HSC Physics Ideas to Implementation

HSC Physics Notes

Ideas to Implementation
1. CATHODE RAYS
2. PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
3. TRANSISTORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS
4. SUPERCONDUCTORS

1. Cathode Rays

1.1 Cathode Rays

Initial experimentation produced conflicting evidence about whether cathode rays were charged
particles or electromagnetic waves:

Observations suggesting cathode rays are particles:

• Move in straight lines (evidenced by shadow of maltese cross)
• Later found to be deflected by an electric field
• Are deflected by a magnetic field, as found by Thomson
• Exert momentum (evidenced by movement of the paddle wheel)
• Travel slower than the speed of light

Observations suggesting cathode rays are waves:

• Did not appear to be affected by gravity as evidenced by the maltese cross experiment (because
of the low mass the effects of gravity went unnoticed)
• Did not appear to be deflected by electric fields by Hertz’s initial experiments (the deflection was
so small that Hertz did not notice it)
• Could travel through thin aluminium foils as found by Hertz (this was because the particles were
so small that they could pass through the crystal lattice of some metals)
• Move in straight lines (evidenced by sharp shadows of opaque objects)
• Could produce chemical changes and fluorescence

1.2 Cathode Ray Tubes

Cathode ray tubes: consist of a cathode and an anode in a vacuum, across which there is a
potential difference to allow a stream of charged particles (electrons) to flow from cathode
(negative) to anode (positive).

The cathode ray tubes allow the stream of charged particles to be manipulated in two ways:

• Using an external
magnet field to bend
the stream up and down
• Using an external
electric field to bend
the stream left and right

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1.3 Charges in Magnetic Fields

Moving charged particles (such as a electrons) will experience a force as they travel through a
magnetic field. Because cathode rays are essentially just a stream of negatively charged electrons,
an external magnetic field will cause the cathode ray to experience a force.

1.4 Charged Parallel Plates

Charged parallel plates produce an electric field where the field lines are
even distances apart and perpendicular to the plate, as seen right.

1.5 Force on a Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field

𝐹 = Force (N)

𝑞 = Charge on particle (C) 

𝑣 = Velocity of particle (ms^-1)

𝐵 = Magnetic Field Strength (T)

𝜃 = Angle between direction of velocity and magnetic field lines

The direction of the force can be determined using the right hand palm rule, where the thumb
represents the movement of the charged particle, the fingers represent the direction of the
magnetic field and the palm represents the direction of the force.

Note that if the particle is travelling in the same direction as the

magnetic field the particle will not experience any force.
Furthermore, because the force changes the direction of the
particle, which in turn changes the direction of the force,
particles take a circular path through magnetic fields.

1.6 Electric Field Types

1.7 Parallel Plates Calculations

-1
𝐸 = Electric Field Strength (Vm )
𝑉 = Voltage across plates (Volts)
𝑑 = Distance (m)

𝐹 = Force on charged particle in electric field (N)


𝑞 = Charge on particle (C)

-1
𝐸 = Electric Field Strength (NC )

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1.8 Thomson’s Experiment

Thomson’s experiment
was aimed at finding the
charge/mass ration of
an electron

The apparatus is as
shown to the right with a
high potential difference
across the cathode and
anode to create a
cathode ray hitting the
end of the vacuum tube

• We know that cathode rays (electrons) are affected by both magnetic and electric fields
• The force on the electron in a magnetic field is given by F = qvB and the force on an electron in
an electric field is given by F = qE
• In Thomson’s apparatus there is both an electric field and a magnetic field that will apply a force
on the electrons (cathode rays) travelling through the vacuum chamber
• By making these two forces act in opposite directions and cancelling them out so that the
cathode ray travels exactly straight (as measured on the glass at the end of the tube), it can be
concluded that the force applied to the electrons by the magnetic field is equal to the force
applied by the electric field
• To express this mathematically:
- F=F
- qvB = qE
- vB = E
- v = E/B
• Because E (electric field strength) and B (magnetic field strength) are both know, the velocity of
the electrons in the cathode ray could be calculated
• The electric field was then switched off and only the magnetic field remained on, causing the
cathode ray to bend down
• We know that charged particles in uniform magnetic fields have a circular motion, and so, the
force applied by the magnetic field F = qvB is equal to the centripetal force F = mv^2/r
• Rearranging:
- F=F
- qvB = mv^2/r
- qvBr = mv^2
- qvBr/m = v^2
- q/m = v^2/vBr
- q/m = v/Br
• From the above we know the value v (velocity of the electrons), the value B (magnetic field
strength) is also known and r (radius) can be calculated by measuring the physical displacement
of the cathode ray from its straight path
• Hence, the charge (q) to mass (m) ratio of the electron can be determined

1.9 Conventional TV Displays and Oscilloscopes

CONVENTIONAL TV DISPLAYS
• Electrodes in the electron gun: the electrodes in an electron gun refer to the cathode and
anode. A potential difference is present across the electrodes, and hence, a stream of electrons
(a cathode ray) travels towards the TV screen to create an image.
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• The deflection plates or coils: deflection plates (which create an electric field) and coils (which
create a magnetic field) can be used to change the direction of the cathode ray, and thereby,
controls which part of the screen the ray hits. In TVs, two sets of coils are usually used: one coil
will alter the y-coordinate while the other alters the x-coordinate.
• The fluorescent screen: the fluorescent screen is where the cathode rays hit, and due to a
chemical coating they emit a fluorescent light, which can be seen on the display.

OSCILLOSCOPES
• Electrodes in the electron gun: the electrodes in an electron gun refer to the cathode and
anode. A potential difference is present across the electrodes, and hence, a stream of electrons
(a cathode ray) travels towards the display to create the shape of the wave.
• The deflection plates or coils: deflection plates (which create an electric field) and coils (which
create a magnetic field) can be used to change the direction of the cathode ray, and thereby,
controls which part of the screen the ray hits. In oscilloscopes, two sets of deflection plates are
usually used, one of which alters the y-coordinate, and the other the x-coordinate. The x-
coordinate deflection plates cause the beam to continually track from left to right, while the y-
coordinate alters the amplitude and frequency to create the shape of the wave.
• The fluorescent screen: the fluorescent screen is where the cathode rays hit, and due to a
phosphorus coating they emit a green light, which can be seen on the display.

1.10 Striations Pattern Investigation

The striation patterns observed in cathode ray tubes varies depending on the air pressure in the
vacuum tubes. A transformer was used to achieve the high voltages needed for this experiment.

Observations in order of descending air pressure:

• At 5%, long, thin purple streamers stretched from cathode to anode
• The streamers gave way to a soft pink-purple glow
• Purple striations appeared, that is, bands of light and dark in the purple appeared
• The size of the dark spaces in between the bands of purple increased as the air pressure was
reduced further
• At 0.01%, there were no striations, the glass around the anode glowed green

1.11 Properties of Cathode Rays

A number of different investigations involving discharge tubes were used to observe the various
properties of cathode rays:

MALTESE CROSS
This experiment showed that
cathode rays travel in straight lines
and suggested that cathode rays
are unaffected by gravity (actually
they are, but because of their
small mass it went unnoticed). The
maltese cross was used as the
anode and the cathode rays cast a
shadow of the maltese cross on
the end of the tube. Because the
shadow was accurate, this
suggested that cathode rays do
travel in straight lines.

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ELECTRIC PLATES
This experiment showed that cathode rays were deflected
by an electric field. Furthermore, it was observed that the
cathode ray was attracted to the positive plate, and so it
was concluded that the particles in cathode rays were
negatively charged. In the diagram to the right, the top
electric plate is the positive plate.

FLUORESCENT DISPLAY SCREEN

By shining a cathode ray through a phosphorus
screen, its path could be observed. Using this
fluorescent screen, it was noticed that the path of
cathode rays was affected by a magnetic field. The
placement of the phosphorus screen in the
discharge tube is as shown to the right.

PADDLE WHEEL
This experiment showed that the particles in
cathode rays must have mass as they have the
momentum needed to move the wheel. The glass
paddle wheel was free to move along the runners
and a cathode ray was shot from cathode to
anode so that it would hit the top paddles of the
paddle wheel and cause it to spin, and hence roll.

1.12 Calculations
To calculate the strength of an electric field, the following formula can be used:

-1
𝐸 = Electric Field Strength (Vm )
𝑉 = Voltage across plates (Volts)
𝑑 = Distance (m)

To calculate the force on a charged particle in that field the following formula can be used (note
that the direction can be determined by knowing that opposites attract):

𝐹 = Force on charged particle in electric field (N)


𝑞 = Charge on particle (C)

-1
𝐸 = Electric Field Strength (NC )

To calculate the force on a moving charged particle in a magnetic field the formula on the next
page can be used. Notes that, to find the direction of the force the right band palm rule can be
used (where the fingers point in the direction of the magnetic field, the thumb point in the direction
of the particle and the palm points in the direction of the force). Note that charged particles in a
uniform magnetic field will follow a circular path.

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HSC Physics Ideas to Implementation
𝐹 = Force (N)

𝑞 = Charge on particle (C) 

𝑣 = Velocity of particle (ms^-1)

𝐵 = Magnetic Field Strength (T)

𝜃 = Angle between direction of
velocity and magnetic field lines

2. Photoelectric Effect

2.1 Hertz’s Observation of Radio Waves

Photoelectric Effect: refers to the observation that many metal surfaces release electrons when
exposed to electromagnetic radiation.

• Hertz observed that the spark between the gap in the transmitter loop (left) caused a smaller
spark to be induced between the gap in the detecting loop (right).
• This was due to the photoelectric effect, however Hertz did not know this, and although he had
observed the photoelectric effect and the effect of radio waves on a receiver, he was unable to
investigate these observations further

2.2 Hertz’s Experiment

Hertz’s experiment measured the speed of radio waves and explained how they relate to
visible light.

• Maxwell asserted that light was an electromagnetic radiation which self-propagated—that is, it
consisted of an electric field which induced a magnetic field which then induced an electric field
which then induced another magnetic field and so on while ever it travelled
• Using the same basic apparatus as in the syllabus point above, Hertz was able to use the wave
equation 𝑐 = 𝑓𝜆 to determine the speed of radio waves
• The frequency was known because of the voltage and current of the circuit used in the
transmitter loop to create the radio waves
• Hertz measured the wavelength of the emitted radio waves by placing the emitter and receiver in
the same position and reflecting the radio wave off a metal sheet so that when the sheet was half
a wavelength away the superposition would cause the signal to cancel out
• Hence, he calculated the velocity of radio waves as 3 x 108 ms-1
• This value was very close to what Maxwell has estimated, and hence, Hertz’s experiment proved
Maxwell’s hypothesis that visible light and radio waves were two different parts of the
electromagnetic spectrum

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2.3 Planck’s Hypothesis

Planck hypothesised that radiation emitted and absorbed by the walls of a black body
cavity is quantised (meaning it is broken into packets).

Black body: refers to any body that absorbs and then reemits all radiation that falls on it without
reflecting any of that radiation.

It is important to note that black bodies are theoretical concepts and no actual body absorbs 100%
of the radiation falling on it. An example of a black body would be some object that absorbs all the
visible light radiation that falls on it and reemits this energy as other forms of electromagnetic
radiation, such as heat (infrared). Hence, the body appears black.

The graph to the right shows black body

radiation, where the intensity and wavelength
refer to that of the radiation being emitted.

Maxwell’s mathematical model and classical

physics suggested that intensity would
increase exponentially as wavelength
decreased, however this violated the law of
conservation of energy and became known as
the ‘ultraviolet catastrophe’. Experimental data
proved this theory wrong.

This problem was solved by Planck, who suggested that the energy in radiation was quantised,
that is, it was broken into small packets of energy known as quanta (later coined photons by
Einstein). This meant that an atom could only absorb or release a certain number of quanta of
energy, not a limitless amount (as suggested by Maxwell’s mathematical model). To explain this
hypothesis mathematically Planck developed the following formula:

𝐸 = energy of quantum (photon) (J)

h = Planck’s Constant (6.626 × 10−34 Js)
𝑓 = frequency (m)

2.4 Einstein’s Contribution to Quantum Theory

Einstein’s contribution to quantum theory was that he used Planck’s hypothesis of quantised
energy to explain the photoelectric effect which Hertz had observed but never investigated.

• Classical physics was unable to explain the photoelectric effect using the wave model of light,
however Einstein, using Planck’s discoveries, suggested that light could be considered both a
wave and a particle (a stream of photons)
• Einstein proposed that a photon could not transfer part of its energy to an electron, either all of it,
or none of it. He related this to the photoelectric effect by explaining that a minimum amount of
energy was required to free an electron from the surface of a metal, and he called this amount of
energy the work function
• When photons of light hit the surface of a metal, a certain amount of energy will be needed to
detach the electron from the metal (the work function) and the remainder of the photons energy
will be transferred into kinetic energy, moving the newly formed photoelectron
• The graph below plots the frequency of incoming radiation against the kinetic energy of
photoelectrons after the energy transfer

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HSC Physics Ideas to Implementation
• The work function of the metal (−∅) determines
the value of for the threshold frequency, below
which, the photons do not have enough energy
to detach an electron and form a photoelectron
• As frequency increases, each individual photon
has more energy, and hence there is more
energy leftover to be transferred into kinetic
energy after the electron is freed from the metal
• Because kinetic energy is the leftover energy, it
is equal to the total energy of the photon (E = hf)
minus the work function of the metal (which is
the amount of energy needed to free the electron)
• Hence, the following formula for kinetic energy of a photoelectron was developed:

𝐸k =h𝑓−∅
Einstein related this back to black body radiation by exclaiming that intensity of emitted radiation
from a black body relies on number of photons rather than individual photon energy. Therefore,
high frequency of remitted radiation from a black body does not imply more intense radiation.

2.5 Particle Model of Light

Einstein proposed that light could be considered both a wave and a particle.

The particle model of light arises from the fact that light is broken in to a stream of photons, or
discrete bundles of energy. The energy of the photon is directly related to its frequency, and all
photons of radiation of the same frequency have the same energy (given by E = hf)

2.6 Calculations with Light

The relationship between photon energy,
frequency, speed of light and wavelength can be
determined by the following two formulae.

If frequency is unknown but wavelength of the

EMR is given, we can first calculate frequency
using the wave formula, and then sub this value
into the photon energy formula.

It is also important to note the following conversion between joules and electron volts, two different
units of measurement for energy. One electron volt is far smaller than one joule:

eV = 1.602 × 10−19 J

2.7 Reception of Radio Waves Investigation

If you place an induction coil with a spark gap near an AM radio, when the induction coil is turned
on interference is heard when the spark jumps. This shows that the spark emits radio waves and
that these radio waves are being received by the radio.

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2.8 Assessing Einstein’s Contributions

• Einstein contributed to quantum theory by explaining the photoelectric effect using Planck's
hypothesis about black body radiation, and developing a particle model for light
• Hertz had originally observed the photoelectric effect but was never able to investigate it and
didn't relate it to Planck's theories
• At the time Planck's theories were not widely accepted by the scientific community and were only
theoretical because he could not provide any real life examples
• Einstein proposed a particle model for light because EMR was broken up into a stream of
photons, so it could be considered as having both wave and particle characteristics
• Einstein went on to explain the photoelectric effect using Planck's hypothesis regarding black
body radiation and the quantisation of EMR
• This provided credibility for Planck's theories as there was now a practical real-life example of the
quantisation of EMR and the particle model of light
• Thereafter quantum physics was taken more seriously and more widely accepted

2.9 Photoelectric Effect in Photocells

Photocells: refer to devices that use the photoelectric effect to produce a current when they are in
the presence of EMR.

Photoelectric Effect: refers to the observation that many metals emit electrons when light shines
upon them.

• The radiation hits the metal (cathode), which due to the

photoelectric effect gives electrons enough energy to escape
the metal
• Because there is a potential difference across the cathode
(negative) and anode (positive) the negatively charged
electrons travel towards the positively charged anode
• Hence a current flows and is measured on the ammeter
• The vacuum tube is required to allow electron flow from
cathode to anode

Some uses of photocells include in electric ‘eyes’, burglar alarms, radiation detectors and light
meters

2.10 Photon Energy Calculations

If frequency is unknown but wavelength of the
EMR is given, we can first calculate frequency
using the wave formula, and then sub this
value into the photon energy formula.

It is also important to note the following

conversion between joules and electron volts,
two different units of measurement for energy.
One electron volt is far smaller than one joule:

eV = 1.602 × 10−19 J

2.11 Social and Political Forces in Science

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Although there was no direct debate between Einstein and Planck on this issue, it seems that
Einstein and Planck took different views about scientists remaining in Germany during the Nazi era
and continuing to do scientific research for the regime.

• Planck believed that politicians should decide what happens with science developments, and that
scientific study was justified in its own right.
- WWI: Planck signed a manifesto supporting Germany’s war conduct
- WWII: Planck stayed in Germany as director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute

• Einstein was a pacifist and believed that science could be harmful to humanity if it were used
incorrectly. Therefore he was against science used for the purpose of war and repression.
- WWI: Einstein signed an anti-war manifesto, which condemned the war
- WWII: Einstein fled Germany as the Nazis rose to power

3. Transistors and Semiconductors

3.1 Electrons in Metals

In metallic bonding electrons are shared between atoms and can move freely throughout the solid,
allowing them to conduct current.

3.2 Band Theory

Band theory deals with two bands (energy levels) around the atom:
• Valence band: this is the outermost shell with electrons in it. Electrons in this band have less
energy than the electrons in the conduction band
• Conduction band: this is above the valence band. Naturally there are no electrons in this band,
however electrons jump to and from this band when conducting electrical energy

If electrons are in the conduction band and a potential difference is present then a current will flow.
Because bands are essentially just energy levels, an electron can move from the valence band to
the conduction band if it is given energy in the form of light, heat, another electron hitting it etc.

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• Conductors: for conductors, the valence band and conduction band overlap, meaning electrons
can be in both the valence band and the conduction band simultaneously. Therefore, electrons in
conductors do not need to increase their energy levels before they can conduct electricity. The
electrons in the overlap area are naturally in that state meaning they can always move freely
throughout the solid and carry a current.
• Semiconductors: for semiconductors there is a small gap between the valence band and
conduction band, meaning that in their natural state, there are no electrons in the conduction
band and the material can not conduct electricity. However, because the gap between the two
bands is small, if the electrons are given enough energy (through heat, light, hitting another
electron etc.) they will be able to jump the gap between the bands and hence the material will be
able to conduct an electric current.
• Insulators: for insulators, the gap between the valence band and conduction band is large, and
the electrons are unable to jump the energy gap. Therefore, the electrons remain in the valence
band and the material is unable to conduct electric current.

The size of the energy gap is indicative of the resistivity and hence resistance of the material.
Hence, metals with large band overlaps have low resistivity and insulators with large energy gaps
have extremely high resistivity.

3.3 Movement of Holes

For the sake of this course, the valence band is
generally full when it has eight electrons. If the valence
band only has seven electrons in it, there is a gap
know as a ‘hole’. Holes are positive charge carriers
and if a potential difference is applied across the
material, an electron from the neighbouring atom will
jump into the hole as it moves towards the positive
terminal, thereby causing a new hole. As this process
continues, the hole essentially move towards the
negative terminal, thereby acting as a current carrier.

3.4 Electrons in conductors, semiconductors and insulators

• Conductors: in conductors there are a large amount of free electrons that can drift
• Semiconductors: in semiconductors the number of free electrons that can drift from atom to
atom depends on conditions however there is generally less than in conductors
• Insulators: in insulators there are no free electrons that can drift from atom to atom

3.5 Silicon and Germanium

Transistors are made from semiconductor materials. At first germanium was used to make
transistors because it was easier and cheaper to purify than other semiconductor materials known
at the time, such as silicon. Silicon eventually replaced germanium as the semiconductor material
of choice in transistors when processing techniques were developed to produce very pure single
crystal form Silicon.

Advantages of silicon over germanium:

• Relatively cheap
• Retains its semi conducting properties at relatively high temperatures
• Can handle relatively higher electric currents before overheating
• Can be doped and made into thin, flat layers

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3.6 Doping
Doping: a semiconductor refers to adding impurities (other elements) to the semiconductor.

For example if a silicon semiconductor were doped with arsenic then it would be made up of mainly
silicon atoms and a small amount of arsenic atoms. The act of doping a semiconductor changes its
electrical properties by effecting the amount of holes or free electrons in the semiconductor.
Because holes and free electrons allow a material to conduct electricity, doping controls how well a
semiconductor conducts electricity.

3.7 p-type and n-type Doping

There are two types of doped semiconductors:
• P-type (or positive-type)
• N-type (or negative-type)

• Pure silicon: has four electrons in its valence shell and uses covalent bonds (which involves the
sharing of atoms between electrons) to form a crystal lattice so that there are eight electrons in
each valence shell and hence, the atom is balanced, meaning that in pure silicon there are no
free electrons or holes.
• N-type semiconductor: to create an n-type semiconductor, silicon can be doped with
phosphorus which has five valence electrons (or any element with five valence electrons). The
phosphorus atoms will join the crystal lattice, however for each phosphorus atom there will be an
excess electron that will not fit into the lattice. This negatively charge electron is now free to
mover throughout the material and conduct current (hence why it is n-type doping).
• P-type semiconductor: to create a p-type semiconductor, silicon can be doped with boron,
which has three valence electrons (or any element with four valence electrons). The boron atoms
will join the crystal lattice, however for each boron atom there will a hole, as boron only has three
valence electrons. This positively charged hole can now move around the material and act as a
current carrier (hence why it is p-type doping).

3.8 Solid State and Thermionic Devices

Diode: refers to an electronic device that allows current to flow one way but not the other way.

There are two types of diodes:

• Solid state: refers to devices that make use solid semiconductors rather than valve tubes (also
known as transistors)
• Thermionic: refers to devices that use valve tubes rather than semiconductors (also known as
vacuum tubes or valves)

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Advantages of solid state over thermionic:
• Uses less electrical energy
• Runs faster
• Lighter, smaller and cheaper
• Doesn't need to warm up (which takes time)
• More reliable
• Produces less heat
• Less fragile

3.9 Investigation to Model a Semiconductor

This investigation models the flow of electricity through a semiconductor

• The people represent electrons and the circles on the floor represent holes
• At first, there were people standing in each circle, representing that all atoms were balanced
• The student in the right circle moved away, representing the atom losing an electron and a
positively charged hole being created
• When an electric field (potential difference) is applied across the semiconductor the person to the
left of the hole will be attracted to it, as the electron moves towards the positive terminal
• Because this student moves, a new hole is created and the process continues
• Hence, as the electrons move to the right, the holes move in the opposite direction to the left

3.10 Invention of the Transistor

Before the invention of transistor, many electronic devices—including radio communications—used
thermionic devices (vacuum tubes) to increase voltages of signals. However, there were a number
of shortcomings with thermionic devices, including them being large, expensive, fragile, losing
vacuum slowly and the electrodes corroding.

To overcome these shortcomings, scientists experimented with the properties of materials, such as
germanium and other semiconductors. This experimentation led to the invention of the transistor as
it was found that by doping a semiconductor such as geranium or silicon, the material could be
used to form a transistor amplifier. Because transistors are small, long-lasting, reliable and have no
moving parts they quickly replaced thermionic devices.

3.11 Impact of Transistors on Society

The syllabus highlights that reference must be made to microchips and microprocessors:

Microchip: refers to a tiny flat piece of semiconductor material used to make an integrated circuit.
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Microprocessor: refers to an integrated

circuit that contains all the functions of a
central processing unit (CPU) of a computer

• The invention of the transistor has

allowed for microchips and
microprocessors (which take advantage
of integrated circuits) to be developed
• This allowed complex circuits to be
miniaturised allowing for faster transfer,
storage and processing of information
• Tiny processors capable of controlling very complex processes could be incorporated into a wide
range of appliances allowing for small, light and cheap electronic devices, including computers
and mobile phones
• Many tasks that were formerly done manually could now be done by small electronic devices
• This focused economies away from manual labour and towards high-tech manufacturing and
services, freeing up leisure time
• This led to huge increases in communication technology

3.12 Semiconductors in Solar Cells

Solar cell: refers to a device that converts solar radiation into electricity

• A solar cell is comprised of a layer of doped n-type silicon on top of a layer of doped p-type
silicon with a metal grid top and bottom connected to an external circuit
• When the n-type and p-type silicon first come into contact, the free electrons from the n-type
move across the p-n junction to fill the holes in the p-type and the holes from the p-type move
across the p-n junction to be filled by free electrons in the n-type
• This creates an area of net positive charge near the junction in the n-type and an area of net
negative charge near the junction in the p-type, known as the depletion zone
• Because of this difference in electric charge, an electric field is created within the solar cell, that
is, the cell creates its own potential difference
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• When photons of EMR hit the silicon, given that the frequency of the light is greater than the
threshold frequency for the silicon, electrons will gain energy and move from the valence band
into the conduction band, freeing them to move around the material
• Because of the electric field near the p-n junction, the newly emancipated electrons will move
towards the top of the n-type silicon while the holes that these electrons have left behind will
move towards the bottom of the p-type silicon
• There is now an accumulation of positive charge carriers at the bottom of the solar cell and
negative charge carriers at the top of the cell, and because the cell is attached to an external
circuit via the metal grid, a current will flow, and electricity has been produced

4. Superconductors

4.1 Braggs’ Experiment

The Braggs conducted an experiment to determine the crystal lattice atomic structure of metals.

• The Braggs fired x-rays at a sample of metal and observed the interference patterns of the
reflected x-rays on photographic film
• X-rays were used because their wavelength was smaller than the gaps between atoms in a
metallic crystal lattice
• The diffraction patterns that appeared on the images indicated the structure and spacing of the
ions in a metal
• The Braggs also deduced the delocalised nature of electrons that allow metals to conduct
electricity—this is known as the ‘free electron model’

4.2 Crystal Lattice Structure

Metals possess a crystal lattice structure, as seen in the diagram
on the right. In metals, the atoms form the crystal lattice and the
electrons are in a cloud surrounding the atoms.

4.3 Conduction in Metals

• In metals (conductors), the valence electrons are thought of as being shared by all the positive
ions, and therefore, these electrons are free to move throughout the crystal lattice and carry a
charge, allowing them to conduct current
• Conduction in metals is when the free electrons flow through the material unimpeded by the
crystal lattice structure

4.4 Resistance in Conductors

Resistance in a conductor is effected by the ease with which electrons can flow through it.

• Impurities increase resistance by disrupting the integrity of the lattice structure and thereby
impede the free movement of electrons (note that an alloy refers to a metal made from a mix of
different elements, and thus an alloy has a high level of impurities)
• Vibrations in the lattice increase resistance by deflecting or scattering electrons from their linear
progress through the crystal
• Because heat increases the vibration of the lattice, as heat increases the resistance of the
conductor increases

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4.5 Superconductors
In normal conductors, resistance decreases as
temperature falls, as shown by the curve on the
graph. Superconductors follow this same curve up
until a certain temperature, known as the critical
temperature, below which a superconductor has
zero resistance (represented by the red curve).

This occurrence is explained by BCS theory which

describes how below the critical temperature
electron pairs form (known as Cooper pairs) which
can move with zero resistance through the lattice.

4.6 BCS Theory

At temperatures below the critical temperature for superconductors, the movement of electrons is
enhanced by lattice vibrations rather than impeded by it. These lattice vibrations, known as
phonons, take the form of a wave that travels through the crystal and causes electric field effects
which result in Cooper pairs forming. Cooper pairs allow electrons to overcome what would usually
be a strong repulsive force between like charges.

How Cooper pairs travel through the lattice:

• Two electrons form a Cooper pair and travel very close to each other through the lattice
• Because electrons are negatively charged, the first electron in the pair will attract the positively
charged ions in the lattice towards it and create an area of high net positive charge
• This area of high positive charge attract the second electron in the pair (which is slightly behind)
with high speeds towards the area of high positive charge
• As the second electron in the pair approaches quickly from behind, its negative charge will repel
the first electron further forward through the lattice, and this process is repeated

That current flowing through the superconductor produces a

magnetic field around it. The strength of the magnetic field
will reach a point where it will cause the loss of the
superconducting state thus putting an effective limit on the
current that can flow in any particular superconductor.
Therefore, the lower the temperature below critical
temperature, the more current that can flow through the
conductor.

4.7 Pros and Cons of Superconductors

Limitations:
• Critical temperatures are still very low, ranging from 1°K to 133°K (-270°C to -140°C)
• Difficult to manufacture as many superconductors are ceramics meaning they are often brittle
• High installation and running costs because the cooling systems that keep the superconductor
below its critical temperature are expensive and need to be installed with the wires themselves
 
Advantages:
• Generate very strong magnetic fields and can be used for magnetic levitation
• Have zero resistance and produce no heat meaning they can carry very large currents
• Transformers would no longer be necessary
• SQUIDS can be used for medical diagnosis

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HSC Physics Ideas to Implementation
• Motors and generators can be made far smaller and more efficient, eliminating the need for a soft
iron core in the middle of the coil
• Could lead to the miniaturisation and increased speed of computer chips

4.8 Types of Superconductors

4.9 Magnetic Levitation Investigation

• A disk of superconductor material was placed in a dish
• Liquid Nitrogen was poured into the dish to cool the
superconductor below its critical temperature
• A rare earth magnet was placed on top of the
superconductor disk and it was observed that the
magnet levitated just above the superconductor
• As the superconductor warmed to above its critical
temperature, the magnet ceased to levitate

4.10 Meissner Effect

Meissner Effect: refers to a
superconductor preventing an
external magnetic field from
penetrating its interior when it is
below its critical temperature.

• A superconductor below its critical temperature will not allow an external magnetic field to
penetrate its interior as shown in the right image
• If an external magnetic field comes near the superconductor when it is below its critical
temperature, eddy currents will be induced in the superconductor
• These currents induce a magnetic field to oppose the external magnetic field and stop the
external field from penetrating the interior of the superconductor
• This forces the magnetic to hover above the superconductor

4.11 Maglev Trains

Maglev: refers to a transport method that uses magnetic levitation via superconductors to move
vehicles without them touching the ground.

• Superconductors are used via the Meissner Effect to cause the train to levitate while permanent
and electromagnets are used to propel the train forwards

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• The superconductors are located on the train and cooled below their critical temperature, and the
permanent magnets are located on the track
• Levitation eliminates all friction meaning the train can reach much higher speeds
• There are permanent magnets on the track that interact with electromagnets on the train which
cause the train to be propelled forward

4.12 Possible Applications of Superconductors

• Computer chips: currently computer chips cannot be made smaller because of the heat
generated from resistance. With superconductors no heat is produced and so wires and
transistors on a computer chip could be packed much more closely together. This would make
computer chips both much smaller and much faster.
• Generators and motors: the use of superconductors in generators and motors would make
them far smaller and more efficient. Superconductors would mean super strong magnets and no
energy loss in the coils of the motor or generator. This implies that the soft iron core is not
necessary so they would be much smaller and lighter.
• Transmission of electricity through power grids: using superconductors in the transmission
of electricity would mean no loss of energy in the form of heat because the superconductors
have a resistance of zero. Furthermore, this means that conduction wires could be much thinner
and hence cheaper.

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