Chapter two

2.1 Introduction

The digitalization and automation of oil and gas technology and growing need for efficiency,

productivity and safety in operations offers more opportunities for the use of fiber optics,

robotic and SAR technology in oil and gas . To achieve the concept modeling and simulation

of hardware in the loop will be of primary important, because real-time simulation of

hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) at a steady state and transient model techniques emerge as

indispensable tools for pipeline leak detection using optic fiber, robotic and SAR technology

in oil and gas production optimization.

Pipeline leak detection system is used to determine where a leak has occurred in pipelines

which contain liquids and gases. Methods of detection include hydrostatic testing, infrared,

and laser technology after pipeline erection and leak detection during production and

transportation of the refined products.

Pipeline networks are the most economic and safest mode of transportation for oil, gases and

other fluid products. As a means of long-distance transport, pipelines have to fulfill high

demands of safety, reliability and efficiency. If properly maintained, pipelines can last

indefinitely without leaks. Most significant leaks that do occur are caused by damage from

nearby excavation. If a pipeline is not properly maintained, it can corrode, particularly at

construction joints, low points where moisture collects, or locations with imperfections in

the pipe. However, these defects can be identified by inspection tools and corrected before

they progress to a leak. Other reasons for leaks in pipeline include accidents, earth

movement and sabotage which is a globe interest owing to its environmental impact on the
aquatic life and the in habitant within the route, these thesis provide integrated optical

sensing solution to optimize well planning, monitoring, construction and production across

the oil and gas asset lifecycle.

The primary purpose of leak detection systems (LDS) is to help pipeline controllers to detect

and localize leaks. LDS provide alarms and display other related data to the pipeline

controllers to assist decision-making. Pipeline leak detection systems can also enhance

productivity and system reliability thanks to reduced downtime and inspection time.

According to the American petroleum institute (API) document "RP 1130", LDS are divided

into internally based LDS and externally based LDS. Internally based systems use field

instrumentation such as flow, pressure and temperature sensors to monitor internal pipeline

parameters. Externally based systems use a different set of field instrumentation such as

fiber-optic cables, infrared radiometers , thermal cameras, vapor sensors, unmannered aerial

veilcele to monitor external pipeline parameters.

The benefits of a leak-detection system capable of locating the position of the leak are

obviously of an environmental kind. But the economical aspect of it is also important. Leak

detection based on dynamic modeling(steady state and transient model) is a propitious

approach in the special field of leak quantification and location. There have been numerous

studies on model-based leak detection but these research adopts Steady-state and transient

model conditions using fiber optic ,robotics and synthetic aperture radar technology.

In this chapter, some of the outstanding efforts / inputs by renounced researchers to the

achieve some of the basic industrial application objectives for improved environmental

monitoring performance such as: cost reduction in using man power, increased reliability,
maintaining pipeline integrity and affecting the economy by production optimization are

presented here. This chapter will dig into the various leakage detection systems thereby

considering the need for improvement. In this chapter, some transformation by notable

scientists such as Torres, Verde, Besancon, González and others will be x-rayed bearing in

mind that these transformations have given insight as to the accurate modelling in tracing

vandalization of hydrocarbon pipeline at a Steady-state and transient model conditions using

fiber optic ,robotics and synthetic aperture radar technology.

MATLAB/Simulink which is the computing tool for the implementation of the mathematical

model will be discussed to ascertain and establish the need for its use in this thesis.

2.2 hydrocarbon pipeline leak detection system (LDS)

pipelines for Oil and gas transmission contain a network of more than three million km

globally that is in continuous expansion . Pipeline networks are made up of legs of different

lengths, up to thousands of kilometres, and can be laid on the ground surface or under the

ground configurations. The safety and security of all pipelines, regardless of their size,

placement, or location, is of paramount importance to stakeholders and to the public. Proper

maintenance of pipeline networks is also important for environmental protection.

Equipment failure such as breakage or leaks can occur for many reasons, including overage

of structures and material failure, natural ground movement, accidental hot-tap, and third-

party interference. Large amounts of oil and gas can be lost following a pipe failure, and

more importantly, hydrocarbon leaks can damage the environment through contamination

and pollution, seriously affecting ecological health and human security. As a result, the
challenge for oil and gas companies is to supply sufficient amounts of hydrocarbons at the

future in a sustainable way. This needs continuous improvements throughout the production

cycle, to achieve it we look at dynamic models of leaks detection systems in the literature.

2.2.1 Internally Based Leak Detection System (LDS)

According to API RP 1130 (2007) internally based systems use field instrumentation (e.g.

for flow, pressure and fluid temperature) to monitor internal pipeline parameters which are

used to detect possible leaks.

Geiger, G., Werner, T., Matko, D. (2003) stated that system cost and complexity of

internally based LDS are moderate because they use existing field instrumentation, of course

this kind of LDS is used for standard safety requirements.

Billmann .L and Isermann. R (2015) stated that for the early detection and localization of

small leaks in pipelines a nonlinear adaptive state observer and a special correlation

technique were developed, based on pressure and flow measurements at the pipeline inlet

and outlet. Simulations and experiments show the results for a gas and a liquid pipeline.

Pressure/flow monitoring

Oborkale .L and Amadi .O (2018) states that the hydraulics of the pipeline changes with

Leakages which in turn changes the pressure or flow readings after some time. Local

monitoring of pressure or flow at only one point can therefore provide simple leak detection.

As it is done locally it requires in principle no telemetry. Geiger, G. (2008) says it is only

useful in steady-state conditions, however, and its ability to deal with gas pipelines is

limited.

Acoustic pressure waves

Oborkale .L and Amadi .O (2018) stated that the acoustic pressure wave method analyses the

rarefaction waves produced when a leak occurs. On rupture of pipeline, fluid or gas escapes

in the form of a high velocity jet. This produces negative pressure waves which propagate in

both directions within the pipeline and can be detected and analyzed. The operating

principles of the method are based on the very important characteristic of pressure waves to

travel over long distances at the speed of sound guided by the pipeline walls. The amplitude

of a pressure wave increases with the leak size. A complex mathematical algorithm analyzes

data from pressure sensors and is able in a matter of seconds to point to the location of the

leakage with accuracy less than 50 m (164 ft). Experimental data has shown the method's

ability to detect leaks less than 3mm (0.1 inch) in diameter and operate with the lowest false
alarm rate in the industry less than 1 false alarm per year. It’s a pity that the method is

cannot detect an ongoing leak after the initial event; that’s after the pipeline rupture , the

initial pressure waves reduced and no other pressure waves are generated. Therefore, if the

system fails to detect the leak due to transient pressure waves caused by an operational event

such as a change in pumping pressure or valve switching, the system will not detect the

ongoing leak.

Balancing methods

According to Geiger, G. (2008): balancing methods base on the principle of conservation of

mass. In the steady state, the mass flow M1 entering a leak-free pipeline will balance the

mass flow M0 leaving it; any drop in mass leaving the pipeline (mass imbalance M1 - M0 )

indicates a leak. Balancing methods measure M1 and M0 using flowmeters and finally

compute the imbalance which is an estimate of the unknown, true leak flow. Comparing this

imbalance (typically monitored over a number of periods) against a leak alarm threshold ℓ

generates an alarm if this monitored imbalance. API RP 1130 enhanced balancing methods

additionally take into account the change rate of the mass inventory of the pipeline. Names

that are used for enhanced line balancing techniques are volume balance, modified volume

balance, and compensated mass balance.

State-observer-based methods

Benkherouf, A., & Allidina, A. Y. (1986) introduced Leak detection methods based on state

observers which are designed from fluid mathematical models expressed in state-space

representation. These methods can be classified into two types; infinite-dimensional

observers and finite-dimensional observers. The formal is based on a couple of quasi-linear

hyperbolic partial differential equations: a momentum and continuity equations that

represent the fluid dynamics in a pipeline. The finite-dimensional observers are constructed

from a lumped version of the momentum and continuity equations. Several types of

improved finite-dimensional observers have been used for leak detection, such as Kalman

filters observer, high gain observers , sliding mode observers and Luenberger-type observers

which had shown an excellent result in practice of leakage detection in oil and gas pipeline

monitoring.

Berger, J.O. (2015) proposed the use of statistical methods (e.g. from the field of decision

theory) to analyse pressure/flow at only one point or the imbalance in order to detect a

leak.[6] This leads to the opportunity to optimise the leak decision if some statistical

assumptions hold. A common approach is the use of the hypothesis test procedure:

Hypotesis test H0 : No Leaks

Hypotesis test H0 : Leaks

This is a classical detection problem, and there are various solutions known from statistics

application as 1985

RTTM methods

Geiger, G. (2008) deployed RTTM means "Real-Time Transient Model" in LDS using

mathematical models of the flow within a pipeline using basic physical laws such as

conservation of mass, momentum, and energy. RTTM methods can be seen as an

enhancement of balancing methods as they additionally use the conservation principle of

momentum and energy. An RTTM makes it possible to calculate mass flow, pressure,
density and temperature at every point along the pipeline in real-time with the help of

mathematical algorithms. RTTM LDS can easily model steady-state and transient flow in a

pipeline. Using RTTM technology, leaks can be detected during steady-state and transient

conditions, as the research will be adopted for high level of sensitivity and accuracy.

According to Geiger .G. Werner. T., Matko, D. (2003) & Geiger, G. (2008) the real time transient

model was revolutionized to an extended model for better sensitivity and accuracy.
The Extended Real-Time Transient Model", using RTTM technology with statistical

methods. So, leak detection is possible during steady-state and transient condition with high

sensitivity, and false alarms will be avoided using statistical methods. For the residual

method, an RTTM module calculates estimates M1 , M0 for MASS FLOW at inlet and outlet,

respectively. This can be done using measurements for pressure and temperature at inlet P1 ,

T1 and outlet ( P0 , T0 ) . These estimated mass flows are compared with the measured mass

flows M1 , M0 , yielding the residuals z = M1 - M0 and u = M1 - M0 . These residuals are

close to zero if there is no leak; otherwise the residuals show a characteristic signature. In a

next step, the residuals are subject of a leak signature analysis. This module analyses their

temporal behaviour by using pattern matching algorithm in comparing the leak signature
with leak signatures in a database ("fingerprint"). Leak alarm is declared if the pattern leak

signature matches the fingerprint.

2.2.2 Externally Based Leak Detection System (LDS)

Thermal camera with leak video analytics detection oil leak from a flange at 150 ft and 50ft

distance in heavy rain. According to Geiger, G. (2015) externally based systems use local,

dedicated sensors. As Such LDS are highly sensitive and accurate, but system cost and

complexity of installation are usually very high; Geiger, G., Werner, T., Matko, D. stated

that the applications of E-RTTM are therefore limited to special high-risk areas, e.g. near

rivers or nature-protection areas.

Analytic thermal leak detector for above ground pipelines

According to CEPA (2015). Video analytics driven thermal imaging using uncooled micro

bolometer infrared sensors is emerging as a new and effective method of visualizing,

detecting and generating alerts of unplanned surface emissions of liquids and hydrocarbon

gas liquids. Detection to alarm generation takes less than 30 seconds. API (2009). This

technology is suitable for above-ground piping facilities, such as pump stations, refineries,

storage sites, mines, chemical plants, water crossings, and water treatment plants. The need

for new solutions in this area is driven by the fact that more than half of pipeline leaks occur

at facilities.

High quality thermo-graphic technology accurately measures and visualizes emissivity or

infrared radiation (thermal heat) of objects into gray scale imagery without the need for
ambient lighting. The monitored petroleum product (e.g. oil) is distinguished from

background objects by this heat difference. The addition of an analytic software component,

typically optimizable to better address a specific application or environment, enables

automated onsite leak analysis, validation and reporting, thereby reducing reliance on man

power. A leak appearing within an analytic region (a rule added to the camera) is

immediately analyzed for its attributes, including thermal temperature, size, and behaviour

(e.g. spraying, pooling, spilling). When a leak is determined to be valid based on set

parameters, an alarm notification with leak video is generated and sent to a monitoring

station.

Optimal detection distance varies and is influenced by camera lens size, resolution, field of

view, thermal detection range and sensitivity, leak size, and other factors. The system's

layers of filters and immunity to environmental elements, such as snow, ice, rain, fog and

glare, contribute to false alarms reduction. The video monitoring architecture can be

integrated onto existing leak detection and repair (LDAR) systems, including SCADA

networks, as well as other surveillance systems.

Digital oil leak detection cable

TTK S.A.S (2017) presented that digital sense cables consist of a braid of semi-permeable

internal conductors protected by a permeable insulating moulded braid; its achieved by

passing electrical signal through the internal conductors and is monitored by an inbuilt

microprocessor inside the cable connector. Escaping fluids pass through the external

permeable braid and make contact with the internal semi-permeable conductors. This causes

a change in the electrical properties of the cable that is detected by the microprocessor. The
microprocessor can locate the fluid to within a 1-metre resolution along its length and

provide an appropriate signal to monitoring systems or operators. The sense cables can be

wrapped around pipelines buried sub-surface with pipelines or installed as a pipe-in-pipe

configuration.

Jackson & Sherlock (1998) worked on Non-destructive Testing, they presented that an

infrared thermographic pipeline testing has shown itself to be both accurate and efficient in

detecting and locating subsurface pipeline leaks, voids caused by erosion, deteriorated

pipeline insulation, and poor backfill. They said that When a pipeline leak has allowed a

fluid, such as water, to form a plume near a pipeline, the fluid has a thermal conductance

different from the dry soil or backfill. This will be reflected in different surface temperature

patterns above the leak location. A high-resolution infrared radiometer allows entire areas to

be scanned and the resulting data to be displayed as pictures with areas of differing

temperatures designated by differing grey tones on a black & white image or by various

colours on a colour image. They claim that if a system measures surface energy patterns

only, but the patterns that are measured on the surface of the ground above a buried pipeline

can help show where pipeline leaks and resulting erosion voids are forming; it detects

problems as deep as 30 meters below the ground surface.

Geiger, G., Werner, T., Matko, D & Fuchs H. V. (1991). Worked on acoustic emission

detector. They stated that an escaping liquid create an acoustic signal as they pass through a

hole in the pipe. They opined that acoustic sensors affixed to the outside of the pipeline

create a baseline acoustic "fingerprint" of the line from the internal noise of the pipeline in

its undamaged state. They added that When a leak occurs, a resulting low frequency acoustic
signal is detected and analysed. Hence deviations from the baseline "fingerprint" signal an

alarm. Now sensors are having better arrangement with frequency band selection, time

delay range selection etc. This makes the graphs more distinct and easy to analyse. There are

other ways to detect leakage. Ground geo-phones with filter arrangement are very useful to

pinpoint the leakage location. It saves the excavation cost. The water jet in the soil hits the

inner wall of soil or concrete. This will create a feeble noise. This noise will decay while

coming up on the surface. But the maximum sound can be picked up only over the leakage

position. Amplifiers and filter helps to get clear noise. Some types of gases entered into the

pipe line will create a range of sounds when leaving the pipe.

Geiger, G., Werner, T., Matko, D. worked on vapour-sensing tube leak detection method

involves the installation of a tube along the entire length of the pipeline. They stated that the

tube in cable form is highly permeable to the substances to be detected in the particular

application. They said if a leak occurs, the substances to be measured come into contact with

the tube in the form of vapour, gas or dissolved in water. In the event of a leak, some of the

leaking substance diffuses into the tube. After a certain period of time, the inside of the tube

produces an accurate image of the substances surrounding the tube. In order to analyse the

concentration distribution present in the sensor tube, a pump pushes the column of air in the

tube past a detection unit at a constant speed. The detector unit at the end of the sensor tube

is equipped with gas sensors. Every increase in gas concentration results in a pronounced

"leak peak".

Großwig, S. et al. (2001) worked on Fibre-optic leak detection. They presented that at least

two fibre-optic leak detection methods are being commercialized: Distributed Temperature
Sensing (DTS) and Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS). The DTS method involves the

installation of a fibre-optic cable along the length of pipeline being monitored. The

substances to be measured come into contact with the cable when a leak occurs, changing

the temperature of the cable and changing the reflection of the laser beam pulse, signalling a

leak. The location is known by measuring the time delay between when the laser pulse was

emitted and when the reflection is detected. This only works if the substance is at a

temperature different from the ambient environment. In addition, the distributed fibre-optical

temperature-sensing technique offers the possibility to measure temperature along the

pipeline. Scanning the entire length of the fibre, the temperature profile along the fibre is

determined, leading to leak detection.

The DAS method involves a similar installation of fiber-optic cable along the length of

pipeline being monitored. A vibration caused by a substance leaving the pipeline via a leak

changes the reflection of the laser beam pulse, signaling a leak. The location is known by

measuring the time delay between when the laser pulse was emitted and when the reflection

is detected. They concluded that for temperature profile of the pipeline the two methods can

be combining together.

Pipeline flyovers are frequently carried out to either confirm the location or to detect and

locate small releases that cannot be identified by other methods. Typically the flyover of the

right of way is recorded by video, which may have some image filtering, such as thermal

imaging. Larger spills will typically be identified by a "sheen" in wetland or an area of dead

vegetation around the release location.

Flyovers are typically scheduled and not recommended as a primary leak-detection method.

They may be used to rapidly confirm the presence and location of a leak.

Biological leak detection

Biological methods of leak detection includes the use of dogs, which are more likely to be

used once a release has been identified but not located due to its small size; or by

landscapers who keep the pipeline right of way clear.

There are several companies who can provide dogs trained to identify the scent of release.

Typically a technician injects a fluid into the pipeline that the scent dogs are trained to track.

The dogs will then direct handlers towards a pipeline leak. They are trained to indicated at

the strongest concentration therefore their pinpointing abilities can be typically within a

meter. It typically takes 24 to 48 hours to mobilise a team, and may take several days to

actually locate a release depending on the remoteness of the area.

Pipeline rights of way are kept clear by landscapers who are also trained to look for signs of

pipeline releases. This is typically a scheduled process and should not be considered a

primary form of leak detection

An adaptive Luenberger-type estimator for the purpose of monitoring flow conditions and

locating and quantifying leakages in petroleum pipelines is presented. The estimator only

needs measurements of velocity, pressure, and temperature at the inlet and velocity and

pressure at the outlet to function. The measurements are used to form a special set of

boundary conditions for the estimator that ensures fast convergence of the estimation error.

Depending only on measurements from inlet and outlet makes it possible to use OLGA,

which is a state-of-the-art computational fluid dynamics simulator, to govern the one-phase

fluid flow of the estimator. The estimator is tested with both a straight, horizontal pipeline

and an actual, long pipeline with inclinations, and both simulations with oil and gas are

carried out. In order to cope with modeling errors and biased measurements, estimation of

roughness in the monitored pipeline is introduced.

2.3 Conventional Environmental Monitoring System

Inaudi .D. and Glisic .B (2010) worked on Long-Range Pipeline Monitoring by Distributed

Fiber Optic Sensing; he said that distributed fiber optic sensing presents unique feature

es that have no match in conventional sensing techniques. The ability to measure

temperatures and strain at thousands of points along a single fiber is particularly interesting

for the monitoring of elongated structures such as pipelines, flow lines, oil wells, and coiled

tubing. Sensing systems based on Brillouin and Raman scattering are used, for example, to

detect pipeline leakages, to verify pipeline operational parameters and to prevent failure of

pipelines installed in landslide areas, to optimize oil production from wells, and to detect hot

spots in high-power cables. Recent developments in distributed fiber sensing technology

allow the monitoring of 60 km of pipeline from a single instrument and of up to 300 km with

the use of optical amplifiers. New application opportunities have demonstrated that the

design and production of sensing cables are a critical element for the success of any

distributed sensing instrumentation project. Although some telecommunication cables can be

effectively used for sensing ordinary temperatures, monitoring high and low temperatures or

distributed strain presents unique challenges that require specific cable designs. This

contribution presents advances in long-range distributed sensing and in novel sensing cable

designs for distributed temperature and strain sensing. This paper also reports a number of
significant field application examples of this technology, including leakage detection on

brine and gas pipelines, strain monitoring on gas pipelines and combined strain and

temperature monitoring on composite flow lines, and composite coiled tubing pipes.

Branko ; presented that the use of distributed fiber optic monitoring system allows

continuous monitoring and management of pipelines, increasing their safety and allowing

the pipeline operator to take informed decisions on the operations and maintenance of the

pipe.

The presented monitoring system and the application examples shown in this paper

demonstrate how it is possible to obtain different types of information on the pipeline state

and conditions. In particular a distributed fiber optic system allows the following monitoring

tasks. Distributed temperature monitoring. Allows the measurement of the temperature

profile along the pipe and therefore of the temperature changes in the transported fluid. This

information can be used for optimizing operational parameters and for identifying and

locating the hydrate, ice, and wax accumulations. These may be detected by sensing changes

in temperature on either side of the accumulation. Leakage detection. Through the

identification of temperature anomalies, it is possible to detect and localize leakages of small

entity, which cannot be detected by conventional volumetric techniques. Furthermore, the

ability to pinpoint the exact location of the leak allows an immediate reaction at the event

location, minimizing downtime and ecological consequences. Intrusion detection. Based on

a similar approach, focusing on

localized strain and temperature changes, the presence and location of an accidental or

intentional intrusion can be detected. This enables preventive action before the intruder can
damage the pipeline. Distributed strain and deformation monitoring. Provides information

on the strain evolution along the pipeline. This is particularly useful at critical locations,

where movements caused by earthquakes, landslides, settlements, or human activities can

introduce potentially dangerous strain conditions to the pipeline. Distributed strain

monitoring allows the early detection of such conditions, allowing an intervention before a

real damage is

produced. This is a useful tool for pipeline management and for on-demand maintenance.

Distributed strain monitoring also has the potential of detecting wall-thickness changes

along the pipe, resulting from corrosion or abrasion. In general, distributed

strain/deformation and temperature sensing is a useful tool that ideally complements the

current monitoring and inspection activities, allowing a more dense acquisition of

operational and safety parameters. The measurements are performed at any point along the

pipeline and not at specific positions only. Furthermore, the monitoring is continuous and

does not interfere with the regular pipeline operation, contrary to, e.g., pigging operations.

The method can also be applied to nonpiggable pipes. Recent developments in distributed

fiber sensing technology allow the monitoring of 60 km of pipeline from a single instrument

and of up to 300 km with the use of optical amplifiers. To achieve the above-mentioned

goals and take full advantage of the described sensing technology, it is however fundamental

to select and appropriately install adequate sensing cables, adapted to the specific sensing

need. While it is generally easier to install sensing

cables during the pipeline construction phases, it is also possible to retrofit existing

pipelines. In some cases it is even possible to use existing fiber optic telecommunication

lines installed along a pipeline for temperature monitoring and leakage detection.

Rigzone.com (2017) presented that fiber optics has been in use in the oil and gas industry

since the 1990s in the form of distributed temperature sensing (DTS). DTS already is

established as a well monitoring technique, according to a 2014 report by research firm

VisionGain. They said that one kind of distributed fiber optic sensor – distributed acoustic

sensing (DAS) – has been proven over the past five years in pipeline surveillance and

monitoring systems. This type of sensor looks poised to add value to distributed fiber optic

sensor monitoring solutions for wells and reservoirs, which will be the primary market for

this technology in the future.

According to VisionGain, the complementary application of a DAS interrogation enhances

the future business case for distributed fiber optic sensing. DAS also represents an

opportunity for the industry to more effectively manage and optimize

its resources.“The rise of expensive multi-lateral hydraulic fracturing, an ever-greater focus

on improving oil recovery and the continued strength of capital expenditure on thermal

enhanced oil recovery techniques provide the main markets for the uptake of distributed

fiber optic sensing over the next 10 years,” said VisionGain in the report. OptaSense, part of

UK-based QinetiQ, a research and development firm focused on defense technology, was

formed in 2007

to exploit the applications DAS technology. The company’s technology is deployed to the

end of existing fiber optics already deployed in a well, allowing acoustic data to be away and
then transferred to the cloud for analysis. This data is then turned into actionable

information for the customer, said David Hill.

The company focuses on three areas: oil and gas pipelines, downhole well sensing to

monitor production, and sensing to enhance seismic interpretation. The company has been

primarily focused on upstream, land-based North America wells.

Interest in DAS really started to take off when companies began drilling horizontal wells and

hydraulically fracturing these wells in shale plays. The company then moved into vertical

wells and into SAGD [steam-assisted gravity drainage] wells in northern Canada. Hill said

the company is now looking at applications for its technology offshore, and has done a

number of jobs in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico.

OptaSense initially worked exclusively with Royal Dutch Shell plc to develop DAS

technology through an agreement signed in 2009. In September of last year, the companies

announced that they had delivered the world’s first permanent fiber-optic DAS in-well

production flow monitoring system in North America.

While the company still works extremely close with Shell, it has started collaborating with

other energy companies.

OptaSense and Weatherford International plc announced April 28 they had formed a

strategic alliance to deliver integrated optical sensing solutions to optimize well planning,

construction and production across the oil and gas asset lifecycle.

The partnership will combine OmniWell in-well optical production and reservoir monitoring

systems from Weatherford with OptaSense’s distributed acoustic sensing technology,

including DAS-VSP vertical seismic profiling, DAS-HFP

hydraulic fracture monitoring and DAS-Flow production flow monitoring. The two

companies are both providers of optical reservoir monitoring systems worldwide, installing

and monitoring optical sensing solutions for over 1,000 wells.

Weatherford’s sensing technology includes pressure and temperature gauges, distributed

temperature sensing, array temperature sensing, flow measurement and seismic sensors. The

combination of Weatherford’s sensing technology with

DAS technology from OptaSense will deliver enhanced data acquisition and monitoring of

seismic activity, well construction, completion and fracture operations and production flow.

“In addition to acquiring accurate data in real-time, OptaSense DAS technology can also

reduce data acquisition costs by eliminating the need for well intervention,” said Magnus

McEwen-King, managing director of OptaSense, in an April 28 press statement.

The past several years, oilfield service firm Halliburton has done quite a bit of investing in

DAS. Eric Holley, fiber optic product manager, told Rigzone that the company sees a lot of

promise for applications specifically in seismic sensing surveys and acquisition for doing

stimulation and life of well production profiling. In 2013, the company acquired the assets of

DAS provider Optiphase Inc. After concluding the acquisition, Halliburton refocused the

acquired assets on upstream oil and gas applications.

The results of the adoption of telecom grade fiber optic technology in oil and gas during the

late 1990’s and early 2000’s weren’t positive, said Holley. Once the oil and gas industry

started purpose-building fiber optics to withstand high temperatures downhole, the use of

fiber optics in heavy oil and unconventional resource plays began to take off around 2010
Halliburton has been targeting its use of fiber optics for offshore and onshore

unconventional and heavy oil. On the

hydraulic fracturing side, the company has been doing a lot of injection flow profiling, using

both DTS and DAS to

determine placement of the fluids in the wellbore. On the production side, Halliburton is

using fiber optics to replace the traditional production log. This is something Halliburton has

done for nearly a decade. “In heavy oil, from the DTS, when you have massive temperature

fluctuations due to steam injection, that is a tremendous environment for fiber optics to

provide value. In unconventional plays, Halliburton has used fiber to monitor injection and

production for life of well monitoring,” said Holley.

The end goal of this analysis is to provide results that impact decision making. For

unconventional plays, the focus is often on identifying optimized fracture and wellbore

spacing. This can be accomplished by using the fiber optic data to further

constrain and calibrate existing fracture and reservoir models. Halliburton sees a lot of

promise for DAS solutions to replicate and replace traditional geophone measurements for

seismic profiling, said Holley.

The company is always seeking ways to improve DAS data quality and break down the

information to a more useable and digestible form.

“There are still gaps in taking that information and making it useable, but we are working on

closing those gaps and a continuing development effort.”

Halliburton plans to continually close those gaps as the technology matures.

“In today’s environment, changes to the wellbore need to be made to include fiber and make

fiber more of a bolt on solutions, not purpose built,” said Holley. “We’re are making fiber a

solution that is more repeatable in wells. This is from both an operational perspective and

data analysis and interpretation perspective.”

Advantages of Fiber Optics

One widely cited key advantage of fiber optics is the fact that fiber optics are immune to

electromagnetic interference. “Certainly, around electrical submersible pumps and major

pieces of subsea electrical equipment, there is potential for interference with the operation of

an electrical gauge,” said Andrew Strong, head of oil and gas technology at product

development firm Cambridge Consultants, in an interview with Rigzone. “This risk is

minimized with careful design of electrical sensors and their communications schemes but

disappears entirely with optical sensors.” Optical fiber can act as both the sensing element

and the transmission medium to and from the interrogator. In distributed fiber sensors, an

optical fiber – which normally is a few miles long and housed inside a cable – is connected

to an optoelectronic interrogator. “The interrogator then launches optical pulses into the

fiber,” said Strong. “As the optical pulses propagate along the core of the fiber, they interact

with the material of the core and a small fraction of optical power is scattered, propagating

back towards the interrogator.”

The interrogator then analyzes this backscattered signal as a function of time and, depending

on configuration, is then able to discriminate temperature, strain or acoustic signal as a

function of distance along the fiber. Optical fiber sensors also allow operators the ability to
multiplex. Certain types of optical fiber sensors can be connected together on a single optical

fiber and their individual return signals discriminated either through the use of different

optical wavelength bands, similar to radio channels. This is called wavelength division

multiplexing. “The alternative is to use the individual time-of-flight to the different sensors,

which are installed at different positions along a fiber, or time division multiplexing.”

Popular sensors such as Fiber Bragg Gratings can be multiplexed using either technique. The

use of fiber optics also makes more sense for complex installation work further offshore and

in high pressure, high temperature environments. Optical sensors deployed downhole or for

asset monitoring are inherently simple and are almost single components so that failure rates

are low. In general, the economics of optical sensors improve as monitoring distances and/or

the number of measurement points grow. By contrast, incorporating electrical sensors into a

cable is complex, and

raises costs while reducing reliability. “This is important for a device to which access may

not be possible for the 25-year plus lifetime of a well or pipeline,” said

Strong. “The interrogator, or complex optoelectronic/computer equipment normally

deployed in a control room or in a protective enclosure, has a significantly greater

probability of failure but is easily accessed and hence repaired or replaced.” A number of

different types of optical fiber sensors exist. In the past decade, sensors such as distributed

temperature sensors suffered from calibration drift that result in somewhat less precise

measurement of optical intensity. However, recent advances in interrogator, fiber and cable

design have reduced these errors dramatically, Strong said. “The trade-off in functionality
between the fully-distributed nature of DTS versus the fewer, discrete measurement points

of

a Fiber Bragg Gratings-based system mean that operators are quite often happy to accept a

reduction in absolute precision to gain the complete coverage of a distributed temperature

sensor,” said Strong. “The most appropriate solution depends strongly on the specifics of the

application.” In pipeline leak detection applications, DTS is used to detect and locate the

localized temperature changes caused by a leak. DAS can perform the same function,

detecting initially a leak’s acoustic signal – especially with high-pressure gas leaks – and the

changes in localized temperature. “The combination of two different sensor methodologies

(DTS and DAS) in a single cable is particularly powerful,” said

Strong. “If both measurement systems report a leak then there is a greatly reduced

probability of a false alarm.” Early limitations of fiber optic technology include its inability

to withstand high pressure, high-temperature hostile environments; the ability to access the

fiber through the wellhead; and fiber darkening, in which fibers would literally go dark,

meaning less light was returned from the fiber over time, eventually making them unusable,

said Hill. The development of more resilient types of fiber has addressed fiber darkening and

expanded the projected lifespan of fiber optics in the wellbore.

Advances in fiber optic technology that will ensure their survival in the high-pressure, high-

temperature environments of wellbores have allowed the market for fiber optics in oil and

gas to take off. “Technology has gotten to the point where all the major barriers to entry

have been overcome,” said Hill. This has led to a resurgence in DTS capability, and

significant interest by the oil and gas industry in DAS. Will the decline in oil prices impact
interest in fiber optics? There is an initial period where every budget will be slashed as

people try to save money, said Hill. But he believes that oil prices could actually be

beneficial for the wider production of this technology in the industry.“We believe that if you

can monitor it, you can manage,” Hill said of the technology’s ability to enhance production

and efficiency. “However, better understanding of what impacts shale oil and gas production

is of even more interest in a tighter margin environment,” said Rudgley. “If DFOS leads to

actions that lead to demonstrable results, then yes. Proving it – and removing the ‘if’ – is of

more importance today, but at the same time, there is more interest in finding that edge today

than there was a year ago.” Another fiber optic application at risk of spending cutbacks is in-

situ oil sands development in North America. “We are looking at less spending now and next

year than there has been (around 50 percent less than 2014) on such developments,” Rudgley

commented. He noted three brackets of investment in this area: those already committed to

project under construction, those taking the long view, and those delaying. “The delay of

many projects means that capital expenditure will fall and DFOS will lose some of the

potential market that we thought would have existed in the near-term.”

Rudgley said that VisionGain sees greater potential for the use of DFOS onshore, where the

overwhelming majority of applications are. Since 2009, DAS has been the exciting growth

area within the oil and gas industry. Pipeline monitoring has been the primary factor driving

that interest. However, VisionGain has concerns that saturation of this market space may

occur in the coming years, given the dwindling length of major pipelines in secure spaces

that are perceived to need monitoring. “This is why reservoir monitoring and seismic

application DFOS case studies are very much worth keeping an eye on.”
Fiber optics definitely offers the "best bang for the buck" for transporting more data longer

distances, said Chirag Rathi, principal consultant with Frost & Sullivan’s energy practice. As

with other technologies, the oil and gas industry has a learning curve when changing to a

new technology. But with the right amount of protection, cladding and protocols, Rathi sees

fiber optic technology as a suitable candidate moving forward for the transmission of data.

VisionGain had estimated that expenditures for distributed fiber optic sensors by the global

oil and gas industry will be $341.2 million in 2014. Spending for distributed fiber optic

spending (DFOS) would not likely be as affected by lower oil prices as other areas due to its

present reliance on midstream infrastructure and thermal enhanced oil recovery prices, said

Grant Rudgley, senior energy analyst and consultant with research firm VisionGain, in a

statement to Rigzone. Instead, the most at-risk areas for spending cutbacks on fiber optics is

for future seismic application, which is likely to be overlooked in a commercially risk-

adverse environment.

2.4 Oil and Gas Pipeline Leakage Detection Consult With Research Firm

Contributions using intelligent modules

Phosonic™ provides real-time measurement of subsurface variables, such as oil, gas, water,

sand, and pressure, for next-generation hydrocarbon exploration and pipeline safety

monitoring.

Based upon patented U.S. Navy technology in digital opto-acoustic fiber optic sensor arrays,

the Phosonic™ sensor system utilizes an opto-electronic interrogator and fiber optic cable to

detect pressure waves at specific frequencies (Rayleigh Optical Scattering). It processes and
analyzes these digital signals, and provides real-time detection, classification, localization,

and communication of specific geophysical phenomena.

Historically utilized for its advanced surveillance for national security projects, Phosonic™

also has immediate applications in the oil and gas market.

Phosonic™ is ideal for oil and gas pipeline leak detection, and next-generation hydrocarbon

exploration.
OIL & GAS PIPELINE LEAK DETECTION

Underground sensors detect, identify, and localize pipeline leaks and breaks with

high spatial accuracy. This real-time detection allows potential emergencies to be

addressed immediately, saving oil, money, and the environment.

By quickly addressing the problem, Phosonic™ prevents oil and gas leaks from

seeping further into the environment, where it could have a major impact on plants,

wildlife, and drinking water.

HYDROCARBON EXPLORATION

From inside the fracking pipe, sensors detect the pressure waves of hydrocarbons

given off by oil- or gas-rich deposits. This real-time sensing allows for more

intelligent exploration, saving time and money.

Phosonic™ can provide time-delay frequency modulation, and zonation (what,

when, and where) information in continuous, real-time feeds associated with

various seismic anomalies occurring across the drilling horizon.

The Intelligent Oil Field delivers the ability to provide a complete and continuous

profile of oil and gas assets. Phosonic™ provides high-fidelity site characterization

and seismic analysis, delivering a world-class predictive capability. Massive

geophysical data volumes are reduced to manageable, actionable intelligence

Enbridge ( 2017 )Presented a report that provides the results of the evaluation of

the feasibility and performance of alternative leak detection technologies (“ALD

Report”) in accordance with Paragraphs 79-80 of the Consent Decree entered in

U.S. vs. Enbridge Energy, Limited Partnership, et. Al., (collectively referred to as

“Enbridge”) (Civil Action No: 1:16-cv-914 (ECF No. 14, 05/23/2017)). Paragraph

79 requires Enbridge to submit to the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

a report regarding Enbridge’s assessment of the feasibility and performance of

alternative leak detection technologies, such as computational pipeline monitoring

that monitors the pressure wave, external leak detection technologies, and aerial-

based technologies. Enbridge is responsible for submitting the results of this

assessment to the EPA within 120 Days of the Effective Date of the Consent

Decree.

Enbridge uses a layered strategy for leak detection where pipelines are monitored

for possible leaks using multiple complementary methods. These include

Computational Pipeline Monitoring (CPM) systems, rupture detection systems,

scheduled line balance calculations, Controller monitoring, surveillance and in-line

inspection tools. As part of its continuous improvement process, Enbridge has been

active in identifying, testing and evaluating Alternative Leak Detection (ALD)

technologies that may provide additional leak detection capabilities. These

technologies include a number of sensor-based systems that show potential.

Limited industry experience, however, has made their application uncertain for

pipelines. The purpose of this assessment is to provide an objective evaluation of

the commercially - available technologies and their feasibility and performance for

pipeline application. There are various ALD technologies that Enbridge has been

evaluating in the past five years which include: negative pressure wave, aerial

technology, Distributed Temperature Sensing (DTS) cables, Distributed Acoustic

Sensing (DAS) cables, Vapor Sensing Tube (VST), Hydrocarbon Sensing Cables

(HSC) and Polymer Absorption Sensors (PAS).

TECHNICAL PERFORMACE
Enbridge primarily uses technical performance criteria to assess the performance-related aspects of an
LD Technology
within its testing and assessment program. Four factors which include: sensitivity, reliability, accuracy,
and robustness
are used in accordance with the standard definitions of API 1130 (API RP 1130, Computational Pipeline
Monitoring [CPM]
for Liquids, 2012), which were defined primarily for CPM systems. Their use is being expanded for
application across the
various Alternate Leak Detection Systems (LDS) being evaluated. These industry performance criteria
are considered
qualitative. At the time, there are no regulatory or industry performance targets for the ALD technologies
described in this
report. The application of the technical evaluation criteria can be made specific to the technology being
assessed. The
performance criteria are defined below, as per the API 1130 Recommended Practice:
a) Sensitivity – Sensitivity is defined as the composite measure of the size of leak that a system is
capable of detecting,
and the time required for the system to issue an alarm in the event that a leak of that size should occur.
Essentially it
is a measure of how fast a leak of a particular size can be found. The relationship between leak size and
the
response time is dependent upon the nature of the LDS. Some systems manifest a strong correlation
between leak
size and response time, while with others, response time is largely independent of leak size (API 1130,
Annex C).
Metrics may include:
o Sensitivity related to leak flow rate (The size of leak detected, as a percentage of nominal flow)
o Sensitivity in response time or time taken to first alarm (The time taken by the system to detect the
leak)
b) Reliability – Reliability is a measure of the ability of an LDS to render accurate decisions about the
possible existence
of a leak on a pipeline. It is directly related to the probability of detecting a leak, given that a leak does in
fact exist,
and the probability of incorrectly declaring a leak, given that no leak has occurred. A system which
incorrectly
declares leaks is considered to be less reliable; however, if the system has the capability to use additional
information
to disqualify, limit, or inhibit an alarm, a high rate of leak declarations may be considered less significant
(API 1130,
Annex C). Reliability is measured by the number of the false alarms (reporting a leak when there is no

leak).

c) Accuracy – Accuracy is the ability to determine the location of the leak, its rate, and total leak volume.
o Leak location detection - Estimates the location of the leak within a certain set threshold.
o Total volume lost and leak rate estimation - Estimates the flow rate of the leak usually as a percentage
of the
nominal flow in the pipeline; as well as, gives an estimate of the volume of commodity lost during the leak.
d) Robustness – Robustness is defined as a measure of the LDS ability to continue to function and
provide useful
information in changing conditions of pipeline operation or in conditions where data is lost or suspect (API
1130,
Annex C).
o It can be a measure of the system’s ability to function and provide useful information even under
Abnormal
Operating Conditions (AOC) which are defined as conditions identified by the operator that may indicate a
malfunction of a component or deviation from normal operations.
Examples of changing conditions may include: transient operations, column separation conditions, batch
operations, instrumentation failure, communication failure, PLC failure, SCADA failure, presence of
pipeline
pigs and ancillary software processes failure