch itec tu ral
M a y a civiliza tio n . Stela 2 from th e site o f facades know n in a n cien t M eso am erica. T w o
Iza p a portrays the tw o H e ro T w in s running form s o f tenoned sculpture p ro ject ou t o f the
tow ard Vucub C aquix, w ho is descending to facade. O n e o f these heads is c le a rly the
his fru it tre e . A t the base o f the tre e , one can p lum ed serpent, or Q U E T Z A L C O A T L . H o w e v e r,
discern the crum pled rem ains o f the defeated the o th er e n tity has been m ore d iffic u lt to
b ird w ith a bone ja w . T h e m onster b ird also id e n tify . A ltho u g h it has been w id e ly in te r
appears on Iza p a Stela 25, above a m ale w ith p re te d as th e head o f T la lo c , it is a ctu ally a
a b leed in g stum p fo r an arm . C le a rly , this m osaic headdress p o rtray in g a serpent being
scene portrays the fig h t in w hich Vucub w ith ja g u a r attrib u te s . Because o f its fre q u e n t
C aquix tears o ff H unah p u 's arm . appearance w ith w eapons and w a rrio r Egures,
Representations o f the PRINCIPAL BIRD DEITY this e n tity can be called the W a r Serpent.
abound in the a rt o f Protoclassic and Classic T h e W a r S erpent is p ro b ab ly an ancestral
M a y a and can be id e n tifie d w ith Vucub form o f the x iu H C O A T L , th e Ere serpent o f
C aquix. A lthough V ucub C aquix signified 7 Postclassic C e n tra l M exico . A ltho u g h the w a r
M a c a w in Q u ich é, the Protoclassic and serpent probably originates a t T E O T IH U A C A N , it
183 WATER
nam e o f th e C e n tra l M e x ica n goddess CHAL body, b e a k -lik e face, and the bound w a te r
cHiUHTLicuE, She o f th e Jade S k irt, is a lily pad and B ow er serving as its headdress.
m etap h oric allusion to a shining expanse o f The W a te r L ily S erpent serves as head
v erd a n t w a te r. varian ts o f the n u m eral 13 and th e 360-day
As w e ll as a source o f a g ric u ltu ra l fe rtility , tun p erio d . <See a/yo jA C U A H C O D S .
ceram ic vessel depicts a p a ir o f 8sh and birds w eaponry M eso am erican d eities, lik e th e ir
n ib b lin g a w a te r lily , as if the p la n t is the m o rtal counterparts, carried w eapons, and
te rre s tria l in terfa ce b etw een the S K Y and the some M esoam erican w eapons w e re th e m
w a te ry U N D E R W O R L D . M o re o v e r, th e veined selves d eities. T h e fo llo w in g lis t is not com
surface o f the w a te r lily le a f is fre q u e n tly prehensive, b u t it includes the w eapons m ost
m arked w ith a n e t-lik e p a tte rn also used to com m only c arried b y the gods.
d ep ict the surface o f tu rtle shells. A m ong the E ven am ong the O lm ecs, some d eities w ere
M a y a , th e TURTLE was ano th er m odel fo r the arm ed: the e a rly flyin g figures b ea r clubs,
c ircu lar e arth floating upon th e sea. T h e ro le and seated figures - sup ern atu ral or d ivin e -
o f the w a te r lily in M a y a creation m ythology often hold "kn u ckled u sters:" hand stones
continued in to this century. A ccording to one th a t m ay have been some sort o f w eapon.
185
WERE-JACUAR
By Classic tim es, w eaponry is fa r m ore
elaborate: both gods and hum ans w e a r
arm or, bear shields and carry a w id e v a rie ty
o f weapons. In C e n tra l M exico , a t T e o ti-
huacan, w arriors b ear OBsmiAN-tipped lances,
arrow s, and a f/a i/s , or d a rt throw ers, and this
la tte r w eapon retains an id e n tific atio n w ith
C e n tra l M exico throughout tim e. T h e M a y a
adom th e ir shields w ith the face o f the Jaguar
God o f the U n d erw o rld (see JAGUAR GODs), a
patron o f w a r, and som etim es the Jaguar God
o f the U n d erw o rld h im self is arm ed. M a y a
kings som etim es b ear the MANIKIN SCEPTER in
hand as if it w e re a w eapon; h eld in the
hands o f CHAC, the M a n ik in Scepter em bodies
LIGHTNING. D eitie s and w arrio rs both hold
h afted axes, often w ith bloody tips. T h e H ero
T w in s shoot pellets from th e ir blowguns.
In the Postclassic era, perhaps most
im p o rtan t am ong d eified weapons is the
xiUHCOATL, or Ere serpent, the w eapon th a t
HuiTziLOPOCHTLi bears in his hand a t b irth and
uses to k ill his h alf-sister, coYOLXAUHQui, and
to banish his h alf-b ro th ers, the C entzon H u itz -
nahua. O th e r A ztec deities also carry w eapons,
usually the a t/a t/, b u t occasionally long
spears. In close com bat, the Aztecs fought
w ith the m acuahuit/, a club im bedded w ith
obsidian blades.
Across M esoam erica and throughout tim e,
w eapons w e re in most cases used in com bat to
disable bu t not to k ill the opponent. Victorious
lords dispatched th e ir captured enem ies pub
licly , using knives w ith h afted obsidian blades
e ith e r to decapitate or to rem ove the H E A R T .
those w ho sought m iraculous cures. (see T O L L A N ) and C h ich en Itz a , w h ere fou r
T la c a x ip e h u a liztli, usually calculated as the Xiuhcoatls in turquoise mosaic circle the
th ird vem fena o f the solar year, began w ith m irro r rim . T h e a tla n te a n w a rrio r columns
th e Haying o f captives o f w a r, usually fo llo w - from M o u n d B a t T u la w e a r precisely this
189 XIUHTECUHTL]
type o f m irro r upon th e ir backs. In this
case, the bodies o f the fo u r sm oking serpents
disp!ay the grass m o tif o f p a ra lle l lines tip p ed
w ith dots.
T h e association o f the X iu h co atl w ith tu r
quoise, grass and the solar yea r relates to its
essential m eaning o f FERE and solar h eat.
Turquoise, d ry grass, and the vague year
w ere a ll id e n tifie d w ith Ere in Postclassic
C en tra! M exico. T h e X iu hco atl is em blem atic
o f the C en tra! M exican god o f Ere, x i u H T E -
c u H T L i , the Turquoise L o rd . T h e X iu hco atl
HACHA.
Guide to Sources and Bibliography
The reader may well wonder how the authors have come to the contusions
presented in this book. The sources for the Precolumbian past in Mesoamerica are
many and diverse, and the piecing together of gods, iconography, and meaning
rare!y depends on just a single source but rather on the more convincing evidence
that comes from Ending patterns that are reflected in archaeology or ethnohistory.
In genera), we have made direct citations in this book on)y from 16th c. sources,
and we have tried to attribute important post-1950 discoveries to those responsible.
The following discussion and bibhography are by no means exhaustive or complete
(and the reader is advised to look etsewhere for a history of Mesoamerican
archaeology*) but what follows is a description of sources, how they have come
down to us, and how scholars have come to understand them.
Prehispanic Books
Despite the concerted effort by religious and civil authorities to destroy any native
manifestation of "idolatry" after the Conquest, a number of Prehispanic books -
screenfolds of deerskin or Eg paper painted with Ene brushes - have survived. Some
were shipped to Europe before the zeal to destroy overcame the conquerors, while
others were hidden for generations and came to tight in the 19th c. Of primary
importance for studying gods and symbols is the Borgia group of manuscripts, named
after the largest and Enest among them. Although it may have been painted in
Puebla or Cholula or perhaps even in Veracruz, the Codex Borgia is the best
surviving example of a Centra! Mexican book, containing a divinatory 260-day
calendar, sections on yearbearers and Venus, and a long, poorly understood section
("middle pages") that depicts the journey of Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca to the
nadir of the Underworld. Other manuscripts in the Borgia group lack these middle
pages, but all share a similar style and a similar constellation of gods. Most are
named for their original collector and all reside in European libraries: Borgia, Laud,
Fejérváry-Mayer, Cospi, and the Vaticanus B. Donald Robertson demonstrated that
the Codex Borbonicus, long thought to be a Prehispanic book, was made after the
Conquest, but probably before 1530; its Erst part, a tonalamatl, or 260-day calendar,
replicates a luxurious Aztec model. Because of the size and detail of the Borbonicus,
it offers one of the best guides to trecena patrons and veintena festivals.
Several Mixtee Prehispanic codices have survived, perhaps because of their
predominantly historical and genealogical content, or it may simply be that
* For histones of Mesoamerican archaeology, the reader should consult Bernal 1962, Adams 1969, Bernal 1960, and
Willey and Sablolf 1980. The history of the recognition of art in the New World is treated in Kubler 1990. See Keen
1971 and Boone 1987 for a consideration of Aztec historiography; for the Maya, see Scheie and Miller 1986, Miller
1989. Coe 1992 and Stuart 1992.
195 CUIDE TO SOURCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
ancient picture book, as in the case of the Popo/ VuA. As the 16th c. progressed, the
Spanish Crown passed from Charles V to Philip II, who had less desire to understand
Mesoamerica and less patience with the eclectic sort of books made there: his
subordinates must have destroyed the missing copies of Sahagun's encyclopedia,
although he did commission the Pe/aciones geográFcas, completed in 1583. After
the English defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, Spain wanted little from her
colonies but precious minerals. By the end of the 16th c., 90 percent of the indigenous
population had died; the generation that had known Preconquest life was gone, and
sympathetic friars had generally given way to less educated priests dependent on
local Colonial patronage. The Crown forbade foreigners (i.e. non-Spanish born) to
visit the colonies. The Precolumbian past was passively abandoned or actively
destroyed.
The major groups of 16th c. native or hybrid works can be roughly classiBed as
follows (some are written on native paper, others on European paper; a /lenzo is
painted on cloth; the catalogue in the Handbook o í Afidd/e American indians,
particularly Glass 1975, should be consulted):
MAPs: including Plano en Papel de Maguey, Mapa de Coatlinchan, Mapas de
Cuauhtinchan, Mapa Quinatzin, Mapa de Santa Cruz, among others
H iSTO RiCAL/R EUG ious CHRONICLES: including Relación de Michoacán, Codex Boturini,
Codex Mendoza, part 1, Lienzo de Tlaxcala (orig. lost), Historia Tolteca-
Chichimeca, the Popol Vuh
TRIBUTE LiSTs: Codex Mendoza, part 2 , and Matricula de Tributos
D E S C R I P T I O N S O F F E S T I V A L S A N D CUSTOMS: including the Codex Magliabechiano and
its group; the paired manuscripts Codex Telleriano-Remensis and Codex Rios, or
Vaticanus A; the Tovar Calendar; and Codex Mendoza, part 3
Other manuscripts, including an herbal, Codex Badianus, written in Latin by a
learned Nahuatl speaker, survive from the 16th c., but few have played a seminal
role in the decipherment of Mesoamerican gods and symbols. Some later Colonial
sources, including Tezozómoc's Crónica mexicana (c. 1600), Torquemada's Monar-
cAia indiana (c. 1613), Chimalpahin's Pe/aciones (c. 1625), Ixtlilxochitl's .Relaciones
and Historia cAicAimeca, and the various Mayan Books of Chilam Balam (all 18th
c.) include information not available from other sources.
destroyed, and the scholar Antonio Léon y Gama began deciphering their meaning
He was the Erst student to puMish accurate, measured drawings of Aztec religious
art. Although he thought the Calender Stone to be a true calendar, recording hours,
days, weeks, months, years, and other cycles, a reading no longer tenable, he
nevertheless correctly identified many symbols and gods (while misidentifying
others), and we may consider Léon y Gama s efforts as the first scientific study of
Mesoamerican iconography.
Following the Mexican declaration of independence in 1810 and the withdrawal
of Spanish authority in 1821 (and the independence oL Centra! America in 1825,
opening up yet more lands), European, North American, and Mexican investigators
surged across the countryside, exploring, studying, and collecting evidence of the
past. And when the Spanish left, they took with them quantities of documents,
including, for example, the works of Diego Durán.
The Precolumbian past and the sophisticated cultures whose wreckage lay on and
under the ground puzzled its 19th c. students and many offered fantastic explanations,
some of which the Spanish had already put forth, such as the notion that
Mesoamerican civilization was founded by the Lost Tribes of Israel or by strayed
Egyptians (see Wauchope 1962). Soon Atlantis, India, China, and Africa were added
to the stew; the Mormons saw Mesoamerican civilization as the locus for a separate
resurrection of Christ. Authors argued about the possibility for high civilization to
have flourished at all in Mesoamerica, but by the end of the century there was
near-universal consensus among scholars that it had, that there was more time depth
and antiquity than previously thought, and more diversity of cultures; among
competing explanations, the idea that these cultures had grown up in the New
World without Old World stimuli began to take root.
John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood explored what are now Guatem
ala, Belize, Honduras, and the Mexican states of Chiapas, Yucatán, Campeche, and
Quintana Roo in 1839-42, documenting dozens of Maya cities with lively descriptions
and generally accurate illustrations. Unlike most of their contemporaries, they
believed that the living Maya descended from the city-builders, and they recognized
the uniformity of Maya writing across the vast geographic realm they traveled. They
had no reason to believe that the cities had been abandoned any earlier than the
time of the Conquest and so knew nothing of the antiquity of Maya cities. Stephens'
four volumes were bestsellers; they went through dozens of editions and printings,
perhaps creating the Erst large audience of armchair archaeologists in history, and
they undoubtedly sparked interest in those who would later be scholars of ancient
Mesoamerica.
Between 1831 and 1846, Edward King, Lord Kingsborough, drove himself into
bankruptcy by bankrolling and publishing nine elephantine folios of facsimile
reproductions of Precolumbian and Postconquest Mesoamerican codices and manu
scripts known in European collections. Despite some serious handicaps - the copyist
Agostino Aglio misinterpreted unfamiliar imagery and inevitably changed details in
his interpretations of the manuscripts, and the enormous volumes could be bought
only by major libraries or by the very wealthy - for the Erst time, the rich iconography
in these books could be consulted widely, and dozens of Precolumbian sculptures
were also illustrated. With this documentation, scholars could assemble and study
the temples, books and gods of Mesoamerica, from Teotihuacan and Tenochtitlan
in the north, on through Xochicalco, El Tajin, Monte Albán, and Mitla, to the Maya
sites in the south.
199 CUIDE TO SOURCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aztec history had been described many times by the 19th c., but the American
historian William H. Prescott wrote what we might call the first "modern" history
of the Aztecs, a 3-volume study published in 1843, using voluminous sources,
particularly Precolumbian and early Postconquest manuscripts, to build a picture of
the Aztecs that included their religious life. Sahagun's works began to be rediscovered,
and a 3-volume Spanish edition of the Genera/ ARsfory text was published in 1829-
30. And as museums around the world were founded, Mesoamerican antiquities
began to receive a permanent, stable home; Founded in 1825, the Mexican National
Museum has always housed the world s largest collection of Aztec antiquities. By
the end of the century, the Trocadero, British Museum, American Museum of
Natural History, and Smithsonian Institution, among others, would all amass
signiBcant collections of Mesoamerican materials.
At mid-century, several scholars competed to collect Precolumbian and Colonial
manuscripts, prying them loose from archives, churches, and small towns. In the
18th c., Lorenzo Boturini had bought some 500 manuscripts before xenophobic
Spanish ofBcals deported him, confiscated the collection and then let it be dismantled.
J. M. A. Aubin spent a decade collecting manuscripts around Mexico City and
succeeded in reassembling many pieces of the Boturini corpus, which he then took
to Paris in 1840 and spent the rest of his life studying. In Mexico, despite
his antipathy for the Aztecs, Joaquín Garcia Icazbalceta assembled previously
unpublished documents relating to Mexico's history and began publishing them in
1858. Considering himself Aubin's heir, Abbé Charles-Etienne Brasseur de Bour-
bourg traveled among the Maya and sought out manuscripts and documents that
he hoped would unravel their past. His perserverance and luck led him to make
several important discoveries: first, in Guatemala, he came upon the 18th c. copy
of the 16th c. Popo/ FuA, translated it into French and published it; then, back in
Spain, he found the Madrid Codex and a copy of Landa's Pe/ac/on and published
them as well.
Brasseur's discoveries ushered in a new phase of study, in which 16th c.
commentaries were used to decipher Precolumbian books and art. Using the variety
of sources now available to them, scholars in Mexico, the United States, and Europe
began to identify gods, symbols, and iconography. Books and journals proliferated,
fueling greater interest; national governments, academic institutions and private
backers sponsored campaigns of exploration, and eventually, of excavation.
During the long, stable reign of Porfirio Díaz in Mexico (1876-1911), Mexican
scholars began to study the Aztecs and their predecessors with care. Because of
their identification with the despised Porfirio Díaz regime, however, some of their
works have been unjustly neglected, or even condemned. Manuel Orozco y Berra,
Jesús Sánchez, Alfredo Chavero, Justo Sierra, José Fernando Ramírez, Cecilio
Robelo, and Jesús Calindo y Villa, among others, read manuscripts, published
previously unknown documents, and began interpreting Aztec art, life and religion.
Robelo published his 2-volume D/cc/onar/o <Ze M/fo/qgia NaAuaf/ in 1905, a
compendium of Centra! Mexican religion that was rarely cited by his contemporaries
(and even less frequently today) but which must have been heavily consulted by
his contemporaries and successors. Based on the sources unearthed or published by
his learned colleagues, Robelo's dictionary is useful for any student of Aztec
gods and symbols today and has remained surprisingly current. Of his Mexican
contemporaries, Francisco Paso y Troncoso made the greatest contribution. A skilled
naAuaf/afo, or Nahuatl-speaker and translator, Paso y Troncoso dedicated much of
CLIDE TO SOURCES AND BiBUOCRAPHY 200
his tife to rediscovering the works of Bernardino de Sahagún and making them
available to scholars, although his vast project of translation and publication was
teft unhnished upon his death in Europe in 1916.
Leopold Batres carried out excavations at Mida, Teotihuacan, and Tenochtitlan,
and although the following generation of archaeologists harshly criticized Batres'
techniques and results, his efforts laid the groundwork for modern archaeology in
Mexico. After the Mexican Revolution, Manuel Camio carried out the first strati
graphic excavations in Mexico, at Atzcapotzalco, opening up the possibility of
documenting civilized life in the first millennium BC.
in France, E.-T. Hamy studied and separated Aztec from non-Aztec works in
Paris museums, publishing dozens of articles in his journal Decades amer/caines,
identifying gods and relating Teotihuacan representations to Aztec deities in useful
investigations, although he shared with Brasseur a passion for theories of non-native
origins of Mesoamerican civilization. He published the first edition of the Codex
Borbonicus in 1899. Desire Charnay had visited Mexico in 1857, but his 1880 trip
produced his most important observations, the identiheation of Tula, Hidalgo, with
the home of the Toltecs, and the linking of it culturally and temporally to Chichen
ítxá, but unfortunately he then went on to attribute all civilization in Mesoamerica
to Toltec genius.
Several German scholars made important contributions to the deciphering of
Mesoamerican religious imagery at the end of the 19th c., but the wide-ranging
efforts of Eduard Seler remain the most important today, perhaps because his
commentaries are almost always rooted in an object or corpus: only rarely did Seler
begin with an idea that he sought to prove, rather than starting with a text, an
object, or a building. Sponsored by the Due de Loubat, a wealthy New Yorker, from
1887 onward, Seler wrote commentaries to new facsimile editions of many codices
in which he identified the gods, explicated the calendrics and related patterns to
ethnohistoric documents. Although more skilled in his manipulation of Central
Mexican materials, Seler was the hrst to compare Maya and Mexican materials
systematically; more profoundly than any of his contemporaries, Seler drew
his interpretations from the widest possible range of sources, including history,
ethnohistory, and archaeological remains. Seler's writings began to be collected in
the 5-volume Cesamme/fe AAAant#ungan in 1902, and the final volume was issued
posthumously in 1923. Seler's vast corpus remains the point of departure for most
modern iconographic inquiries.
Once Ernst Forstemann, Royal Librarian in Dresden, began to prepare a facsimile
edition of the Dresden Codex (pub. 1880), he worked with the manuscript until he
had broken the code of the Maya calendar and mathematics, making possible the
decipherment of the Long Count of the monuments and its correlation to the
Christian calendar, as later propounded by the American journalist J. T. Goodman
in 1905. From that point on, the antiquity of the Maya monuments later attributed
to the "Classic" period was known, and the dichotomy of "Maya: Creeks of the
New World" vs. "Aztecs: Romans of the New World" took root. The sudden
cessation of Maya monuments with Long Count dates in the 9th c. came to be called
the "collapse," a problem for scholars from that time onward. In 1897, Paul ScheHhas
inaugurated modern Maya iconographic studies with his investigation of the deities
of the Maya codices in which he carefully isolated separate iconographic entities,
recognized their name glyphs, and assigned neutral letters of the alphabet to
individual gods.
201 GUIDE TO SOURCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
In the United States, Daniel Brinton translated Nahuatl poetry into English (1887)
and reacted against the excesses of enthusiasts like Chamay with skeptical attacks
on the very existence of the Toltecs, invoking, in turn, the wrath of Seler. Zelia
Nuttall, the Erst woman scholar to study Mesoamerica, published commentaries on
Precolumbian manuscripts, correctly identiEed the large piece of featherwork in the
Vienna Museum as a headdress, perhaps Motecuhzoma's, rather than a standard,
and offered hypotheses for the meanings of some Mesoamerican calendrical cycles
that her male colleagues found laughable, although some have been shown to be
probable today. She correctly proposed that a Mixtee codex (like her contemporaries,
she thought the Mixtee books were Aztec) depicted largely historical, not religious,
iconography; in her honor, the book, the Codex Nuttall, was given her name.
Probably inspired by the writings of Stephens, scholars in the United States and
England focused their attention on the Maya, particularly the discovery and
exploration of archaeological sites. Alfred P. Maudslay made extensive Maya art
available to study through publication of drawings of monuments at Copan, Quiriguá,
Palenque, Yaxchilán, and Chichen Itzá. Despite efforts by Cyrus Thomas and others
to use the Landa "alphabet" to decipher Maya texts, the nature of the script
remained unknown until Yuri Knorosov tackled it after World War II. J. T. Goodman
recognized the head and fu!!-Sgure variants for numbers and period glyphs, some
of which turned out to be gods. Herbert Spinden built on Schellhas's 1897 list of
Postclassic Maya gods by identifying some of them and isolating yet others in the
earlier Classic art for his 1909 Harvard dissertation, later published as A of
Maya Art in 1913. George Vaillant established the basic chronological sequence for
Maya ceramics still in use today. Harvard sponsored campaigns of archaeological
exploration and documentation, and the Carnegie Institution of Washington domi
nated Maya archaeology between the World Wars, publishing vast quantities of
material for later iconographic exegesis.
Knowledgeable in all aspects of Mesoamerica except the Maya, Caso explored Aztec
religion and iconography and offered what until recently were the most explicit
studies of Mesoamerican calendars, and many of his interpretations have remained
in favor.
Unlike many other Mesoamerican sites, Teotihuacan was never lost from view.
But although Charnay had idenüBed Tula, Hidalgo, as the historical home of the
Toltecs, Teotihuacan had come to be considered Tula for most of the century. The
discovery in the late 1930s of Teotihuacan-style pottery in contexts with datable
Early Classic Maya pottery at Kaminaljuyú pushed Teotihuacan back into the first
millennium AD and opened a place for Tula, confirmed as the Toltec capital by
Wigberto Jimenez-Moreno at the first round table of the Sociedad mexicana de
antropología in 1941.
As professor of anthropology at the National Autonomous University of Mexico
in the 1920s, Seler's student Hermann Beyer carried on Mesoamerican iconographic
studies, particularly of Aztec art, as did Walter Lehmann in Germany. Angel Maria
Garibay offered the first comprehensive translations of Nahuat! texts. Ignacio
Marquina explored the iconography of Mesoamerican architecture. Ignacio Bernal
carried on Caso and Covarrubias's Olmec studies.
After World War H, scholars sought unified terminologies to refer to both time
and place. Spinden and Morley's notion of Old and New Empires for the Maya, for
example, had never applied to other parts of Mesoamerica, and evidence for early
occupation of Yucatán made it impossible to believe the Maya collapse to have been
a wholesale movement of peoples. A. V. Kidder and Tatiana Proskouriakoff of the
Carnegie Institution of Washington began to refer in published works to what had
also been called the "Initial Series Period" as the Classic era, roughly AD 300-900,
and they used the term to refer to other contemporaneous cultures at Monte Alban
and Teotihuacan. The Postclassic era, then, began with the rise of the Toltecs at
Tula; the Olmec and other early developments were Preclassic, and fell in the Brst
millennium Be. Such terms implied a value judgment that the "Classic" era achieved
some ideal, a notion now out of favor, and so other terms have been proposed, but
only the substitution of "Formative" for Preclassic has taken hold.
In 1943, Paul Kirchhoff suggested the name Mesoamerica to refer to an area of
shared cultural traditions from 14 to 21 degrees north latitude, encompassing much
of Mexico, all of Guatemala and Belize, and the northern strip of Honduras and El
Salvador. This term has successfully replaced "Middle America," "Nuclear Amer
ica," or the names of modern nation-states in scholarly discussion of the region.
History and PeAgion (1970) he offered a new model of Maya religion, with many
gods subsumed under Itzamna.
The Carnegie Institution of Washington began to phase out its program of Maya
research after World War II, and Maya archaeologists turned away from the
excavation of major ceremonial architecture and the documentation of stone
monuments. In the held, archaeologists sought to determine the nature of Maya
settlement, without any special consideration of the elite and their art, yielding few
studies of religion, gods, and iconography, intellectual territory they had ceded to
Thompson. The contributions of Gunter Zimmermann (1956) and Ferdinand Anders
(1963), updating the works of Schellhas and other German scholars, were among
only a very few such studies of the period.
Since 1970, however, studies of Maya religion have flourished, dependent in part
on the decipherment of Maya hieroglyphic writing that began with Yuri Knorosov
(Brst comprehensively published in English in 1967), Heinrich Berlin (1958), Tatiana
Proskouriakoff (1960, 1963, 1964), David Kelley (1962, 1976) and continued on with
Victoria Bricker, Federico Fahsen, Nikolai Grube, Stephen Houston, John Justeson,
Floyd Lounsbury, Berthold Riese, Linda Scheie, and David Stuart, among others.
It took hieroglyphic decipherment, for example, for Proskouriakoff to prove that
Maya depictions represented named nobility, including women (1960), or to see
that the Classic Maya were a warlike people (e.g. Miller 1986). The 8 volumes
issued to date of the Palenque Round Table have been a forum for discussions of
Maya art and writing (1974-). Linda Scheie has tackled dozens of iconographic
problems, with many of the results published in The P/ood of Kmgy (1986) and A
Foresf of Kings (1990), and she initiated Copan Notes and Texas No fes, privately
published iconographic and epigraphic commentaries. Research jReporfs on Anc/enf
Maya Wb&ng, published by George Stuart, also treat religion and iconography. Karl
Taube has made a systematic reassessment of Postclassic Maya deities (1992).
Decipherment of Maya writing has meant not only the idenüBcation of deity names
but also the recognition of verbs marking religious events, among them bloodletting,
war, sacriBce, dreaming, dancing, death, and burial. Stephen Houston and David
Stuart recently cracked the pattern of naming places in Maya script and found the
names of supernatural places along with those of the mundane world.
iconographic studies have also grown because of a near-explosion of new materials
for study from both archaeology and looting. Michael Coe has studied the new
corpus of Classic Maya ceramics and used the Popo/ VnA to decipher iconography
and identify gods (1973, 1975, 1977, 1978, 1982); Clemency Coggins analyzed the
Tikal corpus (1975), while Francis Robicsek and Donald Hales considered others
without provenience (1981, 1982). Karl Herbert Mayer has assembled photographs
of looted monuments (1980, 1991). Since 1970, Nicholas Hellmuth has been
photographing Maya vessels, building a photographic archive kept at the University
of Texas at San Antonio (e.g. Quirarte 1979) and several museums; using the archive,
Hellmuth has analyzed Early Classic iconography (1987). Justin Kerr is publishing
the corpus of Maya vessels he has photographed with his rollout camera (1989,
1990, 1992). New editions and translations of the Popo/ VuA have been useful
(Edmonson 1971; Tedlock 1985), as are new facsimile editions of the Maya codices
and the identiBcation of a fourth Preconquest book, the Grolier Codex (Coe 1973).
Archaeological exploration has promoted study of gods and iconography, particularly
with the careful line drawings of monuments now considered obligatory for any
archaeological project (Jones and Satterthwaite 1982; Beetz and Satterthwaite 1981),
GLIDE TO SOURCES AND B!BL!OCRAPHY 2ÍM
and the Corpus project directed by tan Craham has set a high standard for at! other
)ine drawings (Corpus of Maya Hieroglyphic Inscriptions 1975-). The tomb paintings
at Rio Azu! have ampliBed an understanding of the Maya iconography of death and
the cave paintings at Naj Tunich have revealed the world of cave rituals. Ongoing
projects at Copan and Dos Pilas continue to yield iconographic materials without
precedent.
Some archaeological discoveries also reshaped fundamental thinking about Maya
gods and religion, and discoveries at Cerros, El Mirador, and Kohunlich have shown
that those gods were known by at least 100 BC; some of th$ Postconquest Popo/ VuA
narrative appears to be explicit on highland monuments and at Izapa by no later
than AD 100. The murals of Bonampak and the discovery of the secret tomb within
the Temple of Inscriptions at Palenque both suggested persona! aggrandizement
rather than paeans to Maya gods; the subsequent discovery of a major tomb at the
base of Tikal Temple I conBrmed the pattern of tombs within temples, ultimately
leading Mayanists to recognize the role of ancestor worship in religion. Settlement
studies have revealed the complexity of urban and rural life for the Maya; ecological
archaeology has frequently resonated with iconographic patterns (Puleston 1976).
Recognition of war iconography among the Classic Maya (Riese 1984, Scheie and
Miller 1986; Scheie and Freidel 1990) has narrowed the perceived intellectual and
moral rift between the Classic Maya and the Maya at Chichen Itzá, raising questions
of dating, provoking new iconographic studies of Postclassic Yucatán, and forcing a
reevaluation of the role played by Tula at Chichen Itzá (Coggins and Shane 1984;
Lincoln 1990).
Sources of Quotations
Direct citations from the Florentine Codex in Cods and SymAoVs of Ancient Mexico
and fAe Maya are labelled FC in the main entries and come from the A. J. O.
Anderson and C. E. Dibble translations, 1950-1982 (listed under Sahagun in the
Bibliography).
Direct citations of the Fopo/ VnA are from the Dennis Tedlock translation, 1985.
207 CUIDE TO SOURCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abbreviations MAI Museum of the American Indian, Heye
BAE Bureau of American Ethnology Foundation, New York
CiW Carnegie institution of Washington MARI Middle American Research Institute
DOS Dumbarton Oaks Studies in Pre-Columbian PMM Peabody Museum Memoirs
Art and Archaeology PMP Peabody Museum Papers
ECM Estudios de Cultura Maya PBT Palenque Mesa Redonda or Palenque
ECN Estudios de Cultura Náhuatl Round Table, ed. M. C. Robertson
HM A/ Handbook of Middle American Indians BBAMW Research Reports on Ancient Maya
fCA Proceedings of the International Congress Writing
of Americanists BMFA Revista Mexicana de Estudios Antropo
IMS Institute for Mesoamerican Studies, SUNY lógicos
Albany TB Tika! Report, University Museum
Acosta, Jorge R., 1940, "Exploraciones en Tula, Bel!, Betty, ed., 1974, The Arcbaeo/ogy o f West
Hidalgo 1940," BMEA, 14, 172-94 Mexico, Ajijic, Jalisco
------, 1957, "Interpretación de algunos de los datos Benson, Elizabeth P., ed , 1968, The Dumbarton
obtenidos en Tula relativos a la época Tolteca," OaAs Conference on the O/mec, Washington,
BMEA, 14, 75-100 DC.
Adams, Richard E. W., 1969, "Maya Archaeology ------ , ed., 1972, The Cu/toftheFe/ine, Washington,
1958-1968, A Review," Latin American DC.
Research Be view, 4:2, 3-45 ------ , ed., 1973, Mesoamerican Writing Systems,
Alcorn, Janis B , 1984, Huasfec Mayan Ethno- Washington, D C.
botany, Austin ------ , ed., 1981, Mesoamerican Ates and Wor/d-
Alva Ixtíilxóchit!, Fernando de, 1965, Obras histór Mfews, Washington, D C.
icas de Don Fernando de A/va Lrdiixócbid, 2 vols. ------ , ed., 1987, City-States o f the Maya. Art and
Mexico City Architecture, Denver
Alzate y Ramírez, José Antonio, 1791, "Descripción ------ , and Coe, Michael, eds., 1981, The O/mec
de las antigüedades de Xochicalco," Supplement and Their Neighbors. Essays in Memory o f M.
to Caceta de /iteratura, No. 31, Mexico W. Stirhng, Washington D C.
Anawalt, Patricia, 1981, Jodian C/otbing Be/bre Benson, Elizabeth P., and CriIBn, Cillett, eds., 1989,
Cortés, Norman, Okla Maya iconography, Princeton
Anders, Ferdinand, 1963, Das Bantbeon derMaya, Berlin, Heinrich, 1958, "El glifo emblema en las
Craz inscripciones mayas," /ourna/ de /a Socié té des
------ , and Maarten Jansen, eds., 1988, Scbriit und Americanistes, N.S. 47, 111-19
Buch im a/ten Mexiho, Craz ------ , 1963, "The Palenque Triad," /ourna/ de /a
Aubin, J. M. A., 1849, Mémoire sur /a peinture Société des Americanistes, N.S. 52, 91-99
didactique et /ecriture figurative des anciens
------ , and Kelley, David H., 1970, The 819-Day
mexicafns, Paris
Count and Color-Direction Symbolism Among
Aveni, Anthony F., 1980, SAywatchers o f Ancient
the Classic Maya, MARI Pub. 26, 9-20
Mexico, Austin
------ , ed., 1988, N ew Directions in American Berio, Janet Catherine, ed., 1983, Text and /mage
Archaeoastronomy, Oxford in Pre-Co/umbian Art. Essays on the inter
------ , and Brotherston, Cordon, 1983, Ca/endars in relationship o f the Merba/ and the Misua/ Arts,
Mexico and Peru and Native American Compu Oxford
tations o f Time, Oxford ------ , 1984, Teotihuacan Art Abroad. A Study o f
Badianus Manuscript: An Aztec Herbal of 1552, Metropo/itan Sty/e and Provincia/ Trans-
1940, ed. E. W. Emmart, Baltimore /brmation in incensario Workshops, Oxford
Bardawd, Lawrence, 1976, "The Principal Bird ------ , cd., in press, Art, Po/ity, and the City o f
Deity in Maya Art," PBT2, Part III, 195-209 Teotihuacan
Barlow, Robert, 1949, The Extent of the Empire of ------, and Diehl, Richard, eds., 1989, Mesoamerica
the Culhua Mexica, ibcro-Americana 28 After the Dec/ine o f Teotihuacan, Washington,
Barrera Vásquez, Alfredo, ed., 1980, Diccionario DC.
Maya Cordemex. Maya-Españo/, Espanof- Bernal, Ignacio, 1962, Bib/iografla de arqueo/ogia
Maya, Merida e etnografía. Mesoamerica y Norte de México,
Batres, Leopoldo, 1889, Teotihuacan, o /a ciudad Mexico City
sagrada de /os 7b/tecas, Mexico City ------ , 1979, The Ba//p/ayers o f Dainzú, Craz
------ , 1902, Exp/oraciones en Monte A/bén, Mexico ------ , 1980, A Distory o f Mexican Archaeo/ogy,
City London and New York
Baudez, Claude F , 1985, "The Knife and the Berrín, Kathleen, 1988, Feathered Seipenfs and
Lancet: the Iconography of Sacrifice at Copan," F/owcring Trees, San Francisco
Fourth P B T 1980, 201-210 Beyer, Hermann, 1921, E/ //amado 'Ca/endario
Bectz, Carl f a n d Linton Satterthwaitc, 1981, The Azteca,' Mexico City
Monuments and inscriptions o f Caraco/, Be/ize, ------ , 1965, Mito y simbo/ismo de/ méxieo antiguo,
Univ. Mus. Monograph 45, Philadelphia Mexico City
GLIDE TO SOURCES AND BiBLtOCBAPHY 208
Bicrhorst, John, trans , 1985, Cantares Mexicanos; Carmack, Robert, 1981, 7Ae Quiche Maya# o í
Songs o í the Aztecs. Stanford Ltat/an, Norman, Okla
Blom, Frans, 1950, "A Polychrome Plate from Carrasco, David, 1990. PeAg/ons o í Mesaamcrira.
Quintana Roo/' N otes on Mr&f/e American New York
ArcAaeo/cgy and EtAno/cgy No. 9^ CIW ------ , ed., 1991, To CAapge P/ace. Aztec Ceremon
------ , and La Farge, Oliver. 1925, 7r/5es and ia/ Landscapes, Niwot, Colo
7emp/es, M ARI Pub. 1, 2 vols. Carrasco, Pedro, and Broda, Johanna, eds , 1978,
Boone, Elizabeth Hill, ed., 1982, 71&e Art and/con Economía po/ftica e ideo/ogia en e/ Mexico pre-
ography o í Late Post-C/ass/c Centra/ Mexico, Aispanico, Mexico City
Washington, D C. Caso, Alfonso, 1942, "El paraíso terrenal en Teoti-
------ , 1983, 7Ae Codex MagAaAecA/ano and the huacan," Cuadernos Americanos. 6, 127-38
Lost Prototype o í the MagAaAecAiano Croup. ------ , 1967, Losca^eni/ar/ospreA/sp^/ucos, Mexico
Berkeley City
------ , ed., 1984, P/tua/ /fuman SachAce m ------ , 1969, E/ tesoro de Monte A/hán, Mexico City
Mesoamerica, Washington, D C. ------ , and Ignacio Bernal, 1952, Ernas de Oaxaca,
------ , ed., 1987, 7Ae Aztec 7emp/o Mayor, INAH Memorias 2
Washington, D C. Charnay, Désiré, 1885, Les anciennes vi//es du
------ . 1987, "Temple Mayor Research, 1521-1978." Nouveau Monde, Paris
in TAe Aztec 7*emp/o Mayor, ed. E. H. Boone, Chimalpahin Cuauhtlehuanitzin, Domingo, 1965,
Washington, D C. Pe/aciones origina/es de CAa/co Amaquemecan,
------ , 1989, /ncarnaf/onsoí the Superna tura/. The Mexico City
/mage o í Zfu/tz/fopocAfA /n Mexico and Europe. Clarkson, Persis, B„ 1978, "Classic Maya Pictorial
Philadelphia Ceramics: A Survey of Content and Theme," in
Bowditch, Charles P , ed., 1904, Mexican and R. Sidrys, ed., Papers on the Economy and
Centra/ American Antiquities. Ca/endar Sys Architecture o í tAe Ancient Maya, Los Angeles,
tems, and //istorv. 24 Papers Ay Eduard &?/er 86-141
et a/, BAEB 28 Clcndinncn, Inga, 1990 "Ways to the Sacred:
Brasscur dc Bourbourg, Charles E., 1861, Popo/ Reconstructing Religion' in Sixteenth-Century
VuA. Le /ifre saerd et /es mytAes de /antiquitd Mexico," /fistovyani/AntAropo/qgy, 5, 105-141
a/ndricainc, Paris ------ , 1991, Aztecs. An interpretation, Cambridge
------ , 1869, Manuscrit Troano. Etudes sur /e and New York
systdme grapA/que et /a Zangue des Mayas, Paris Codex Aubin (Codex of 1576), 1903, Mexico City
Breton, Adela C . 1917, 'Preliminary Study of the Codex Aubin: Historia de la nación mexicana, 1963,
North Building (Chamber C), Great Ball Court, ed. C. E. Dibble, Madrid
Chichen Itzá, Yucatán," Z9tA 7CA, 187-94 Codex Bodley, 1960, ed. A. Caso, Mexico City
Bricker, Victoria R., 1986, A Crammar o í Maya Codex Borbonicus, 1974, ed. K. Nowotny, Graz
/iierqg/ypAs, MARI Pub. 56 Codex Borgia, 1978, ed. K. Nowotny, Graz
------ , and Cossen, Cary H., 1989, EtAnograpAic Codex Boturini, 1944, Mexico City
Encounters in ^outAern Mesoamerica. Essays in Codex Colombino, 1966, ed. A. Caso and M. E.
/fonor o í Even Z. Vogt, Albany Smith, Mexico City
Brinton, Daniel, 1887, Ancient NaAuat/ Poet/y, Codex Cospi, 1968, ed. K. Nowotny, Graz
Philadelphia Codex Féjerváry-Mayer, 1971, ed. C. Burland,
Broda, Johanna, 1969, TAe Mexican Ca/endar as Graz
Compared to Other Mesoamerican Systems, Codex Ixtlilxochitl, 1976, ed. J. de Durand-Forest,
Acta EtAno/ogica et Lingüistica, 15, Vienna Graz
Broda, Johanna, David Carrasco, and Eduardo Codex Laud, 1966, ed. C. Burland, Graz
Matos Moctezuma, 1987, 7Ae Great Temp/e o í Codex Magliabechiano, 1970, ed. F. Anders and
TenocAfif/an. Center and PeripAevy in tAe Aztec Jacqueline de Durand-Forest, Graz
Wbr/d Berkeley Codex Mendoza, 1938, ed. and commentary by
Burgoa, Francisco de, 1674, Ceqgrd/7ca desenpeion, James Cooper Clark, London
Mexico Codex Mendoza, 1992, ed. Frances Berdan and
Burkhart, Louise M., 1989, 7Ae SAppery EartA. Patricia Rie# Anawalt, Los Angeles
NaAua-CAristian Mora/ Dia/cgue in SixteentA- Codex Nuttall, A Picture Manuscript from Ancient
century Mexico, Tucson Mexico, 1975, New York
Campbell, R. Joe, 1985, A MovpAo/ogZca/ Diction Codex Rios (Vaticanus A), 1900, Rome
ary o í ¿Tassica/ NaAuat/, Madison Codex Selden, 1964, ed. A. Caso and M. E. Smith,
Carlson, John B., 1983, "The Crolier Codex: A Mexico City
Preliminary Report on the Content and Authen Codex Vaticanus Nr. 3773 (Vaticanus B), 1902, ed.
ticity of a Thirteenth-Century Maya Venus E. Seler, Berlin
Almanac," in A. F. Aveni and G. Brotherston, Codex Vaticanus B, 1972, ed. F. Anders, Graz
eds., Ca/endars in Mesoamerica and Peru. Codex Vindobonensis, 1974, ed. O. Adelhofer,
Native Computations o í Time, Oxford, 27-57 Craz
------ , 1990, Star Wars and Maya Merchants at Códice Borgia, 1963, ed. and commentary by
Cacaxt/a, Center for Archaeoastronomy Eduard Seler, 3 vols, Mexico City
Occasional Pub. 7, College Park, Md. Codice Chimalpopoca: anales de Cuauhtitlan y
209 GUIDE TO SOURCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
¡eyenda de ¡0 $ so!es, 1945, trans. and ed. Primo Duran, Diego, 1964, The Aztecs, trans. F. Horcasitas
Feliciano Velazquez, Mexico City and D. Heyden, New York
Coe, Michael D., 1968, Amenca s First C/wAzaiJon. ------ , 1971, Book o f the Cods and Bites and The
Discovering the Olmec, New York Ancient Ca/endar, trans. D Heyden and F.
------, 1973, The Maya 5cribe and His World, New Horcasitas, Norman
York Earle, Duncan M., and Snow, Dean, 1985, The
------ , 1975, Classic Maya Pottery at Dumbarton Origin of the 260-day Calendar: the Gestation
Oaks, Washington, D C. Hypothesis Reconsidered in Light of its Use
------, 1977, "Supernatural Patrons of Maya Scribes Among the Quiche-Maya," in Fi/th PB71
and Artists," Social Process in Maya Prehistory, 241-44
ed. N. Hammond, New York, 327-47 Easby, Elizabeth and John Scott, 1970, Be/bre
------ , 1978, Lords o f the Underworld, Princeton Cortes. Sculpture o f Midd/e America, New
------ , 1982, Old Cody and Young Heroes, Jerusalem York
------ , 1984, Mexico, 3rd edn, London and New Edmonson, Munroe, 1971, The Book o f Counsel.
York The Popo/ Vuh o f the Quiche Maya o f Cuate-
------ , 1987, The Maya, 4th edn, London and New ma/a, MARI 35
York ------ , 1982, The Ancient Future o f the ftza. the
------ , 1990, "The Hero Twins: Myth and Image," Chi/am Ba/am o f Tizimin, Austin
in J. Kerr, ed., Maya Pase Book f New York ------ , 1986, Heaven-horn Merida and its Destiny,
161-84 Austin
------ , 1992, Breaking the Maya Code, London and Emmerich, Andre, 1965, Sweat o f the Sun and
New York Tears o f the Moon, New York
------ , and Diehl, Richard, 1980, Vh the Land o f the Essays in pre-Columbian Art and Architecture
Olmec, 2 vols, Austin (with essays by S. K. Lothrop et al), 1964,
Coggins, Clemency Chase, 1975, Painting and Cambridge, Mass
Drawing Styles atTikal: An Historical and Icono- Estrada, Alvaro, 1981, Maria Sabina. H erL i/eand
graphic Reconstruction, Ph D. Diss. Harvard Chants, trans. and comm, by Henry Munn, Santa
------ , and Orrin Shane HI, eds., 1984, Cenote o f Barbara
Sacrihce/ Maya Treasures /rom the Sacred We// Fash, William L., 1991, Scribes, Warriors, and
at Chichón ftza, Austin Kings, London and New York
Corpus of Maya Hieroglyphic Inscriptions, 1975-, Flannery, Kent V., and Joyce Marcus, 1983, The
Drawings and maps by Ian Graham, Eric Von C/oud People. Divergent Fvo/ution o f the Zapo
Euw, Peter Mathews. Vols. 1-6, Peabody tee and Mixtee Civilizations, New York
Museum, Harvard Univ.
Forstemann, Ernst Wilhelm, 1880, Die Maya-
Cortes, Hernán, 1986, Letters /ron? Mexico, trans.
handschri/t der Konrglichen Oden/ichen Biblio-
and ed. Anthony Pagden, New Haven
thek zu Dresden, Leipzig
Cortez, Constance, 1986, The Principal Bird Deity
------ , 1901, "Der Mayagott des Jahresschlusses,"
in Preclassic and Early Classic Maya Art, M.A.
C/obus 80, 189-92
thesis, The Univ. of Texas
Foster, Michael 8., and Phil C. Weigand, eds ,
Couch, N. C. C., 1985, The festiva/ Cycle o f the
1985, The Archaeo/ogy o f West and Northwest
Aztec Codex Borbonicus, Oxford
Mesoamerica, Boulder
Covarrubias, Miguel, 1957, Indian Art o f Mexico
Fought, John, 1972, Chorti ('Mayan^) Texts, Phila
and Centra/ America, New York
delphia
Cresson, F. M., 1938, "Maya and Mexican Sweat
Furst, Jill, 1978, Codex Vindobonensis Mexicanus
Houses," American Anthropologist, N.S. 40,
f, A Commentary, Albany
88-102
Danzel, Theodor-Wilhelm, 1922-23, Mexiko, 3 Furst, Peter, 1965, "West Mexican Tomb Sculpture
vols, Germany as Evidence for Shamanism in Prehispanic
Davies, Nigel, 1977 The Tb/tecs t/nti/ the fa // o f Mesoamerica," Antropológica 15
------ , ed., 1972, F/esh o f the Cods, the Bitua/ Use
Tula, Norman
de la Fuente, Beatriz, and Gutiérrez Solana, Nelly, o f Hallucinogens, London
1980, Escultura huasteca en piedra, catalogo, ------ , and Coe, Michael, 1977, "Ritual Enemas,"
Natural History, February, 88-91
Mexico City
Del Rio, Antonio, 1822, Description o f the ruÚ7s Óalarza, Joaquin, 1974, Codex mcxicains, catalogue,
o f an ancient city discovered near Palenque, Bib/iotbeque nationa/e de Paris, Paris
London Galindo y Villa, Jesus, 1922, F/ Museo Nacional de
Diaz del Castillo, Bernal, 1956, The Discovery and Arqueología Historia y Ftnogra/ra. Breve reseña,
Conquest o f Mexico, trans. A. P. Maudslay, New Mexico City
York Gallagher, Jacki, 1983, Companions o f the Dead,
Drucker, Philip, Heizer, Robert, and Squier, R. J., Los Angeles
1955, Excavations at La Venta, Tabasco, BAEB Callenkamp, Charles, and Regina Elise Johnson,
170 eds., 1985, Maya. Treasures o f an Ancient Civili
Dupaix, Capitaine, 1834, "Relation des trois expedi zation, New York
tions pour la recherche des antíquités du pays," Camio, Manuel, 1922, La población del Valle de
Antiquites Mexicaines, 2 vols, Paris Tbotibuacan, Mexico City
GLIDE TO SOURCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY 210
Gann, Thomas, 1900, 'Mounds in Northern Hon Dwarfs, in J. Kerr ed.. The Maya Vase Booh,
duras. BAE, 19th Annua/Report vol. 3, New York, 526-31
Carda Icazbalceta, Joaquin, 1886-92, Nueva co/ec ------ . and Stuart, David, 1989, The way C/yph
cidn de docun7entos para /a historia de Mexico, Evidence /or "Co-essences" among the C/astic
Mexico City Maya. RRAMW 29
García Payón, José, 1946. ' Los monumentos arque Humboldt, Alexander Von. 1810, Vues des cordi//
ológicos de Malinalco," RMEA, 8, 5-64 eres et monuments des peup/es indigenes de
Caribay, K , Angel María, 1964, Poesía nahuat/, /lAmerique, Paris
Mexico City Hvidtfeldt, Arild, 1958, Teot/ and Zxtpt/ath. Some
------ , 1979, Teogonia e historia de /os mex/canos. Centra/ Conceptions in Ancient Mexican
tres opúscu/os de/ srg/o XV7, Mexico City Rehgion, Copenhagen
Girard, Rafael, 1966, Los Mayas, Mexico City Hunt, Eva, 1977, The Trans/brmation o í the ZZum-
Class, John, B , 1975, "A Survey of Native Middle minghird, Ithaca
American Pictorial Manuscripts," ZZMAZ, 14, Ichon, Alain, 1973, La rehgidn de /os Totonacos de
3-81 /a sierra, Mexico City
Goldstein, Marilyn M , ed., 1988, Ceremonia/ Iconography of Middle American Sculpture (essays
Sculpture o í Ancient Veracruz, Brooklyn by 1. Bernal et a!.), 1973, New York
Gordon, George B , and J. Alden Mason, 1925-28, Ixtlilxochitl, Fernando de Alva, 1982, Ohras Z/istdr-
Evamp/es o í Maya Pottery /n the Museum and icas, 2 vols, Mexico City
Other Co//ections, 3 vols, Philadelphia Jansen, Maarten, van der Loo, P., and Manning,
Cosscn, Cary, 1974, "A Chamula Solar Calendar R., eds., 1988, Continuity and identity in Native
Board from Chiapas, Mexico," in ed. N. Ham America. Essays in Z/onor o í Benedict Z/art-
mond, Mcsoamcrican Archaco/ogy. N ew mann, Leiden
Approaches, 217-53 Jiménez Moreno, Wigberto, 1941, "Tula y los
------ , cd.. 1986, Symho/ and Meaning Beyond the toltecas según las fuentas," RMEA, 5, 79-83
C/oscd Commun/ty, Albany Jones, Christopher, and Linton Satterthwaite Jr.,
Graham, Mark Miller, n.d., "In Place of a World 1982, The Monuments and /r?scr/ptions o í Trha/.
that Never Was: Toward an Iconography of The Carved Monuments, TR 33a
Rulcrship in the Classic Art of West Mexico," Jones, Tom, 1985, "The Xoc, the Sharke, and the
paper delivered al the February 1990 College Sea Dogs: An Historical Encounter," in TYRh
Art Association Annual Meeting PRT 1983, San Francisco, 211-22
Craulich, Michel, 1981, "The Metaphor of the Day ------ , 1991, "Jaws II: Return of the Xoc," in Sixth
in Ancient Mexican Myth and Ritual," Current PRT1 1986, Norman, Okla, 246-54
/lnfhropo/ogy, 22, 45-60 Joralcmon, P. David, 1971, A Study o í O/mec
Grove, David, 1970, 7heC /m ccP a/nt/ngsofO xto- iconography, DOS 7
tit/an Cave, DOS 6 ------ , 1974, "Ritual Blood-SacriHce Among the
------ , 1984, Cha/catzingo, London and New York Ancient Maya, Part I," i*rrst Z%T vol 2, 59-74
------ , 1987, Anc/ent Cha/catzingo, Austin ------ , 1976, "The Olmec Dragon: A Study in
Cuzmán Monroy, Virginia, 1978, Loca/rzac/dn de Precolumbian Iconography," in H. B. Nicholson,
cod/ces, /ienzos y mapas de/ Már/co prehispánico ed., The Or/gins o í Rehgrous Art and icono
y co/onia^ Mexico City graphy in Prec/assic Mesoamerica, Los Angeles,
Hamy, E-T., 1897, Galérie americaine du musée 27-72
d'ethnographie du Trocadero, 2 vols, Paris Josserand, J. Kathryn, and Dakin, Karen, eds.,
Handbook of Middle American Indians (HMAI), 1988, Smohe and Mist. Mesoamerican Studies
1965-, ed. Robert Wauchope, 16 vols, 4 supple in Memory o í The/ma D. Su/hvan, 2 vols, Oxford
ments, Austin Justeson, John S., and Lyle Campbell, eds., 1984,
Hanks, William, and Rice, Don, eds., 1989, Word Zhoneticism in Mayan ZLerog/yphic Writing
and /m age /n Maya Cu/ture, Salt Lake City IMS 9
Hellmuth, Nicholas M., 1987, Monster und Kampen, Michael, 1972, The Sculptures oiE/Ta/rh,
Menschen /n der Maya-Eunst, Graz Veracruz; Mexico, Gainesville
Heyden, Doris, 1975, "An Interpretation of the Karttunen, Frances, 1983, An Ana/ytica/Dictionary
Cave Underneath the Pyramid of the Sun in o í Nahuat/, Austin
Teotihuacan, Mexico," American Antiquity, Keen, Benjamin, 1971, The Aztec image, New
40:1, 131-47 Brunswick
Historia de los mexicanos por sus pinturas, 1965, Kelley, David H., 1962, "Glyphic Evidence for a
in A. M. Garibay, ed., Teogonia e historia de /os Dynastic Sequence at Quirigua, Guatemala,"
mexicanos, Mexico City, 21-90 American Antiquity, 27, 323-35
Historia Tolteca-Chichimeca, 1976, ed. P. Kirchoif, ------ , 1976, Deciphering the Maya Script, Austin
L. O. Cüemes and L. Reyes García, Mexico Kendall, Jonathan, 1991, "The Thirteen Volatiles:
City Representation and Symbolism," senior essay,
Histoyre du méchique, 1905, ed. E. de Jonghe, Yale Univ.
/ourna/ de /a Societé des Americanistes, N.S., Kerr, Justin, 1989-92, The Maya Vase Booh, 3 vols,
1-42 New York
Houston, Stephen D„ 1989, Maya C/yphs, London Kidder, Alfred V., Jennings, Jesse D. and Shook,
------ , 1992, "A Name Glyph for Classic Maya Edwin M., 1946, Excavations at Xamina//uyu,
211 CUIDE TO SOURCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cuatema/a, CIW Pub. 561 Lincoln, Charles E., 1990, Ethnicity and Social
Kingsborough, Lord, 1831-48, Anbquibes o f Mex Organization at Chichón Itzá, Yucatán, Mexico,
ico, 9 vols, London Ph D. Diss, Harvard University
Klein, Cecilia F , 1976, The Face o í the Earth. Linné, Sigvald, 1934, Archaeo/ogica/Researches at
Frontahty in Two-Dimensiona/ Mesoamerican Teobhuacan, Mexico, Ethnological Museum of
Art, New York Sweden Publication No. 1, N.S.
------, 1976, "The Identity of the Centra! Deity on Litvak King, J., and Noemí Castillo Tejero, eds ,
the Aztec Calendar Stone," Art Buhebn, 58,1-12 1972, Rebgión en mesoamerica, Mexico City
------, 1980, "Who was Tlaloc?" /ourna/ o í La bn Lombardo de Ruiz, Sonia, et a!., 1986, Cacaxt/a. e/
American Lore, 6, 155-204 /ugar donde muere /a /hrvia en /a berra, Mexico
Klor de Alva, J. Jorge, 1981, "Martin Oce!ot!: City
Clandestine Cu!t Leader," in D. G. Sweet and López Austin, Alfredo, 1985, Educación mexica.
G. B. Nash, eds, Strugg/eandSurviva/in Co/onia/ anto/ogia de documentos sahagunbnos, Mexico
America, Berkeley, 128-41 City
------, Nicholson, H. B., and Quiñones Keber, Eloise, ------ , 1988, The Human Body and Tdeo/ogy. Con
eds, 1988, The Worh o í Bernardino de Sahagun, cepts o í the Ancient iVahuas, 2 vols, trans. T.
Albany and B. Ortiz de Montellano, Salt Lake
Knorosov, Yuri, 1967, The Wribng o í the Maya Lothrop, Samuel K., 1924, Tu/um. An Archaeo
Tnd/ans, trans. and ed. T. Proskouriakoff and /ogica/ .Study o í the East Coast o í Yucatan, CIW
S. Coe, Harvard Univ. Russian Trans. Series 4 Pub. 335
Kowalski, Jeff Karl, 1989, The Aiytbo/ogzca/ ident ------ , 1952, Meta/s /rom the Cenote o í Sacrihce,
ity o í the Figure on the La Esperanza (""Chin/ru/- Chichen Ttza, Yucatan, PMM 10:2
bc"/ Bah Court Marker, RRAMW 27 Lounsbury, Floyd, 1973, "On the Derivation and
Kublcr, George, 1967, The iconography o í the Art Reading of the Ben-Ich' Prefix, " in E. P. Benson,
o í Teotihuacan, DOS 4 ed., Mesoamerican Writing Systems, ed.,
------, 1969, Studies in C/assic Maya iconography, Washington, D C., 99-143
Memoirs of the Connecticut Academy of Arts ------ , 1982, "Astronomical Knowledge and its Uses
and Sciences 18 at Bonampak, Mexico," in A. F. Aveni, ed.,
------ , 1977, Aspects o í C/assic Maya Ru/ersbip on Archaeoastronomy in the New Wor/d, New York,
Two inscribed Lesse/s, DOS 18 143-68
------ , 1990, The Aesthetic Appreciabon o í Amer McVicker, Don, 1985, "The 'Mayanized'
ican Art, New Haven Mexicans," American Anbquity, 50, 82-101
LaFaye, Jacques, 1974, Quetza/coat/etCuada/upe, Ma!er,Teobert, 1901-03, Researches in the Centra/
Paris Portion o í the Usumasint/a Lahey, PMM 2
Landa, Diego de, 1941, Landas ite/ación de /as Manuscrit Tovar, 1972, ed. Jacques LaFaye, Graz
cosas de Yucatan, ed. A. M. Tozzer, PMP 18 Marcus, Joyce, 1974, "The Iconography of Power
------ , 1937 (reprinted 1978), Yucatan Be/bre and Among the Classic Maya", Wor/d Archaeology,
A/ter the Conquest, ed. and trans. W. Gates, 6:1, 83-94
Baltimore ------, 1980, "Zapotee Writing," Scientihc Amer
Laughlin, Robert M., 1975, 7he Creat Tzotzi/ ican, 242:2 50-64
Dictionary o í San Lorenzo Z/nacan tan, Smithson Marquina, Ignacio, 1951, Arquitectura prehis-
ian Contributions to Anthropology No. 19 pánica, Mexico City
Lee, Thomas, 1985, Los códices mayas, Tuxtla Martinez Donjuán, Guadalupe, 1985, El sitio
Gutiérrez olmeca de Teopantecuanitlán en Guerrero,"
Lehmann, Walter, and Gerdt Kutscher, 1981, Ana/es de Antropo/ogia, 22, 215-26
Ceschichte der Azte/ren. Codex Aubin und ver- Matos Moctezuma, Eduardo, 1988, The Creat
wandte Documente, Berlin Temp/e o í the Aztecs. Treasures o í Tenochtit/an,
Leon-Portilla, Miguel, 1963, Aztec Thought and trans. D. Heyden, New York
Cu/ture, Norman Matrícula de Huexotzinco, 1974, ed. Hanns j.
------ , 1987, Mexico-Tenochtit/an* su espacio y Prem, Graz
tiempo sagrados, Mexico City Maudslay, Alfred P., 1899-1902, Bio/ogia Centra/i-
------ , 1992, The Aztec image o í Se/i and Society, Americana. Archaeo/cgy, 5 vols, London
Norman Mayer, Karl Herbert, 1980, Maya Monuments.
Leon y Gama, Antonio de, 1792, Descripción histór Scu/ptures o í Un/rnown Provenance in the United
ica y crono/ógica de /as dos piedras, Mexico City States, trans. S. L. Brizee, Ramona, Calif
Levenson, Jay A., ed., 1991, Circa Z492, New ------ , 1991, Maya Monuments. Sculptures o í
Haven and London Un/rnown Provenance, Suppl. 3, Berlin
Leyenaar, TedJ. J., 1978, U/ama. The Perpetuation Mendelson, E. Michael, 1959, "Maximon: An
in Mexico o í the Pre-Spanish Ba// Came Dhama- Iconographical Introduction," Man, 59, 57-60
bzt/i, trans. Inez Seeger, Leiden Merwin, Raymond E. and George C. Vaillant,
------ , and Parsons, Lee, 1988, D/ama, The 1932, 7he Ruins oíH o/m u/, Cuaterna/a, PMM
Ba/^game o í the Mayas and Aztecs, 2000 B .C .- 11:2
A.D. 2000, Leiden Mesa Redonda de la Sociedad Mexicana de Antro
Leyenda de los soles, trans. and ed. F. Paso y pología XI (Teotihuacan), 1972, 2 vols, Mexico
Troncoso, Florence. 1903 City
CLIDE TO SOURCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY 212
Miller, Arthur, Í973, TAe M um / Bainting o f 7eo^ Stone Sculpture ofKaminai/uyd, Cuatemaia, and
tiAuacan, Washington, D C tAe SdutAern BaciBc Coast, DOS 28
------ , 1962, On the Ec/ge o f tAe Sea Mura/Bainting Pasztory, Esther, 1974, TAe iconograpAy o f tAe
at 7ancaA-7u/un?, Quintana Boo, Mexico, Tec&Auacan T/aioc, DOS 15
Washington, D.C. ------ . 1976, TAeM uraEof Tepantitia, TeotiAuacan,
Miller, Mary Ellen, 1986, TAe MuraE o f Bonam- New York
paA, Princeton ------ . ed, 1978. Middie Classic Meosamerica AD
------ , 1989, "The History of the Study of Maya 460-700. New York
Vase Painting," in Justin Kerr, ed.. TAe Afaya ------ , 1983, Aztec Art, New York
Mase Boole, Vol. 1, New York, pp, 128-45 Paxton, Merideth D , 1986, Codex Dresden: Stylis
------ , and Stephen D Houston, 1987, "The Classic tic and Iconographic Analysis of a Maya Manu
Maya Ballgame and Its Architectural Setting," script, Ph D. diss., Univ. of New Mexico
BES, 14, 47-65 Paz, Octavio, et al, 1990, Mexico; Spiendors o f
Miller, Virginia, 1991, 7Ae f n e z e o f tAe Baiace o f 77nrty Centones, New York
tAe Stuccoes, AcanceA, Yucatan, Mexico, DOS Pendergast, David M., 1969, A/tun Ha, BritisA
31 Honduras (Beiize/. tAe Sun C od s Tom A, Royal
Millón, René, 1974, Urbanization at 7eot?Auacan. Ontario Museum Occ. Paper 19
Mexico, 2 vols. Austin Pohl, John, 1984, The Earth Lords: Politics and
Moholy-Nagy, Hattula, 1963, "Shells and Other Symbolism of the Mixtee Codices, Ph D. thesis,
Marine Materia! from Tikal," ECM, 3, 65-83 UCLA
Monaghan, John, 1990, "Sacrifice, Death and the ------ , and Byland, Bruce, 1990, "Mixtee Landscape
Origins of Agriculture in the Vienna Codex," Perception and Archaeological Settlement Pat
American An/ifyMih, 55, 559-89 terns, Ancient Mesoamenca 1:1, 113-31
Morgan, Lewis Henry, 1877, Ancient Society, New Pohordenko, Anatole, 1990, Structure and periodiz
York and London ation of the Olmec Representational System,
Morlcy, Sylvanus C., 1920, inscriptions at Copán, Ph D. diss., Tulane
C1W Pub. 219 Porter, James, 1989 "Olmec Colossal Heads as
------ , 1937-38. inscriptions o f Betán, 5 vols, C1W Rccarved Thrones," BES, 17/18, 22-29
Pub. *137 Prescott, William, 1843, TAe Conquest o f Mexico,
------ , 1946. TAc Ancient Maya, Palo Alto, Calif 3 vols, New York
------ , Ceorge W. Braincrd, and revised by Robert Proskouriakoff, Tatiana, 1946, An AiAum o f Maya
Sharer, 1983 TAc Ancient Maya, 4th ed., Palo ArcAitecture, CIW Pub. 558
Alto, Calif ------ , 1950, Classic Maya Acuipture, CIW Pub. 593
Morris, Ear! H., Jean Chariot, and Ann Axtcl! ------ , 1960, "Historical Implications of a Pattern of
Morris, 1931, TAc 7empie o f tAe Warriors at Dates at Piedras Negras," American Antiquity,
CAicAen itzá, Yucatán, 2 vols, CIW Pub. 406 25, 454-75
Nagao, Debra, 1985, "The Planting of Sustenance: ------ , 1963, "Historical Data in the Inscriptions of
Symbolism of the Two-Horned God in Offerings Yaxchilan, Part I," Estudios de Cuitura Maya,
from the Templo Mayor." BES, 10, 5-27 3, 149-67
Nicholson, H. B., 1971, "Religion in Pre-Hispanic ------ , 1964, "Historical Data in the Inscriptions of
Centra! Mexico," H M A f 10:1, 396-446 Yaxchilan, Part II," Estudios de Cuitura Maya,
------ , ed., 1976, Origins ofBei/gious Art and icono- 4,178-201
grapAy in BrecZassic Mesoamerica, Los Angeles Puleston, Dennis, 1976, "The People of the
------ , with Eloise Quiñones Keber, 1983, Art o f Cayman/Crocodile: Riparian Agriculture and the
Aztec Mexico. Treasures o f 7enocAtit/an, Origins of Aquatic Motifs in Ancient Maya
Washington, D C. Iconography," in F -A . de Montequin, ed.,
Norman, Garth, 1973, izapa Sculpture, Bart 1. Aspects o f Ancient Maya Ciw'A'zatron, Saint Paul
AiAum, Papers of the New World Archaeological Quirarte, Jacinto, 1979, "Representation of Place,
Foundation 30 Location, and Direction," in TAirdBBT 99-110
Nuttall, Zelia, 1908, "A Penitential Rite of the Reilly, F. Kent, 1990, "The Shaman in Transfor
Ancient Mexicans," BMM, 7, 439-65 mation Pose: A Study of the Theme of Rulership
Olmos, Andres dc, 1985, Arte de ia iengua mexicana in Olmec Art," Becord of The Art Museum of
y vocaAu/ario, ed. Thelma Sullivan and René Princeton University, 48:2, 4-21
Acuña, Mexico City Relación de Michoacán, 1970, trans. and ed
Ortiz de Montellano, Bernard R, 1978, "Aztec Eugene Craine and Reginald Reindorp, Norman,
Cannibalism: An Ecological Necessity?" Science, Okla
200, 611-17 Riese, Berthold, 1984, "Kriegsberichte der klas-
Paddock, John, ed., 1966, Ancient Oaxaca, Palo sichen Maya," Baessier-ArcAiv, Beitráge zur
Alto VoZAerAunde, 30:2, 225-321
Parsons, Elsie Clews, 1939, BueAio Indian BeAgion, Ringle, William M ., 1988, O f M ice and MonAeys.
2 vols, Chicago TAe Vaiue and Meaning o f T767A, tAe Cod C
Parsons, Lee A., 1967-69, BiiAao, Cuatemaia. HierogiypA, BBA M W 18
An ArcAaeoiqgicai .Study o f tAe BaciAc Coast Robelo, Cecilio A., [reprinted] 1980, Diccionario
CotzumaiAuapa Begion, 2 vols, Milwaukee de mitoZogia naAuat/, 2 vols, Mexico City
------ , 1986, TAe Origins o f Maya Art. Monumentai Robertson, Donald, 1959, Mexican Manuscript
213 GUIDE TO SOURCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
Painting o í tbe Ear/y Co/onia/ Period. The ScheBhas, Paul, 1904, Representations of Deities
A/etropo/itar? ScbooE, New Haven in the Maya Manuscripts, B M P 4:1
Robertson, Merle Greene, 1983-92, Tibe Scu/pture Scholes, France, and Roys, Ra!ph, 1948, Tbe Maya
o í Pa/enque, 4 vols, Princeton Chonta/ Tncbans o í Aca/an-7Yxcbe/, CIW Pub.
Robicsek, Francis, 1978, Tibe Smohing Cods. 560
Tobacco 777 Maya Art, í&sfOTy and Bebgion, Schondube, Otto, and Galvan, L. Javier, 1978,
Norman, Okla "Salvage Archaeology at el Crillo-Tabachines,
------, and Hales, Donald, 1981, The Maya Boob o í Zapopán, Jalisco, Mexico," in C. Riley and B. C.
tbe Dead. tbe Cera777/c Codex, Norman, Okla Hedrick, eds, Across tbe Chichimec Sea. Papers
------ and ------ , 1982 Maya CeraTn/cs /rom tbe in Honor o í / Char/es Ee//ey, 144-64
Late C/assic Period. tbe November Co//ecñon, Scott, John, 1980, Tbe Danzantes o í Monte A/bán,
Charlottesville 2 vols, DOS
Rosny, Leon de, 1864, "Les documents écrits de Séjourné, Laurette, 1956, Burning Water. Thought
¡'antiquité américaine," Memoires de /a Societé and Bebgion in Ancient Mexico, New York
d'Etbnograpbie, N.S. 1:1, 57-100 ------ , 1959, Un pa/acio de /a ciudad de /os dioses.
Roys, Ra!ph L., 1933, Tbe Boob o í Cbv/am Ba/am exp/oraciones en Z&55-5#, Mexico City
oíCbumaye/, CIW Pub. 438 ------ , 1966, E/ /engua/e de /as /ormas en Teoti-
------ , 1965, Tbe Bitua/ o í tbe Bacabs, Norman, buacan, Mexico City
Okla Seler, Eduard, 1902-23, Cesamme/te Abband-
Ruiz de A¡arcón, Hernando, 1982, Aztec Sorcerers /ungen, Berlin
in /7th Ce7?tt77y Mexico, tbe Treatise 0 7 7 Super- Simeon, Rémi, 1977, Diccionario de /a /engua
stiti077s, ed. and trans. Michael Coe and Cordon Nahuat/ o Mexicano, Mexico City
W hittaker, IMS Pub. 7 Sisson, Edward B., 1983, "Recent Work on the
Ruz Lhuiller, Alberto, 1973, E/ temp/o de /as Borgia Group Codices," Current Antbropo/ogy,
inscripciones, Pa/enque, Mexico City 24, 653-56
Sahagún, Bernardino de, 1905-09, Tfistoria de /as Smith, Robert E., 1955, Ceramic Sequence at Uax-
cosas de Nueva España, trans. F. Paso y actun, Cuatema/a, 2 vols, MARI Pub. 20
Troncoso, Madrid Solis Olguin, Felipe, 1976, Museo de Santa Ceciha
------ , 1950-82, Tbe F/ore77ti77e Codex. A Cenera/ Acatit/an. Catá/ogo de /a escu/tura mexica, Mex
History o í tbe T*bÍ77gs o í N ew Spain, trans. ico City
and ed. A. J. O. Anderson and C. E. Dibbie, ------ , 1981, Escu/tura de/ CastiZ/o de Teayo, Vera
Santa Fe cruz, Mexico. Catá/ogo, Mexico City
------ , 1964, Códices matritenses de /a historia ------ , 1991, Tesoros artísticos de/ Museo Naciona/
genera/ de /as cosas de /a nueva España de Fr. de Antropo/ogia, Mexico City
Berna din o de Sabagun, Madrid Sosa, John Robert, 1985, The Maya Sky, the Maya
------ , 1979, Códice dorentino, 3 vo!s, Mexico City World: A Symbolic Analysis of Yucatan Maya
Sandstrom, A!an, 1991, CornisourB/ood, Norman, Cosmology, Ph D. diss, SUNY Albany
Ok!a Soustelle, Jacques, 1964, The Dai/y Li/e o í tbe
Saville, Marsha!) H , 1920, Tbe Co/dsmiths Artin Aztecs on tbe Eve o í tbe Spanish Conquest,
Ancient Mexico, MAI Notes and Monographs 7 trans. P. O'Brien, London
------ , 1922, Turquoise Mosaic Art in Ancient Mex Spinden, Herbert J., 1913, A Study o í Maya Art,
ico, MAI Contribution 6 PM M 6
------ , 1925, Tbe Wood-carvers Art in Ancient Spranz, Bodo, 1973, Los dioses en /os codices
Mexico, MAI Contribution 9 mexicanos de/ grupo Borgia, una investigación
------ , 1929, "Votive Axes from Eastern Mexico," iconográSca, Mexico City
MAI Notes and Monographs 6, 266-99; 335-42 Stcnzel, Werner, 1976, "The Military and Religious
------ , 1933, "Reports on the Maya Indians of Orders of Ancient Mexico," 42nd /CA, 7, 179-
Yucatan by Santiago Méndez, Antonio García y 87
Cubas, Pedro Sánchez de Aguilar and Francisco Stephens, John Lloyd, 1841, incidents o í Trave/m
Hernandez," MAI Notes and Monographs 9: Centra/ America, Chiapas, and Yucatan, 2 vols,
133-226 New York
Scarborough, Vernon L, and Wilcox, David R , eds, ------ , 1843, incidents oiTrave/ in Yticata/i, 2 vols,
1991, Tbe Mesoamerican Bai/game, Tucson New York
Scheie, Linda, 1987, "Architectural Development Sftern, Theodore, 1948, The Bubber-Ba// Carnes o í
and Pohtica! History at Palenque, " in E. P. tbe Americas, New York
Benson, ed., City-States o í tbe Maya. Art and Stevenson, Robert, 1968, Music in Aztec and inca
Architecture, Denver, 110-37 Territory, Berkeley
, and Freide!, David, 1990, A Forest o í /kings. Stirling, Matthew, 1943, Stone Monuments o í Sou
The f/77fo/d Story o í tbe Ancient Maya, New thern Mexico, BAEB 138
York Stone, Andrea, 1989, "Disconnection, Foreign
, and MiBer, Je#rey H ., 1983, Tbe Mirror, tbe Insignia, and Political Expansion: Teotihuacan
Babbit and tbe Bund/e, DOS 25 and the Warrior Stelae of Piedras Negras, in
, and Mary Ellen MiBer, 1986, Tbe B/ood o í J. Berio and R. Diehl, eds, Mesoamerica A/ter
Bings. Bitua/ and Dynasty in Maya Art, Fort tbe Dechne o í Teotihuacan, Washington, D C.,
Worth (London 1992) 153-72
CUÍDE TO SOURCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY 214
S trenerP éan , Cuy, 1971, Ancient Sources on the -------, 1971, M aya Hieroglyphic Writing; 3rd edl
Huasteca," H M A f 11:2, 582-302 tion, Norman, Okla
Stuart, David, 1984, "Blood Symbolism in M aya -------, 1972, A Commentary on the Dresden Codex.
Iconography, AES, 7/8, 6 -2 0 Philadelphia
-------, 1987, Ten Phonetic SyPahles, A R A M W 14 Torquemada, Juan de, 1975-83, Monarquía indi
-------, 1988, "The Rio Azu! Cacao Pot: Epigraphic ana, ed. M . Leon-Portilla, 7 vols, Mexico City
Observations on the Function of a M aya Ceramic Tovar Calendar, 1951, ed. G. K ublerandC. Gibson,
Vessel, Antiquity, 62, 153-57 New Haven
Stuart, Ceorge, 1992, 'Quest for Decipherment: A Townsend, Richard, F ., 1979, State and Cosmos in
Histórica! and Biographical Survey of M aya the A rt o f Tenochtitlan, D O # 20
Hierog!yphic Investigation/ in E. Danien and -------, 1992, 7he Aztecs, London and New York
R. Sharer, eds, N ew Theories on the Ancient Tozzer, A. M ., 1907, A Comparative Study o f the
M aya, Philadephia, 1-63 M ayas and the Lacandones, London
Sullivan, The!ma, 1963, "Nahuatl Proverbs, Con -------, 1957, Chichen ftzá and its Cenote o f Sacrihce,
undrums and Metaphors Collected by Sahagún," 2 vols, P M M 12
ECN, 4, 93-177 Trejo, Silvia, 1989, Escultura huaxteca de Alo
-------, 1982, "Tlazolteotl-Ixcuina: The Great Tamurh, Mexico City
Spinner and W eav er/' in E. Boone ed., The A rt Troike, Nancy P. 1978, "Fundam ental Changes
and iconography o f L ate Aost-C%assic Centra/ in the Interpretations of the Mixtee Codices,"
Mexico, Washington, D C. American Antiquity, 43:4, 553-68
Summer Institute of Linguistics, 1974, Ahhcgraphy Umberger, Em ily, 1981, Aztec Sculptures, Hiero
o f the Summer Institute o f Linguistics, 1935-72, glyphs, and History, Ph D. diss, Columbia Univ.
ed. A!an C Wares, Huntington Beach, Ca!if. -------, 1984, "E l trono de M octezum a," ECN, 17,
------ , 1985, Pih/iograA ade/Instituto Linguisticode 63-87
Verano en e/ Mexico, 1935-1984, ed. M aria De Urcid, Javier, 1992, Zapotee Hieroglyphic W riting,
Boc de Harris and M argarita H . de Da!y, Mexico Ph D. diss, Yale Univ.
City Vaillant, Ceorge C ., 1927, The Chronological Sig
Taggart, James, 1983, Nahuat M yth and Social nificance of M aya Ceramics, Ph D. diss. Harvard
-Structure, Austin Univ.
Taube, Karl A., 1983, "The Teotihuacan Spider Villacorta, J. A ., and C. A. Villacorta, 1930, Cddices
Woman, " /ou rn al o f Latin American Lore 9:2, M aya, Guatemala C ity
107-89 Villela F ., Samuel, 1989, "Cacahuazqui: nuevo
-------, 1985, "The Classic Maya M aize God: A testamonio rupestre olmeca en el oriente de
Reappraisal" F ilth P R T 1983, San Francisco, Guerrero, Arqueología, 2, 37-48
171-81 Vogt, Evon Z., 1968, Zinacantan. A M aya Com
-------, 1986, "The Teotihuacan Cave of Origin: m unity in the Highlands o f Chiapas, New York
The Iconography and Architecture of Emergence -------, 1976, Tortillas lo r the Cods. A Symbolic
Mytho!ogy in Mesoamerica and the American Analysis o f Zihacanteco Aituals, Cambridge,
Southwest," AES, 12, 51-86 Mass
-------, 1992, The M a/or Gods o f Ancient Yucatan, Von W inning, Hasso, 1974, The Shalt Tomh Figures
DOS 32 o f West Mexico, Los Angeles
-------, and Bade, Bonnie L. 1991, An Appearance -------, 1987, La IconograAa de Teotihuacan, 2 vols,
o f Aluhtecuhth in the Dresden Venus Pages, Mexico City
A R A M W 35 -------, and Olga Hammer, 1972, Anecdotal Sculp
Tedlock, Barbara, 1982, Time and the Lhgh/and ture o f West Mexico, Los Angeles
M aya, Albuquerque W aldeck, Frederick de, 1838, Voyage pittoresque
Tedlock, Dennis, 1985, Popo! Vuh. The Dehnitive et archeologique dans la province d Tuca tan
Edition o f the M ayan Aooh o f the Dawn o f L ite pendant les anndes 1#34 e t 1##3 Paris
and the C/ories o f Gods and Aingy, New York W ard, Fred, 1987, "Jade: Stone of Heaven,"
Tezozómoc, F . Alvarado, 1944, Crdnica mexicana National Geographic Magazine, 172:3, 282-315
escrita hacía e / año de i <59#, Mexico City Wauchope, Robert, 1962, Lost Tribes and SunJren
-------, 1949, Grdnica mexic^yotl, Mexico City Continents, London
Thompson, J. Eric S., 1930, Ethnology o f the Mayas Wilkerson, S. Jeffrey K ., 1980, "M an's Eighty
o f -Southern and Central Aritish Honduras, Field Centuries in Veracruz," National Geographic
Mus. of Nat. Hist. Anthro. Series 18:2 Magazine, 1<5#.\2, fP S -S l
-------, 1961, "A Blood-drawing Ceremony Painted W illey, Cordon R., and Jeremy A. Sabloff, 1980, A
on a M aya V ase/' EG M , 1, 13-20 H lstoiy o f American Archaeology, San Francisco
-------, 1962, A Catalog o f M aya Hieroglyphs, Nor WinReld Capitaine, Fernando, 1988, La Estela 1
man, Okla de La M o/arra, Veracruz, Mexico, RRAM W 16
-------, 1970, M aya History and Aehgion, Norman, Zimmermann, Gunter, 1956, D ie Hiercglyphen der
Okla M aya -Handschriften, Hamburg
Sources of Illustrations
Unless otherwise credited, all line drawings Vatican Library, Rome; 83c Photo Salvador Guilliem,
are by Karl Taube courtesy Great Temple Project; 85c Photo Irmgard
a = above c = center b = below Groth-Kimball; 87a Akademische Druck-u. Verlag
1= left r = right sanstalt; 87ca, 87b Theodor-Wilhelm Danzel,
Mexiko f, 1923; 89a Photo Irmgard Groth-Kimball;
89b Trustees of the British Museum; 91a Archivo
Frontispiece Museo Nacional de Antropología, General de la Nación, Mexico; 91ca After Miguel
Mexico; page 8a Courtesy Peabody Museum, Covarrubias, Inchon Art of Mexico end Centro?
Harvard University; 8b Photo J. A. Sabloff; 12-13 Mexico, 1957: fig. 72; 93a Akademische Druck-u.
Drawing Hanni Bailey; 16 Photo Mary Miller; 19 Verlagsanstalt; 93b Photo Salvador Guilliem, cour
Photo O Rene Millón; 21a Photo J. A. Sabloff; 21bl tesy Great Temple Project; 95b After Matos
Courtesy University Museum, Philadelphia; 21br Moctezuma, Greet 7emp?e, 1988; 97b Archivo
Drawing P. P. Pratt after Ruz; 22 Drawing David General de la Nación, Mexico; 99b From Alfred
Kiphuth, after photo by M. D. Coe; 23 Drawing P. P. Tozzer, A Comperetiue Study of the Moyo end the
Pratt; 25 Reconstruction painting Ignacio Marquina, Lecondones, 1907, 101c Akademische Druck-u. Ver
Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, lagsanstalt; 103a Photo Salvador Guilliem, courtesy
Mexico; 27 Courtesy Frank Hole; 29 Drawing F. Great Temple Project; 103c After Henderson 1981:
Pratt, after Carlo Gay, Xochipa?n. the beginning of pp. 154-155, Rg. 50; 105b Drawing Linda Scheie;
0?mcc Art, 1972; 31 After Matos Moctezuma, Greet 107a Drawing Linda Scheie; 109a Archivo General
7e?np?e ofthe Aztecs, 1988; 34 After W. J. More and S. de la Nación, Mexico; 111a Drawing Linda Scheie;
M. Higuera, Códice de %nhntt?en, 1940; 41c 113a From Sahagún, Historio de ios Cosos de Vueue
Akademische Druck-u. Verlagsanstalt; 43a After Espeñe, 1905; 115b Veticenus No. 3773,1902-1903;
Matos Moctezuma, Great Yemp?e, 1988; 43c Sketch 117c Photo Irmgard Groth-Kimball; 119c Drawing
by Karl Weiditz, 1528; 45ca Museo Nacional de Linda Scheie; 119b From Codex Magliabechiano,
Antropología, Mexico; 45cb Drawing Linda Scheie; facsimile edition (1904); 123a Archivo General de la
47a From M. D. Coe, Mexico, 1984; 47cb Akademis Nación, Mexico; 123b After Warwick Bray, Ecerydey
che Druck-u. Verlagsanstalt; 51a After J. E. S. Li/e of the Aztecs, 1968, Rg. 12 (drawing Eva Wilson);
Thompson; 51b Akademische Druck-u. Verlagsan 125cb After M. D. Coe, Breeking the Moyo Code,
stalt; 53a Courtesy University Museum, Philadelphia; 1992; drawing John Montgomery 127a After M. D.
53b From M. D. Coe, Breaking the Muye Code, 1992; Coe and Richard Diehl, in the Lond of the Olmec,
drawing John Montgomery 55a Archivo General de 1980 (drawing Felipe Dávalos); 127ca, 127cb After
la Nación, Mexico; 55b Photo J. A. Sabloff; 57a Peter David Joralemon, A Study of Obnec Icono-
From M. D. Coe, The Maya, 1987; 59a Courtesy grophy, 1971; 127b From Dresden Codex; 129c,
American Museum of Natural History; 61a Photo M. 129b Drawings Linda Scheie; 131ar After Nicholas
D. Coe; 61c Theodor-Wilhelm Danzel, Mexiko 1, Hellmuth 1987, drawing S. Reisinger; 131c After
1923, 61b Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris; 63a Miguel Covarrubias, fndien Art o f Mexico ond
%ticanus Vo. 3773, 1902-1903; 65a After Matos Centro? Mexico, 1957: Rg. 72; 133a Photo Irmgard
Moctezuma, Great 7emp?e, 1988; 65c Photo Irmgard Groth-Kimball; 133c From Codex Magliabechiano,
Groth-Kimball; 65b Courtesy American Museum of facsimile edition (1904); 133b From William L. Fash,
Natural History; 67c Photo Irmgard Groth-Kimball; Scribes, Werriors ond Kings, 1991: 164 (drawing
69a Drawing David Kiphuth, from Coe, Mexico, Barbara Fash); 137a Bodleian Library, Oxford; 139a
1984; 71a Akademische Druck-u. Verlagsanstalt; 73a From Eduard Seler, Gesomme?te Abhend ?ungen
Archivo General de la Nación, Mexico; 73c Courtesy zttr Amerikenischen Sprech-und A?tertumskunde,
Carter Brown Memorial Library, Brown University, 1902-1923; 139b From Codex Magliabechiano, fac
Providence, Rhode Island; 73b After Hellmuth 1987; simile edition (1904); 141a Archivo General de la
75c Photo Salvador Cuilliem, courtesy Great Temple Nación, Mexico; 141c Theodor-Wilhelm Danzel,
Project; 77a After A. Kidder, Arti/ects of Uaxactnn, Mexiko Í, 1923; 143c Archivo General de la Nación,
Caatema/a, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Pub Mexico; 145a Drawing Ian Graham, courtesy
lication 576, 1947; 79a Courtesy Merseyside County Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology,
Museums; 79b Akademische Druck-u. Verlagsan Harvard University; 147 Drawing Paul Schellhas,
stalt; 81a, 81c Photo Irmgard Groth-Kimball; 81b courtesy Peabody Museum of Archaeology and
ÍUL HCES OF ILLUSTRATIONS 2m
Ethnolog), Harvard University; 149a Drawing Annick Peterson); 171a Akademische Dnrek u
Stephen Houston, from S. Houston 1989: 149b Photo Verlagsanstalt; 171b Photo Alberti) Ruz !, !73a
Salvador GuilRem. courtesv Great Temple Project; From Codex Borgia: 173b Drawing Linda Sf he!*
151a, 151c Photos Trustees of the British Museum; 177a Akademische Druck-u. Verlagsanstalt; 177ca
151b Drawing Linda Scheie: 153b Vatican Libran, From Matos Moctezuma. Crrat Tbwp/r. 1988; !77cb
Rome: 155c Photo courtesy Matthew Stirling and the Drawing David Stuart; 178 Akademische Dmek u
National Geographic Society: 155b Photo Irmgard Verlagsanstalt; 181a From Dresden Codex; 185c
Croth-Kimbaii; 157b Photo A. P Maudslav. courtesv Drawing lan Graham, from Coe. The Ahu/n 1987:
American Museum of Natural History: 159a After M. 186b After Miguel Covarrubias, 'Ll arte Olmeca o
D. Coe and Richard Diehl, /n the the O/urec. de La Venta." Cuar/emoA Americanos, 1946; 187c
1980 (drawing Felipe Dávalos); 159c From Codex Courtesy Merseyside County Museums: 187b After
Borgia: 159b From Codex Magliabechiano, facsimile M. D. Coe, Breaking the Mar/a Code, 1992; 189al
edition (1904); 161c Akademische Druck-u. Archivo General de la Nación. Mexico; 189ar Photo
Verlagsanstalt; 161b Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris: lrmg;u*d Groth-Kimball; 189b Archivo General de la
165c Akademische Druck-u. Verlagsanstalt; 165b Nación, Mexico; 191a Museo Nacional de
Museo Nacional de Antropología, Mexico; 167a Antropología, Mexico; 191ca Akademische Druck-u.
Theodor-Wilhelm Dánzek Mexico 7, 1923; 167c Verlagsanstalt; 191cb MzticanM.? No. 3773. 1902-3;
Bodleian Librar), Oxford; 167b Photo Salvador 193b After Miguel Covarrubias, Indian Art r^Afexico
Cuílliem, courtesy Great Temple Project; 169a From and Centra/ Aíexico, 1957: Rg. 72.
Richard F. Townsend, The A^ecy, 1992 (drawing
A É ^he myths and beliefs of the great Precolumbian civilizations of Mesoamerica
] have baffled and fascinated outsiders ever since the Spanish Conquest.
-R . Yet, until now, no single-volume introduction has existed to act as a guide
to thislabyrinthine symbolic world. In A??
AA(y^ nearly 300 entries, from accession to yoke,
describe the main gods and symbols of the Olmecs, Zapotees, Maya, Teotihuacanos,
Mixtees, Toltecs and Aztecs. Topics range from jaguar and jester gods to reptile eye
and rubber, from creation accounts and sacred places to ritual practices such as
bloodletting, confession, dance and pilgrimage. Two introductory essays provide
succinct accounts of Mesoamerican history and religion, while a substantial
bibliographical survey directs the reader to original sources and recent discussions.
Dictionary entries are illustrated with photographs and commissioned line
drawings.This is an authoritative work, a standard reference for students,
scholars and travellers.
Mary Miller, Professor of History of Art at Yale, is the author of TAf
and co-author with Linda Scheie of
both published by Thames and Hudson. Karl Taube, Associate Professor in the
Department of Anthropology, University of California, Riverside, is a leading
scholar of Mesoamerican writing and iconography, and the author of
AAzy¿zTUyiAy.
Well-written and comprehensive . . . the book has not left my desk'
)SBN 0 -5 0 0 -2 7 9 2 8 -4
TH A M ES AND H U D SO N
30 Bloomsbury Street, London WCiB 3 QP 9 7 8 0 5 0 0 279281
Printed in Singapore