Study of the Algebra of Grand Unified

Theory

Koustav Chandra
413PH5061
Department of Physics & Astronomy
 Electromagnetic Interaction

Weak Interaction

Strong Interaction
Phase Invariance in Gauge Field Theory
Consider the Dirac Lagrangian:
ℒ"#$$ = 𝜓'(𝑖𝛾 + 𝜕+ − 𝑚)𝜓
What are the consequences of imposing invariance under local phase rotations, which transform the fields as:
𝜓 𝑥 → 𝑒 345 6 𝜓 𝑥 ?
Only way to know is to calculate it:

𝜕+ 𝜓(𝑥) → 𝑒 345 6 𝜕+ 𝜓 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑞 𝜕+ 𝛼 𝑥 𝜓 𝑥

which necessitate the introduction of the gauge-covariant derivative

𝒟+ ≡ 𝜕+ + 𝑖𝑞𝐴+ (𝑥)
Objects such as 𝐷+ 𝜓 will then undergo the same phase rotation as the fields, namely,

𝒟+ 𝜓 → 𝑒 345 6 𝒟+ 𝜓(𝑥)
provided that the vector field 𝐴+ 𝑥 transforms as:
𝐴+ 𝑥 → 𝐴+ 𝑥 − 𝜕+ 𝛼(𝑥)
Phase Invariance in Gauge Field Theory-II
So, the smartest thing to do is refabricate the free-particle Dirac Lagrangian
ℒ = 𝜓' 𝑖𝛾 + 𝒟+ − 𝑚 𝜓

= 𝜓' 𝑖𝛾 + 𝜕+ − 𝑚 𝜓 − 𝑞𝐴+ 𝜓'𝛾 + 𝜓

= ℒ"#$$ − 𝐽+ 𝐴+

where the (conserved) electromagnetic current has the familiar form

𝐽+ = 𝑞𝜓'𝛾 + 𝜓

Precisely this form of the current follows from the requirement of global phase invariance. To arrive at the complete Lagrangian for quantum
electrodynamics, it remains only to add a kinetic energy term for the vector field to describe the propagation of free photons. The Lagrangian leads
to Maxwell’s equations and is manifestly invariant under local gauge transformations. Assembling all the pieces, we therefore have:

1
ℒ = ℒ"#$$ − 𝐽+ 𝐴+ − 𝐹+D 𝐹+D
4
Algebraic Implications
Gauge Symmetry enforces conservation of EM current. Further successive gauge transformation commute. So,
𝑒 34EF 6 𝑒 34EG 6 = 𝑒 34 EF 6 HEG 6

Hence, there exist an Abelian gauge symmetry with gauge Group 𝑈(1). So, study of Quantum Electrodynamics is really the study of 𝑈(1) gauge
symmetry.

The Funny Side !

The study of 𝑈(1) group is simply equivalent to study of the group 𝑆𝑂(2) or the rotation group in 2 dimension. Since,

cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
𝑒 3M ↔
−sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
Phase Invariance in Gauge Field Theory-III
It suffices for the moment to include only the electron and its neutrino, which form a left-handed “weak-isospin” doublet,
𝜈$
𝜓=
𝑒V W

Explicitly they evolve independently as

ℒ = 𝜈̅ 𝑖𝛾 + 𝜕+ − 𝑚 𝜈 + 𝑒̅ 𝑖𝛾 + 𝜕+ − 𝑚 𝑒
But the given Lagrangian must be invariant under the exchange of 𝜈$ and 𝑒 V . This is possible only when we assume 𝑚$ Y = 𝑚DZ = 0. So, for the
time being we will proceed with the wrong assumption.
ℒ = 𝜓' 𝑖𝛾 + 𝜕+ 𝜓
Having guessed at an invariant Lagrangian, we then apply a global gauge transformation to the fermionic doublet of the form,

𝜓 → 𝑒 V3\]^ M.𝑿 𝜓

𝜓' → 𝑒 3\]^ M.𝑿 𝜓'

The notation is a bit tricky, since we combine terms in two different ways: as the components of our doublets, and as the components of each
individual bi-spinor. This represents a conservation of lepton number (and specifically electron number). Note further that because of this notation
and the normalization of the antiparticle modes, antiparticles have a lepton number of −1.
Phase Invariance in Gauge Field Theory-IV
Given the form, the symmetry group is simply SU(2), for which the generators are simply the Pauli matrices. Applying a global SU(2) transform to
the doublet yields:

𝜕𝜓
= −𝑖𝑔de 𝜎3 𝜓
𝜕𝜃 3
Noether’s theorem quickly yields three conserved current.
𝐽(3)+ = 𝑔de 𝜓'𝛾 + 𝜎3 𝜓
The first two currents represent a coupling between neutrinos and electrons. The third looks an awful lot like electromagnetic current, but with
neutrinos participating somehow, and a minus sign between the electron and neutrino contributions. As with 𝑈(1), the space-time derivative in
the Lagrangian produces a trouble- some term under the gauge transformation,

𝜓 → 𝑒 V3\]^ M.𝝈 𝜓

𝜕+ 𝜓 𝑥 → 𝑒 V3\]^ M.𝝈 𝜕+ 𝜓 − 𝑖𝑔de 𝜎. 𝜕+ 𝜃⃗𝑒 V3\]^ M.𝝈 𝜓

And, so the Lagrangian transforms as,

ℒ → 𝑖𝜓'𝛾 + 𝜕+ 𝜓 + 𝑔de 𝜓'𝛾 + (𝜎. 𝜕+ 𝜃⃗) 𝜓

Phase Invariance in Gauge Field Theory-V
Following our work with the electromagnetic force, we need to get rid of the erroneous gauge term, and so the covariant derivative of the weak

theory will take the form

𝒟+ ≡ 𝜕+ + 𝑖𝑔de 𝜎. 𝑊+

(3)
where 𝑊+ is a set of three vector fields, 𝑊+ . Multiplying out the covariant derivative produces an interaction term for the Lagrangian. Invoking the

Baker-Campbell-Hausdorff relation gives:

(l)
ℒ = 𝜓' 𝑖𝛾 + 𝒟+ 𝜓 + 2𝑖𝜓'𝛾 + ∑3,l,e 𝜃 3 𝑊+ 𝜎e 𝜖3le 𝜓

To arrive at the complete Lagrangian for quantum electrodynamics, it remains only to add a kinetic energy term for the vector field to describe the

propagation of free 𝑊 ± and 𝑍 q boson.

1
ℒde = ℒ"#$$ − 𝑊+ . 𝐽+ − 𝐹+D . 𝐹+D
4
Notably, this Lagrangian, although wrong gives us a 𝑆𝑈(2) invariant Lagrangian.
Electroweak Unification
Yang-Mills is beautiful, but as it was originally conceived, wrong in several particulars, mostly pertaining to the disparate masses of the electron
and neutrino, and to the very existence of mass for the W and Z particles. Further there is a technical hiccup! The invariance of ℒde is satisfied not
only by 𝑆𝑈(2) group but also by 𝑈(1) group. There is another further hitch. We suppose that only left-handed fermions participate in the 𝑆𝑈(2)
symmetry, and thus we want to focus on an 𝑆𝑈(2)W ⊗ 𝑈(1) symmetry transformation. As a result, we’ll write down a generalized form of possible
gauge transformations for left-handed and right-handed fields separately, i.e. :
s w s
VG\tuy Mw
𝜓W → 𝑒 VG\tuv M 𝑒 V3\]^ M.𝝈 𝜓W and, 𝜓x → 𝑒 𝜓x
Where the factor 𝑌W is the weak hypercharge of the associated Left handed Particle. Thus, the full leptonic Lagrangian is:
ℒ{|e

𝑔d
= 𝜈̅ 𝑖𝛾 + 𝜕+ 𝜈 + 𝑒̅ 𝑖𝛾 + 𝜕+ 𝑒 + 𝑞𝐴+ 𝑒̅ 𝛾 + 𝑒 − 𝑊+H 𝜈̅ 𝛾 + 1 − 𝛾 } 𝑒 + 𝑊+V 𝜈̅ 𝛾 + 1 − 𝛾 } 𝑒 − 𝑔d 𝑍+q 𝜈̅ 𝛾 + 1 − 𝛾 } 𝜈 + 𝑒̅ 𝛾 + 1 − 𝛾 } 𝑒
2 2
+ ℒ~,•,|
Lie Algebra in General
Consider a general Lie algebra with n generators defined by
X • , X ‚ = if„•‚ X „
with a = 1, . . . , n and f„•‚ being the structure constant. For example in SU(2), we have 2… − 1 = 3 which we
represent by σˆ , σ‰ , σŠ which we call as the famous Pauli matrices and associated physically with the Spin
Angular Momentum and f„•‚ being the epsilon tensor. Further, they must satisfy the Jacobi Identity:

𝑋 Œ , 𝑋 • , 𝑋 Ž + 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 0

For example in SU(3), we have 3… − 1 = 8which we represent by 𝐺𝑒𝑙𝑙 − 𝑀𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠.

From Ladders to Jungle Gym
Like the ladder operators in SO(3) algebra which is analogous to the
SU(2) algebra for the case of SU(3) we have I± , 𝑈± and 𝑉± operators that
limits the movements.
Still lot of work to do

qNot touched upon Standard Model in general namely, the SU(5) group.
qHave to understand the concept of spontaneous symmetry breaking.
qHave to apply these concepts to group SO(10) which is the general
SUSY group.