Introduction

1. Introduction

T.K. Ganguli

The history of transformer goes back to the early 1880s. With the sharp increase
in demand for electric power, power transformers in 400 kV ratings were
produced as early as 1950. In the early 1970s unit ratings as large as 1100 MVA
were produced and 800 kV and even higher kV class transformers were
manufactured in the early 1980s.

A transformer is a static piece of equipment with a complicated electromagnetic

circuit inside. The energy is transferred from one electrical circuit to another
through the magnetic field. In its simplest form, a transformer consists of two
conducting coils having a mutual inductance. In an ideal case it is assumed that
all the flux linked with the primary winding also links the secondary winding. But,
in practice it is impossible to realize this condition as magnetic flux cannot be
confined. The greater portion of the flux flows in the core while a small portion
called the leakage flux links one or the other winding. Depending upon the
particular application and type of connection, a transformer may have additional
windings apart from the two conventional windings. Chapter 2 deals with the
principles of transformers mainly covering the basic electromagnetic force (emf)
equation, ideal transformer, equivalent circuit, calculation of regulation, no load
and load losses, efficiency and parallel operation of transformers.

Major materials like copper, cold-rolled grain oriented silicon steel, insulating oil,
pressboard and paper insulation and certain ferrous and nonferrous items are
essential to build a compact and trouble-free transformer. Chapter 3 has been
primarily devoted to explain the characteristics of these materials which shall be
helpful in selecting the correct material for the equipment.
Designing an insulation system for application in higher voltage class transformer
is an art and with the use of the best materials available today, it is possible to
economies on size as well as produce a reliable piece of equipment. Keeping in
view the transportability, operational limitations and guaranteed technical
performance of the transformer, particular type of core construction is adopted.
Chapter 4 is devoted to design of magnetic circuit, constructional features,
manufacturing, assembly and finally fitting core in the tank.

Windings and insulation arrangement has been covered in Chapter 5. Starting

from spiral and layer type of windings, more emphasis is given to helical and disc
types which are more commonly used in the latest design practices. The impulse
voltage withstand behavior of an ordinary disc winding can be enhanced by
interleaving the disc winding. The initial voltage distribution at the line end
should be taken care of for high voltage windings. The transient voltage
distribution and internal heat transfer in the windings have been described in
detail. The insulation design becomes more complex as we move towards higher
and higher voltage class of transformer windings. Proper sizing and routing can
be further examined by detailed electrostatic field plots. To vary the voltage in a
transformer, tap changers are used which have a different type of regulating
winding connection, viz. linear, reversing, coarse fine, etc. Chapter 6 describes
the tap changer types, constructional features and its control.

Designing a transformer to cater to electromagnetic forces has been covered in

Chapter 7. Radial and axial forces occurring during short circuit or line faults can
be calculated and winding design can be finalized to withstand these forces. The
clamping structures put the coils under a pressure, higher than that produced by
short circuit forces. An effort has been made to describe the method for
calculating stresses and then dimensioning the clamping structures adequately.
The cooling of a transformer becomes more relevant from the point of view of
ageing of insulation system and ensuring longer life due to less thermal
degradation. Chapter 8 covers various types of cooling, its arrangement and
design calculation.

The design procedure described in Chapter 9 gives every detail of a transformer

starting from the selection of core-size, winding conductor, reactance calculation
and then realization of main guaranteed parameters like percentage impedance,
no load loss, load loss, etc. Estimation and control of stray losses, winding
gradient has also been described. Typical design calculation for two winding and
auto transformers has been covered in brief. Structural design is described in
Chapter 10 which gives an idea of stresses that are developed in main tank and
other supporting structures.

Proper selection of transformer auxiliaries is essential for ensuring safe operation

of the main equipment and provides protection under fault conditions. Chapter 11
covers the major auxiliaries like gas operated buchholz relay, temperature
indicators, pressure relief valve, bushings, cable box, oil preservation system,
etc. Assembly and manufacturing aspects have been covered in Chapter 12. After
the winding and core assembly is completed, drying and impregnation is a vital
process that is described in Chapter 13. Cellulose insulation used in power
transformers and reactors has approximately 6 to 10% of moisture by weight at
ambient temperature, being a hygroscopic material. Vacuum drying and vapour
phase drying is an important tool to extract moisture from the insulation items.
Uniform heating of the entire active part (core and winding) mass must be
ensured so that shrinkage and moisture extraction is optimum.

To ensure quality and conformation to design calculations, testing is an important

activity in the transformer. The basic testing requirement and testing codes are
set out in national and international standards. Chapter 14 is intended to cover
the purpose and methodology of performing the tests. Chapter 15 covers the
various standards generally used for transformers. Depending upon the
consumer requirement, sometimes the transformers are loaded beyond its
nameplate rating for a brief period. Chapter 16 covers the loading and life of a
transformer.

Chapter 17 describes some of the main precautions which must be taken during
erection and commissioning of a transformer. Maintenance schedule has also
been discussed so that continuous trouble free service could be ensured.
Inspection upon arrival at site, installation, oil filling, drying of transformer and
analysis of gases of power transformers, etc. have been explained for the benefit
of the users. The transformer being a vital equipment, its protection is equally
important. Some of the basic protection schemes have been dealt with in Chapter
18. Reactors are usually classified according to duty application, viz. current
limiting, neutral earthing, shunt, smoothing, etc. These reactors have typical
characteristic requirements and call for different constructions, viz. with air core
or with gapped iron core for fixed and variable reactance. Chapter 19 deals in
detail with the design, and construction etc. of different types of reactors.
Chapters 20 and 21 mainly deal with special types of transformers. For chemical
plants, aluminium plants, etc. where electrolytic processes are adopted and the
direct current requirement is quite large, rectifier transformers are used. Traction
transformers require special considerations for their design due to a limitation of
space availability and problems due to vibration. They have to be designed and
manufactured to stringent specifications, so as to withstand heavy stresses in this
type of application.

The growth of HVDC system for transporting power to long distances calls for
discussing transformers for such application, too. Chapter 22 covers the basic
aspects of a converter transformer, which is one of the most expensive
equipment in HVDC system. Controlled shunt reactors can be employed in place
of fixed shunt reactors and Chapter 23 is fully devoted to this new area. The
advantages of controlled shunt reactors are mainly fully controllable reactive
power, reduced dynamic over voltages, increased power carrying capacity of
lines, faster responses etc. Chapter 24 describes the criteria for designing and
manufacturing a short circuit proof transformer. Steady increase in unit ratings of
transformers and simultaneous growth of short circuit levels of network have
made the short circuit withstand capability of the transformer one of the key
aspects of its design. Additionally, aspects like material selection, selection of
fittings and manufacturing processes, etc. are to be carefully examined in detail.
Chapter 25 covering high voltage condenser bushing has been specially designed
to cover application guidelines, use of insulating material, design, construction
and testing, etc. The factors affecting the performance of bushing and preventive
measures like condition monitoring, etc. have been dealt with in detail. In the
present day scenario, it is not possible to function without the application of
computer aided design. Accordingly Chapter 26 gives an idea for catering to the
high demand for tailor-made transformer products and the ways to overcome this
problem.

The need for a reliable and stable system is being increasingly felt. Thus Chapter
27 is devoted to condition monitoring, residual life assessment and refurbishment
of the transformer. The residual life assessment study is carried out to predict the
health of the transformer insulation and remaining life of the transformer.
Cellulose insulation degrades due to heating or electrical breakdown, resulting in
the production of furfural derivatives which dissolve in oil. Hence, chemical
analysis of the oil gives evidence of changes that are taking place in the winding
insulation during operation. Due to paucity of funds, it is not practical and
economical to replace old units with new ones. In such cases,
refurbishing/retrofitting is an economical and viable alternative. Finally, Chapter
28 provides an overview of the transformer and describes in general the salient
points which contribute an essential part in producing the equipment. Although
the transformer is a complex piece of equipment mainly produced manually,
efforts on various fronts, viz. design, manufacture, vendor development, process
mapping and maintaining history card, etc. contribute as important tools for
producing a reliable piece of transformer.

This book is an attempt to include in one volume the various major aspects
related to a power transformer. An effort has been made to give a comprehensive
and up-to-date coverage of the latest technologies and developments in the field
of power transformers. Finally, some solved examples have also been included at
the end of the book to aid better understanding especially for students and
practising engineers. The topics covered in the book shall be helpful for design,
manufacture, testing, erection, commissioning and maintenance of power
transformers in every corner of the world.

Figure 1.1. 315 MVA, three-phase 400/220/330-kv Auto Transformer for

Wanakbori Thermal Power Station.
Figure 1.2. 200 MVA singl-phase 21/400(3) kv generator transformer for
Singrauli Super Thermal Power Project.

Citation
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BHEL (Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited): Transformers, Second Edition.
Introduction, Chapter (McGraw-Hill Professional, 2003), AccessEngineering

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