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John J. Collins, The Apocalyptic Imagination, Second Edition

John J. Colhns, Between Athens and Jerusalem:
Jewish Identity in the Hellenistic Diaspora, Second Edition
Frank Moore Cross, Jr., and David Noel Freedman,
Studies in Ancient Yahwistic Poetry
S. R. Driver, A Treatise on the Use of the Tenses in Hebrew
and Some Other Syntactical Questions
Joseph A. Fitzmyer, S.J., The Semitic Background of the New Testament
(combined edition of Essays on the Semitic Background
of the New Testament and A Wandering Aramean)
Joseph A. Fitzmyer, S.J., To Advance the Gospel, Second Edition
Birger Gerhardsson, Memory and Manuscript with
Tradition and Transmission in Early Christianity
Roland de Vaux, Ancient Israel: Its Life and Institutions
 Between Athens
and Jerusalem
Jewish Identity in
the Hellenistic Diaspora

SECOND EDITION

John J. Colhns

WILLIAM B . EERDMANS PUBLISHING COMPANY

G R A N D RAPIDS, MICHIGAN / CAMBRIDGE, U . K .

D O V E BOOKSELLERS
LIVONIA, MICHIGAN
 © 2000 Wni. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.
All rights reserved

Published jointly 2000 by

Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.
255 Jefferson Ave. S.E., Grand Rapids, Michigan 49503 /
P.O. Box 163, Cambridge CB3 9PU U.K.
and by
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Printed in the United Slates of America

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ISBN 0-8028-4372-7
For John Strugnell
Teacher and Friend
 Contents

Preface xii

Preface to the Second Edition xiii

Abbreviations xiv

Introduction 1
The Diaspora Setting 3
Gentile Perceptions of Judaism 6
Jewish Apologetics 14
Hellenistic Judaism and Judea 16
The Constraints of the Tradition 19
Relations with the Gentile Environment 24
Prospect 25

PART ONE
NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

1. The Uses of the Past 29

The Faithful Chroniclers 33
Demetrius 33
The Followers of Demetrius 35

vii
viii CONTENTS

History and Romance 37

Artapanus 37
Eupolemus 46
Pseudo-Eupolemus? 47
Thallus and Cleodemus 51
Pseudo-Hecataeus 52
The Epic Poets 54
Philo 54
Theodotus 57
Jewish Historiography in the First Century C.E. 60
Conclusion ' 62

2. Religion and Politics: The Ptolemaic Era 64

The History of the Jews in Ptolemaic Egypt 64
Onias and Leontopolis 69
The Background of Onias 73
The Tale of the Tobiads 74
2 Maccabees and the Oniads 11
2 Maccabees and the Diaspora 78
The Third Sibyl 83
The Content of Sibylline Oracle 3 87
The Seventh King 88
The Analogy with the Persian Period 91
The King from the Sun 92
Jerusalem and the Gentile Kings 95
A Ptolemaic Messiah 95
The Provenance of Sibylline Oracle 3 96
The Letter of Aristeas 97
Joseph and Aseneth 103
Greek Esther 110
 CONTENTS ix

3. Religion and Politics: The Roman Period 113

The Status of the Jews in Roman Egypt 113
The Third Book of Maccabees 122
Philo's Politics 131
The Events of 66-73 C.E. 138
The Background of the Great Revolt 140
The Fifth Sibyl 143
The Later Sibyllines 150
Conclusion 151

PART TWO
IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

4. The Common Ethic 155

Judaism according to Hecataeus 155
The Basis for a Common Ethic 157
The Sibylline Oracles 160
The Third Sibyl 160
Sibylline Oracle 5 165
Sibylline Oracle 4 166
The Sibylline Fragments 167
Pseudo-Phocy lides 168
The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs 174
The Testaments and the Covenant Form 177
The Content of the Exhortations 179
Homiletic Material in the Testaments 179
The Ethic of the Testaments 183
The Role of the Synagogue 184

5. Philosophical Judaism 186

Arlstobulus 186
Poetic Forgeries 190
X CONTENTS

Pseudo-Aristeas 191
The Wisdom of Solomon 195
Fourth Maccabees 202

6. The Mysteries of God 210

Mystic Judaism 210
A Mystic Ritual? 211
Mystic Philosophy 214
Esotericism 217
Heavenly Revelations 219
The Pseudo-Orphic Fragments 219
Ezekiel the Tragedian 224
Joseph and Aseneth 230
Ritual Elements in Joseph and Aseneth? 232
Group Membership 234
The Episode of the Honeycomb 235
The Representative Roles of Joseph and Aseneth 236
A Corpus Permixtum 237
Lack of Sectarian Character 238
The Prayer of Joseph 239
The Testament of Job 240
The Struggle with Satan 242
The Confrontation with the Friends 243
The Role of the Women 244
The Religion of the Testament of Job 245
The Books of Adam and Eve 246
The Testament of Abraham 248
The Perspective on Death 250
The View of Judaism 251
2 Enoch 252
The Hortatory Message 253
 CONTENTS xi

3 Baruch 255
The Attitude toward Jerusalem 257
A System of Individual Rewards 258
Conclusion 259

7. Jews and Gentiles 261

A Jewish Mission? 262
The "God-fearers" 264
The Function of the Literature 270

Conclusion 273

Bibliography 276

Indexes
Subjects 303
Modem Authors 307
Ancient Literature 315
 Preface

This study was undertaken as part of a research project on Normative Self-

Definition in Judaism and Christianity, funded by the Social Sciences and
Humanities Research Council of Canada. The project was coordinated by
Professor E. P. Sanders of McMaster University. Responsibility for the area
of Hellenistic Judaism was shared by Professors David Winston of the Grad-
uate Theological Union, Berkeley, Professor Alan Mendelson of McMaster,
and me. Professors Winston and Mendelson devoted their attention to the ex-
tensive corpus of Philo's writings, while I undertook to review the numerous
minor authors of the Hellenistic Diaspora. This division of labor accounts for
the most obvious lacuna in the present volume: the lack of a substantial dis-
cussion of Philo and his philosophical approach to Judaism. Such a discus-
sion could scarcely have been incorporated in a single volume in any case.
The lacuna will be filled by the forthcoming studies of Winston and
Mendelson.
I should like to express my gratitude to Professor Sanders, McMaster
University, and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of
Canada for the support which made this book possible; to Professors
Winstbn and Mendelson for their advice and cooperation at all stages of the
project; and to Professor Thomas H. Tobin, S.J., of Loyola University, Chi-
cago, for his helpful comments on the manuscript.
Professor John Strugnell first introduced me to the fragmentary Helle-
nistic Jewish writings in a memorable seminar at Harvard Divinity School in
Spring 1970. This book is dedicated to him in gratitude and friendship.

xii
 Preface to the Second Edition

Fifteen years have passed between the pubHcation of the first edition of this
book and the completion of the revision. During this period there has been an
outpouring of secondary literature on the subject. Notable contributions have
included the annotated translations in volume 2 of The Old Testament Pseud-
epigrapha, edited by James Charlesworth; the comprehensive review of the
literature by Martin Goodman in the revised edition of Schiirer's History of
the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ; editions of the fragmentary
Jewish authors by Carl HoUaday; and the recent monographs of John
Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora (1996) and Erich Gruen, Heri-
tage and Hellenism (1998). The revision of this book is primarily a matter of
updating the discussion in the footnotes, but this has also required numerous
changes in the text. The main expansions of the original text can be found in
Chapter 2, on the Ptolemaic era; Chapter 3, on the Roman era; and Chapter 7,
on the questions of a Jewish mission and the existence of the God-fearers.
I would like to thank the staff at Eerdmans, and especially Dan Harlow,
for making this revised edition possible.

xni
 Abbreviations

AB Anchor Bible
ABD Anchor Bible Dictionary
Ag. Ap. Josephus, Against Apion
AGJU Arbeiten zur Geschichte des antiken Judentums und
Urchristentums
AnBib Analecta biblica
ANRW Aufstieg und Niedergang der romischen Welt, ed. W. Haase
and H. Temporini (Beriin: de Gruyter)
Ant. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews
Ap. Const. Apostolic Constitutions
APOT Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament, 2 vols.;
ed. R. H. Charles (Oxford: Clarendon, 1913)
BA Biblical Archaeologist
BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
BBB Bonner biblische Beitrage
BETL Bibliotheca ephemeridum theologicarum lovaniensium
Bib Biblica
BJRL Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester
BJS Brown Judaic Studies
BZNW Beihefte zur Zeitschrift fiir die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft
CBA Catholic Biblical Association
CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly
CBQMS Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monograph Series
CIJ Corpus inscriptionum judaicarum
CPJ Corpus papyrorum judaicarum
CRINT Compendia rerum iudaicarum ad Novum Testamentum
CTM Concordia Theological Monthly

XiV
 ABBREVIATIONS XV

CQ Classical Quarterly
DJD Discoveries in the Judaean Desert
ET Expository Times
ETL Ephemerides theologicae lovanienses
FGH Fragmenta der griechischen Historiker, ed. F. Jacoby
FRLANT Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und
Neuen Testaments
GCS Griechische christiiche Schriftsteller
HDR Harvard Dissertations in Religion
Hist. Eccl. Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica
HR History of Religions
HSM Harvard Semitic Monographs
HTR Harvard Theological Review
HTS Harvard Theological Studies
HUCA Hebrew Union College Annual
lEJ Israel Exploration Journal
JAAR Journal of the American Academy of Religion
JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society
JBL Journal of Biblical Literature
JJS Journal of Jewish Studies
JR Journal of Religion
JRS Journal of Roman Studies
JSHRZ Judische Schriften aus hellenistisch-romischer Zeit
JSJ Journal for the Study of Judaism
JSNT Journal for the Study of the New Testament
JSOTSup Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement
Series
JSP Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha
JSPSup Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha Supplement
Series
JTS Journal of Theological Studies
J.W. Josephus, The Jewish War
KBW Katholisches Bibelwerk
LXX Septuagint
NovT Novum Testamentum
NovTSup Supplements to Novum Testamentum
NRTh La nouvelle revue theologique
NTS New Testament Studies
NumenSup Supplements to Numen
OBO Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis
OCD Oxford Classical Dictionary
OTP The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, 2 vols.; ed. J. H.
Charlesworth (New York: Doubleday, 1983-85)
XVI ABBREVIATIONS

PG Pairologia graeca, ed. J. Migne

PGM Papyri graecae magicae, ed. K. Preisendanz
PL Patrologia latlna, ed. J. Migne
Praep. Evang. Eusebius, Praeparatio Evangelica
PVTG Pseudepigrapha Veteris Testamenti graece
PWRE Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encyclopddie der classischen
Altertumswissenschaft
PWRESup Supplement to Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encyclopddie der
classischen Altertumswissenschaft
RAG Reallexikon fiir Antike und Christentum
RB Revue biblique
REJ Revue des etudes juives
RHR Revue de I'histoire des religions
SANE Studies in the Ancient Near East
SBLASP Society of Biblical Literature Abstracts and Seminar Papers
SBLDS Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series
SBLMS Society of Biblical Literature Monograph Series
SBS Stuttgarter Bibelstudien
SC Sources chretiennes
SCS Septuagint and Cognate Studies
Sib. Or. Sibylline Oracles
SJLA Studies in Judaism in Late Antiquity
SUNT Studien zur Umwelt des Neuen Testaments
SNTS Studiorum Novi Testamenti Societas
SPCK Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge
SUNT Studien zur Umwelt des Neuen Testaments
SVF Stoicorum veterum fragmenta, ed. H. F. A. von Arnim
SVTP Studia in Veteris Testamenti Pseudepigrapha
TAPA Transactions of the American Philological Association
TDNT Theological Dictionary of the New Testament
TU Texte und Untersuchungen
TZ Theologische Zeitschrift
VC Vigiliae Christianae
Vita Josephus, Life
VT Vetus Testamentum
WMANT Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alten und Neuen
Testament
WUNT Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament
ZAW Zeitschrift fur die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft
ZDPV Zeitschrift des deutschen Paldstina-Vereins
ZNW Zeitschrift fiir die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft
ZTK Zeitschrift fur Theologie und Kirche
ZRGG Zeitschrift fiir Religions- und Geistesgeschichte
 Introduction

How shall we sing the song of the LORD

in a foreign land?
Ps. 137:4

The plaintive question of the psalmist by the waters of Babylon is a moving

testimony to the ageless homesickness of the exile and the depth of human
longing to be rooted in a specific place which can be recognized as home. It
is also a classic expression of one of the major problems of Jewish history.
The "song of the LORD" was primarily the recitation of the mighty acts of
Yahweh, the story of how Israel had come to exist as a people and to occupy
the promised land. It was not only the song of the Lord, but the story of the
people. Religion and national identity went hand in hand, and both were
deeply rooted in the land of Israel itself. For much of the history of Israel, the
identity of the people had been shaped and supported by a number of com-
plementary factors — common territory, political loyalty, ethnic continuity,
common language, religious observance, and tradition. After the exile, the
people was scattered geographically, subject to various political authorities,
and diverse in language. Religious tradition and observance assumed an ever
greater role in maintaining distinctive identity. Even ethnic considerations
were subordinated In importance, in the case of proselytes and renegades.
The problem of singing the song of the Lord in a foreign land was the prob-
lem of maintaining the identity of the people and its survival as a distinct en-
tity.
Identity, whether of a people or of an individual, is a matter of knowing
who one is, where one is coming from, and where one is going. Such knowl-
edge is a practical necessity if one is to proceed to any purposeful action in

1
2 INTRODUCTION

life.' But such knowledge is inevitably shaped by social context. It is "a so-
cial-scientific platitude to say that it is impossible to become or to be human,
in any empirically recognizable form that goes beyond biological observa-
tions, except in society."^ Peter Berger has gone so far as to say that "the in-
dividual becomes that which he is addressed as by others."^ This is undoubt-
edly an oversimplification, if only because any individual is likely to be
addressed in conflicting ways, but Berger's valid point is that the identity of
any individual is built up in interaction with others and must be confirmed by
others if it is not to be merely idiosyncratic or solipsistic. Any society must
provide the framework within which individuals can share a common view
of reality and confirm each other's convictions as to where they are coming
from and where they are going. Society "provides a world for man to in-
habit"* by propagating common assumptions about the nature and purpose of
life, and institutions which regulate common modes of action.^ These as-
sumptions and institutions are frequently religious in character, both in the
sense that they are concerned with ultimate reality and in the more obvious
sense that they involve the worship of divine beings.^ In the ancient world in
general, and in Israel in particular, the dominant beliefs and institutions were
explicitly religious and were embodied in traditions passed on from genera-
tion to generation. The power of such traditions to shape the identity of peo-
ple derives from the fact that they are commonly taken as objective reality,
within a given society.'' If they are to function at all, they must at least be
plausible enough to the members of the society to retain their belief. Now
plausibility depends to a great extent on social and cultural support. Few peo-
ple question what everyone else takes for granted. By contrast, any group
that holds unusual views is inevitably under pressure to establish Its plausi-
bility, not only to win the respect of outsiders, but primarily to maintain the
allegiance of its own members.

1. See J. Bowker, The Religious Imagination and the Sense of God (Oxford: Clarendon,
1978) 17.
2. P, Berger, The Sacred Canopy. Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion (Garden
City: Doubleday. 1969) 16. See also P. Berger and T. Luckmann, The Social Construction of
Reality (Garden City: Doubleday, 1967).
3. Berger, The Sacred Canopy. 16.
4. Ibid., 13.
5. That these assumptions are not just objective data but are constructed or invented has
been stressed by U. 0stergard, "What Is National and Ethnic Identity?" in P. Bilde et al., eds.,
Ethnicity in Hellenistic Egypt (Aarhus: Aarhus University Press, 1992) 16-38, following
B. Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism
(London: Verso, 1983).
6. Berger, The Sacred Canopy, 27: "Viewed historically, most of man's worlds have
been sacred worlds."
7. Clifford Geertz, in liis well-known definition of religion, speaks of "an aura of factu-
ality" which makes its moods and motivations "seem uniquely realistic" ("Religion as a Cultural
System," in idem. The Interpretation of Cultures [New York: Basic Books, 1973] 88-125).
 INTRODUCTION 3

T h e Diaspora Setting

The basic problem in the Jewish Diaspora was how to maintain the Jewish
tradition in an environment dominated by Gentiles. Quite apart from actual
persecution, which was extremely rare before the Hellenistic age,^ the very
juxtaposition of diverse beliefs challenged the plausibility of minority views.
The people who made up the majority in Babylon and other centers of exile
were, for better or worse, "significant others,"^ and Jewish identity would in-
evitably be modified by interaction with them.
In the case of the Babylonian exile, the crisis of plausibility was espe-
cially severe, since the exile was an enforced one, and might be attributed to
Yahweh's inability to protect his people: "We have become a taunt to our
neighbors, mocked and derided by those round about u s . . . . Why should the
nations say, 'Where is their God?'" (Ps. 79:4, 10). Yet the very direct threat
to the traditional Jewish faith entailed a certain simplicity. At least in the be-
ginning, the lines of conflict were clearly drawn and invited firm, unambigu-
ous decisions.
The situation was different in the Diaspora of the Hellenistic age. The
Jews were no longer exiles against their will; their exile was no longer a
cause of derision. Already in the Babylonian exile, there were many who
heeded the advice of Jeremiah to "seek the welfare of the city where I have
sent you into exile, and pray to the Lord on its behalf, for in its welfare you
will find your welfare.""^ At the time of the restoration under the Persians,
not all the Jews in Babylon chose to return.'' Jewish communities persisted
and flourished in Babylonia throughout the Hellenistic and Roman periods.'^
The Jewish Diaspora in the West did not originate in compulsory exile at all.
At the time of the conquest of Judah by the Babylonians, many of the "rem-
nants of the nation" (Jer. 41:16) sought refuge in Egypt, and even the prophet
Jeremiah was taken along despite his protests.'^ The community at Elephan-

8. Josephus (Ag. Ap, 1.191) cites Hecataeus as saying that the Jews were subjected to re-
ligious persecution by the Persians. The authenticity of the passage is disputed.
9. Berger (The Sacred Canopy, 16) states: 'The world is built up in the consciousness of
the individual by conversation with significant others."
10. Jer. 29:7. See W. Lee Humphreys, "A Life-Style for Diaspora: A Study of the Tales
of Esther and Daniel," JBL 92 (1973) 211-23.
11. See J. Bright. A History of Israel (2d ed.; Philadelphia: Westminster, 1972) 363.
Josephus (Ant. 11.1.3 §8) says that "many remained in Babylon, being unwilling to leave their
possessions."
12. See J. Neusner, A History of the Jews in Babylonia, 1 (Leiden: Brill, 1965); M. Stem,
'The Jewish Diaspora," in S. Safrai and M. Stem, eds.. The Jewish People in the First Century
(CRINT 1.1; Assen: Van Gorcum; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1974) 170-80.
13. Jeremiah 41-44. Bright, History, 346; B. Oded, "Judah and the Exile," in J. H. Hayes
and J. M. Miller, eds., Israelite and Judaean History ( Philadelphia: Westminster, 1977) 486-
4 INTRODUCTION

tine, which survived for over a hundred years, had apparently originated in a
voluntary migration to serve as mercenaries.'* It is possible that some of
those who went down to Egypt in the time of Ptolemy I were coerced,'^ but
the subsequent growth of the Jewish community in Egypt and throughout the
Hellenistic world was not due to any external compulsion. The Jewish popu-
lation of Egypt grew steadily in the third century B.C.E., when Palestine was
under Ptolemaic rule and there was constant commercial intercourse between
the two countries.'^ Similarly, a large Jewish population arose in neighboring
Syria.^^ There was a major migration of Jews to Egypt in the wake of the
Maccabean revolt, including Onias IV and his supporters,'^ and there is some

14. See A. Cowley, Aramaic Papyri of the Fifth Century BC (London: Oxford, 1923);
E. G. Kraeling, The Brooklyn Museum Aramaic Papyri (New Haven: Yale, 1953); B. Porten,
Archives from Elephantine: The Life of an Ancient Jewish Militaiy Colony (Berkeley: Univer-
sity of California Press. 1968); "Elephantine Papyri," ABD, 2:445-55; B. Porten and A. Yar-
deni. Textbook of Ancient Aramaic Documents from Ancient Egypt {3 vols.; Jerusalem: Hebrew
University; Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns. 1986-92); J. M. Modrzejewski, The Jews of
Egypt: From Rameses II to Emperor Hadrian (Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1995) 21 -
44. The Jews claimed to have lived at Elephantine prior to the Persian conquest of Egypt in 525
B.C.E. The garrison disappears from view shortly after 400 B.C.E.
15. See V. Tcherikover, Hellenistic Civilization and the Jews (New York: Atheneum.
1970) 269-73. The Letter of Aristeas (\2-\4) tells of 100,000 Jewish captives brought to Egypt
under Ptolemy I, of whom some 30,000 were placed in garrisons. The historical value of this
evidence is questionable; at least the numbers are inflated. Tcherikover, however, accepts "that
the Jewish diaspora in Hellenistic Egypt began under Ptolemy I, and that the vast majority of
the Jews left their native country not of their free will but under compulsion." Josephus cites
Hecataeus for the view that Jews (including a high priest Hezekiah) followed Ptolemy will-
ingly, but the authenticity of the passage is disputed (Ag. Ap. 1.186-87). Josephus's own claim
that the Jews came to Egypt under Alexander and were given equal rights with the Greeks (Ag.
Ap. 2.35; J.W. 2.487) is widely rejected.
16. V. A. Tcherikover and A. Fuks, eds.. Corpus Papyrorum Iudaicarum (Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press. 1957) 1:1-3 (henceforth CPJ). Tcherikover notes that Jewish
migration was part of a wider phenomenon of Syrian migration and that there was an active
trade in slaves. See also A. Kasher, The Jews in Hellenistic and Roman Egypt (Tiibingen: Mohr
Siebeck. 1985) 1-7.
17. Josephus, J.W. 7.3.3 §§44-45. C. H. Kraeling. "The Jewish Community at Antioch."
JBL5\ (1932) 130-60; W. A. Meeks and R. L. Wilken, Jews and Christians in Antioch in the
First Four Centuries of the Common Era (Sources for Biblical Study 13, Chico, Calif.:
Scholars Press, 1978) 2-5. For an overview of the history of Jewish communities in the Dias-
pora, see Stern, "The Jewish Diaspora," 117-83; E. Schurer, The History of the Jewish People
in the Age of Jesus Christ (175 B.C.-A.D. 135) (rev, and ed. G. Vermes, F. Millar, and M. Good-
man; 3 vols.; Edinburgh: Clark, 1973-87) 3.1:1-176. Noteworthy studies of particular areas in-
clude H. J. Leon, The Jews of Ancient Rome (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1960)
L. V. Rutgers, The Jews in Late Ancient Rome (Leiden: Brill, 1995); A. T. Kraabel, "Judaism in
Western Asia Minor under the Roman Empire" (Dissertation, Harvard University, 1968)
S. K-^^\thAum, Jews and Greeks in Ancient Cyrene (SJLA 28; Leiden: Brill. 1979); P. Trebilco
Jewish Communities in Asia Minor (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); J. M. G
Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora from Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE-II7CE) (Edin-
burgh: Clark. 1996) 231-58 (Cyrenaica and Syria), 259-81 (Asia), 282-319 (Rome).
18. Modrzejewski, The Jews of Egypt, 121-33; Jerome (On Daniel 11:13-14, Patrologia
Latina 25.562): "Onias sacerdos,' assumptis Judaeorum plurimis, fugit in Aegyptum"; ibid.,
563: "sub occasione ergo Oniae pontificis. infmita examine Judaeorum Aegyptum confu-
 INTRODUCTION 5

evidence that the political enemies of the Hasmoneans continued to seek ref-
uge t h e r e . B y the first century C.E., Philo could claim that "the Jews dwell-
ing in Alexandria and Egypt from the Libyan slope to the borders of
Aethiopia do not fall short of a million" and that "no single country can con-
tain the Jews because of their multitude."^^ While Philo's figures are not reli-
able,2' there is no doubt that the Jewish population had grown vast. While the
general impression from the papyri "is that of a hard-working people earning
its living by tenacious labour," there were many who prospered, and no
branch of economic life was closed to them.^'^
It is evident from the literature of the Diaspora that at least some Jews
were educated, by whatever means, in Greek literature and philosophy.The
open attitude of the Diaspora Jews to their Hellenistic environment is amply
shown in their use of Greek names and their recourse to Hellenistic law.^*
The struggle of the Jews in Alexandria for parity with the Greek citizens typ-
ifies the aspirations of the Hellenistic Diaspora. The Hellenistic Jews were
not reluctant exiles. They were attracted by Hellenistic culture, eager to win
the respect of the Greeks and to adapt to their ways.

gerunt." Tcherikover comments on the "infmita examine": "even taking into consideration the
usual tendency of ancient authors to exaggerate numbers . . . we may infer that the number of
new immigrants from Judaea was certainly considerable" (CPJ 1:2).
19. 1 Mace, 15:16-21 cites a letter from a Roman consul to the reigning Ptolemy, which
asks that "if any pestilent men have fled to you from their coimtry hand them over to Simon, the
high priest, that he may punish them according to their law." If the letter is genuine, the consul
is Lucius Calpurnius Piso in 140-139 B.C.E. and the Ptolemy is Euergetes II Physcon. See
Tcherikover, CPJ 1:3. Tcherikover also notes a Talmudic tale concerning a Pharisaic leader
who fled to Egypt from a Sadducean king.
20. Philo, In Flaccum 43, 45. Cf De Vita Mosis 2.232; Legalio ad Gahtin 214. 245. Also
Hecataeus in Diodorus Siculus 40.3, 8 and Strabo, Geography 16.2, 28. See Stern, "The Jewish
Diaspora," 117.
21. There was no enumeration of Jews until the introduction of the Jewish tax in 71-72
C.E., so there were no exact figures available to Philo. L. H. Feldman, Jew and Gentile in the
Ancient World (Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1993) 293, 555-56, is exceptional in de-
fending the reliability of the figures given by Philo and other ancient authors.
22. Tcherikover, CPJ 1:19. For an overview see S. Applebaum, "The Social and Eco-
nomic Status of Jews in the Diaspora," in S. Safrai and M. Stern, eds.. The Jewish People in the
First Cenluiy (CRINT 1.2; Assen: Van Gorcum; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1976) 701-27. There
was apparently a very large class of Jewish slaves in Rome, and the Roman satirists repeatedly
mock Jewish poverty, but even there many Jews were well-to-do.
23. Feldman, Jew and Gentile, 57-63; Tcherikover, CPJ 1:38-39, In the Ptolemaic pe-
riod the gymnasia were in private hands, and it would seem that no special qualifications were
needed for entry. In Tcherikover's view, Jewish access to the gymnasia was a major point of
contention in the time of Caligula, On the other hand, A. Kasher ("The Jewish Attitude to the
Alexandrian Gymnasium in the First Century A . D . , " American Journal of Ancient Histoiy 1
[ 1976] 148-61) denies that Jews even wanted access to the gymnasium and holds that they were
hostile to it. See also Kasher, The Jews in Hellenistic and Roman Egypt 310-21.
24. Modrzejewski, The Jews of Egypt. 99-119; Tcherikover, CPJ 1:27-36, The recourse
to Hellenistic law is noteworthy because there was an autonomous Jewish tribunal in Alexan-
dria.
6 INTRODUCTION

Gentile Perceptions of J u d a i s m

Yet the Jews were a distinct people with their own peculiar traditions, and a
certain degree of tension was inevitable. The tension arose from both sides.
Greek interest in Judaism was superficial. In the period immediately after Al-
exander's conquests, a number of Greek historians and philosophers wrote
on the Jews (Hecataeus of Abdera, Theophrastus, Megasthenes, Clearchus of
Soli). Their attitude was respectful, determined by Greek stereotypes of east-
em peoples rather than by observation. However, when the actual Jewish
scriptures became available in Greek translation, they were i g n o r e d . I n
general, the Greeks of the Hellenistic age looked upon Judaism as a strange
superstition.^^ Agatharcides of Cnidus in Asia Minor, writing in the mid-sec-
ond century B.C.E., claimed that Jerusalem had fallen to Ptolemy I Lagus be-
cause of the Jewish observance of the Sabbath, and he regarded this as a
prime illustration of the folly of superstition.^^ Another second-century
writer from Asia Minor, Mnaseas, alleged that the Jews worshipped an ass's
head.^^ It is unlikely that Mnaseas invented the story. It is embedded in an ac-
count of a conflict between the Idumeans and the Jews and may have been
derived from Idumean propaganda. In any case, the story was designed to

25. A. Momigiiaiio, Alien Wisdom (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975) 74-
96 ("The Hellenistic Discovery of Judaism").
26. M. Stern, Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism (3 vols.; Jerusalem: Israel
Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1974-84); idem, "The Jews in Greek and Latin Litera-
ture," in S. Safrai and M. Stern, eds.. The Jewish People in the First Century (CRINT 1.2;
Assen: Van Gorcum; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1976) 1101-59, J. N. Sevenster, The Roots of Pa-
gan Anti-Semitism in the Ancient Vyor/d (NovTSup 41; Leiden: Brill, 1975); J. L. Daniel, "Anti-
Semitism in the Hellenistic Roman Period," JBL 98 (1979) 45-65; J. G. Gager, The Origins of
Anti-Semitism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983) 55-59; M. Whittaker, Jews and
Christians: Greco-Roman Views (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984); M. Good-
man, "Apologetics: The Literary Opponents," in Schiirer, The History of the Jewish People.
3.1:594-609; C. Aziza, "L'Utilisation polemique du recit de I'Exode chez les ecrivains
alexandrins (IVeme siecle av. J.-C.-Ier sifecle ap. J.-C," in W. Haase, ed., Aufstieg und
Niedergang der Romischen Welt. II. Principal. Band 20/1: Religion (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1987)
41-65; E. Gabba, "The Growth of Anti-Judaism or the Greek Attitude towards. Jews," in W. D.
Davies and L, Finkelstein, eds., Tiie Cambridge Histoiy of Judaism. Volume 2: The Hellenistic
Age (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989) 614-56; Feldman, Jew and Gentile, 123-
76; P. Schafer, Judeophobia (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997) 15-118.
21.Ag.Ap. 1.209-12; Am. 12.1.1 §§5-6.
28. Ag. Ap. 2.112-14.
29. See E. J. Bickerman, "Ritualmord und Eselskult," in Studies in Jewish and Christian
History (3 vols.; AGJU 9; Leiden: Brill, 1976-86) 2:225-55 (originally published in
Monatsschrift fur Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judentums 71 [1927]). See however the
discussion by Schafer, Judeophobia, 55-62, and B. Bar-Kochva, "The Ass in the Jerusalem
Temple," in L. H. Feldman and J. R. Levison, eds., Josephus' Contra Apionem: Studies in Its
Character and Context with a Latin Concordance to the Portion Missing iti Greek (Leiden:
Brill, 1996) 310-26, who point out that the ass was associated with Seth-Typhon, and that the
association of the Jews with Typhon is an Egyptian motif that can be traced back to Manetho
(about 300 B . C . E . ) . See also J. W. van Henten and R. Abusch, "The Depiction of the Jews as
 INTRODUCTION 7

ridicule the Jews and could only augment their reputation for superstition.
We learn from Josephus that the Egyptian polemicist Apion drew material
for his ridicule of the Jews from Posidonius and Apollonius Molon.^"* These
were two of the great men of their age. Posidonius of Apamea in Syria (135-
51 B.C.E.) was a philosopher, historian, scientist, and prolific writer. Unfortu-
nately, his work is almost completely lost, and attempts to reconstruct his
thought from others who may have been influenced by him have been con-
troversial. Consequently we can say little about his attitude to the Jews.^^
Apollonius Molon was a rhetorician who came from Caria but taught in
Rhodes and numbered Cicero and Julius Caesar among his disciples. Ac-
cording to Josephus, Posidonius and Apollonius "charge us with not wor-
shipping the same gods as other people" and "tell lies and invent absurd cal-
umnies about our temple." He goes on to specify the calumnies about the
temple: the story of the ass's head and the allegation that the Jews annually
murdered a Greek. Josephus is responding to the polemic of Apion, and it is
not certain whether these charges were already found in Posidonius and
Apollonius. According to Josephus, Apollonius

has not grouped his accusations together, but scattered them here and
there all over his work, reviling us in one place as atheists and misan-
thropes, in another reproaching us as cowards, whereas elsewhere,
on the contrary, he accuses us of temerity and reckless madness. He
adds that we are the most witless of all barbarians and are conse-
quently the only people who have contributed no useful invention to
civilization.^'^

Apollonius was the first Greek writer after Hecataeus who was said to have
written a special book on the Jews. The fragment of the book preserved by
Alexander Polyhistor does not show a bias against the Jews but associates
their origin with Syria.''^ We may suspect that his tirades against the Jews
were rhetorical in character. None of these writers necessarily had a great in-
terest in Judaism, and the remarks at which Josephus took offense may have
been made quite casually.
ApollonJus's distinguished pupil, Cicero, also inveighed against the
Jews in two orations: his defense of Flaccus and "On the Consular Prov-

Typhonians and Josephus' Strategy of Refutation in Contra Apionem," in Feldman and

I^vison, eds., Josephus' Contra Apionem, 271-309.
30. Ag. Ap. 2.79.
31. Stern, "The Jews in Greek and Latin Literature," 1123-25. For the fragments of
Posidonius, see L. Edelstein and I. G. Kidd, Posidonius I: Tiie Fragments (Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University, 1972).
Zl.Ag. Ap. 2.147.
33. Eusebius, Praep. Evang. 9.19.1-3.
8 INTRODUCTION

inces." He characterizes the Jewish religion as superstition and contrasts it

with the traditional religion of Rome. In his speech "On the Consular Prov-
inces" he says that the Syrians and Jews were bom to slavery. It has been
pointed out, however, that ridiculing the enemy was a standard rhetorical tac-
tic of Cicero. In the defense of Flaccus he also denounces the cities of Asia
Minor, and elsewhere he ridicules the Sardi and the Gauls. Cicero was not
motivated by any direct animosity toward the Jews, although one might infer
from his speeches a general lack of respect for remote and alien peoples.
The Roman attitude to the Jews around the turn of the era is perhaps
best reflected in the gibe of Horace credat ludaeus Apella}^ The Jew was as-
sumed to be credulous because of his strange beliefs. Later Roman writers
were in general more hostile.Seneca's attitude to the Jews followed from
his general resentment of the spread of eastern cults in Rome. He directed his
criticisms at Jewish ritual and ceremonial in order to show the superstitious,
irrational nature of the cult (e.g., that the Sabbath observance wasted a sev-
enth of a person's life). Seneca paid no attention to the moral side of Jewish
religion. This was also true of the satirists of the later first and early second
centuries. Persius ridiculed the Sabbath. Petronius regarded circumcision as
the main mark of the Jew and alleged that the pig was the Jewish deity. Mar-
tial comments on circumcision and the Sabbath. Juvenal stresses the Sab-
bath, circumcision, and abstention from pork. The relatively extensive com-
ments of Tacitus are introduced in the context of the destruction of Jemsalem
by Rome, but he does not denounce or even blame the Jews for their rebel-
lion.^^ His dislike for Judaism was due to the same cause as that of Seneca
and Juvenal. He resented the spread of Judaism and other eastern cults in
Rome.
Judaism, then, appeared as a strange phenomenon with unfamiliar rites
and observances in the Hellenistic and Roman world. As such it was liable to
caricature and mockery and also to suspicion and occasional hostility. In
Egypt another dimension was added to this. Both Jews and Gentiles agreed
that the origin of the Jewish people had involved an exodus out of Egypt.
Hecataeus of Abdera, writing at the beginning of the Hellenistic period, re-
ported that in ancient times a pestilence broke out in Egypt and the Egyptians
decided to drive out the foreigners who were living there. The best of these
made their home in Greece, but the greater number settled in Judea, which

34. Stem, "The Jews in Greek and Latin Literature," 1144-45; B. Wardy, "Jewish Reli-
gion in Pagan Literature during the Late Republic and Early Empire," ANRW 2.19.1 (1979)
592-613.
35. Horace, Satires 1.5.100. See further Daniel, "Anti-Semitism." 54-57.
36. Stem, "The Jews in Greek and Latin Literature," 1150-59; Gager, The Origins of
Anti-Semitism, 58-59, attributes the increased hostility to the Jewish war of 66-73 C.E. and the
success of Jewish proselytism.
37. See further Wardy, "Jewish Religion in Pagan Literature," 613-35.
 INTRODUCTION 9

was uninhabited.^^ The distinction between those who settled in Greece and
the founders of Judea reflects a Greek sense of superiority, but it was not nec-
essarily meant to disparage the Judeans. Hecataeus goes on to say that Moses
was outstanding for his wisdom and courage, although the way of life he es-
tablished was "somewhat unsocial and hostile to foreigners." Hecataeus was
neither pro- nor a n t i - J e w i s h . H e was simply reporting the rather muddled
account of Jewish origins that he had picked up, presumably in Egypt.
Elements of this account reappear in passages that Josephus attributes
to Manetho, an Egyptian priest who undertook to write an account of Egyp-
tian antiquity in Greek in the third century B.C.E. Josephus distinguishes two
elements in Manetho's account. First, he claims that Jerusalem was founded
by the Hyksos, Asiatic rulers who had ruled Egypt with great cruelty for a
time, but were eventually driven out.^'* Thus far, says Josephus, Manetho fol-
lowed the chronicles. But Josephus says that he goes on, "under the pretext
of recording fables and current reports about the Jews" to give another ac-
count, set at a later period. A king named Amenophis collected all the lepers
and other polluted persons, and sent them to work in the stone quarries.
Eventually they were allowed to go to Avaris, the old Hyksos capital, which
is said to be sacred to Typhon. They appointed as leader one of the priests of
Heliopolis called Osarsiph. He forbade the worship of the gods and ordered
his followers to kill and consume sacred animals and to have no connection
with people outside their own group. He then persuaded the shepherds (the
Hyksos) to return to Egypt. The king fled to Ethiopia with the sacred ani-
mals. Osarsiph, who is explicitly identified with Moses, terrorized Egypt and
committed outrages against the sacred animals and the priests.'*^
The authenticity of this second account has long been disputed.^^ There
is wide agreement that an old tradition about the Hyksos has been second-
arily applied to the Jews, whether by Manetho or by a later writer, and the
identification of Osarsiph with Moses appears to be a secondary addition.

38. Hecataeus, Aegyptiaca, in Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica 40.3; Stem,

Greek and Latin Authors, 26-35. For a discussion of Hecataeus see R M. Fraser, Ptolemaic Al-
exandria (Oxford: Clarendon, 1972) 1:496-504; G. E. Sterling, Historiography and Self-Defi-
nition: Josephos, Luke Acts and Apologetic Historiography (Leiden: Brill, 1992) 59-91;
B. Bar-Kochva, Pseudo-Hecataeus 'On the Jews': legitimizing the Jewish Diaspora (Berke-
ley: University of California Press, 1996) 7-43.
39. So rightly E. Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism: The Reinvention of Jewish Tradition
(Berkeley: University of Califomia Press, 1998) 52.
40. Ag. Ap. 1.75-90; 228.
AX.Ag.Ap. 1.232-50.
42. E. Meyer, Agyptische Chronologic (Berlin: Societas regia scientiarum, 1904) 71-79.
See J. G. Gager, Moses in Greco-Roman Paganism (SBLMS 16; Nashville: Abingdon, 1972)
116. For a summary of recent literature on the debate, see M. Pucci Ben Zeev, "The Reliability
of Josephus Flavins: The Case of Hecataeus' and Manetho's Accounts of Jews and Judaism:
Fifteen Years of Contemporary Research (1974-1990)," JSJ 24 (1993) 215-34.
10 INTRODUCTION

The association with the Hyksos was not necessarily designed to discredit
the Jews, even though it cast them in a very bad light from an Egyptian point
of view. It may have been simply a way to account for the origin of this dis-
tinctive people, and to explain where the Hyksos went when they were ex-
pelled from Egypt.*^
This account of Jewish origins was adapted with minor variations by a
succession of authors: Chaeremon, Lysimachus, and Aplon.^* Chaeremon
has a version of the Exodus story resembling that of Manetho, but he refrains
from derogatory comments about the Jews. Both Lysimachus and Apion,
however, who were active during the early Roman period, have a clear anti-
Jewish animus. Lysimachus claimed that Jerusalem was named Hierosyla
(from the Greek phrase for plundering a temple) because of the sacrilegious
acts of the founders. Apion wrote a treatise "Against the Jews." The Egyp-
tian version of Jewish origins also circulated outside of Egypt and left a clear
imprint in Tacitus. Anti-Jewish polemic reached its apex in Alexandria in the
first century C.E., where Apion drew together the various historical and moral
allegations hostile to the Jews. This polemic is mainly preserved in selective
quotations in Josephus's Against Apion. While Josephus may have caused
some distortion, however, there Is no doubt about the reality of anti-Jewish
polemic in Alexandria in the first century C.E.
One of the most basic and persistent of these allegations was that the
Jews were misanthropic, hostile to the rest of humankind.^^ Hecataeus noted
that the laws of Moses, whom he had praised for wisdom and courage, differ
from those of other nations "for as a result of their own expulsion from Egypt
he introduced a way of life that was somewhat unsocial and hostile to for-
eigners (apanthrdpon tina kai misoxenon bion)^^ Manetho's Osarsiph or-
dered his followers to avoid contact with outsiders. Apollonius Molon char-
acterized the Jews as "atheists and misanthropes.'"*^ The same charge is
found in Diodorus Siculus,"*^ who reports that king Antiochus VII Sidetes

43. Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 49, makes the sensible observation that "the epi-
sode of the Exodus held a central place in Jewish consciousness and the self-perception of
Jews. But only for them. Writers of the Greco-Roman world had no comparable stake in the
matter." His own hypothesis that Hellenistic Jews had invented the story of the violent over-
throw of Egypt by their ancestors as a matter of Jewish pride (pp. 63-64) is gratuitous and
highly implausible. The story is always seen as negative, both by Jewish and Gentile authors.
The idea that the identification of the shepherds and the Jews derives from a Jewish source was
suggested by L. Troiani, "Sui frammenti di Manetone nel primo libro del Contra Apionem di
Flavio Giuseppe," Sludi Classici e Orientali 24 (1975) 97-126 and Gabba, 'The Growth of
Anti-Judaism," 634.
44.Ag.Ap. 1,288-320; 2,1-7; Stem, Greek and Latin Authors, 1:382-421.
45. This charge is emphasized especially by Schafer, Judeophobia, 15-33.
46. Diodorus Siculus 40.3.4.
41.Ag.Ap. 2.148.
48. Bibliotheca Historica 34-35; Stem, Greek and Latin Authors, 1:181-85.
 INTRODUCTION 11

was advised to capture Jerusalem and "wipe out the nation of the Jews, since
they alone of all nations avoided dealings with any other people and looked
upon all men as their enemies." He goes on to note that their ancestors had
been driven out of Egypt "as men who were impious and detested by the
gods." The charge of hostility to humanity figures prominently in the po-
lemic of Lysimachus.*^ Apion alleged that the Jews annually conducted the
ritual murder of a Greek.^" Tacitus noted that the practices introduced by Mo-
ses were opposed to those of all other human beings, and that the people was
expelled from Egypt because it was hateful to the gods.^'
It is anachronistic and misleading to categorize this tradition of anti-
Jewish polemic as "anti-Semitic," thereby confusing it with the pseudo-sci-
entific racist theory developed in Germany in the nineteenth century.^'^ Peter
Schafer has recently objected that historical problems are not solved by
merely changing names. For him, the crucial questions are "(a) whether there
was always the same kind of hostility against and hatred of the Jews through-
out history, and (b) whether there is something unique about this hostility di-
rected at the Jew which distinguishes the Jews from other ethnic groups."^^
He finds this "something unique" in the charge of xenophobia and mis-
anthropia: "The Jews as the 'evil incarnate,' denying and perverting in their
xenophobic and misanthropic hatred all cherished values of humankind, con-
spiring against all the civilized world." He concludes, "Since it is the pecu-
liar result of the amalgamation of Egyptian and Greek prejudices, one might
argue that only the Idea of a world-wide Greco-Hellenistic civilization made
it possible for the phenomenon we call anti-Semitism to emerge."^'*
It is not our purpose here to explore the development of anti-Semitism.
Any such exploration would have to engage both the role of Christianity in
the development and the specific German culture that developed the ideol-
ogy of the Nazis. A label such as "anti-Semitic," however, serves mainly to
obscure the historical specificity of the polemics between Jew and Gentile in
antiquity. Writers such as Hecataeus of Abdera and Manetho were far from
suggesting that the Jews were the embodiment of evil, and it is far from evi-
dent that Apion, the arch-enemy of the Jews, was motivated by "the idea of a
world-wide Greco-Hellenistic civilization."
Two main factors contributed to the tradition of anti-Jewish polemic.
One was the social tensions that existed between ethnic groups, especially in

49.Ag.Ap. 1.304-11.
50. Ag. Ap. 2.92-96.
51. Historiae 5.3.1-4.2; Schafer, Judeophobia, 31-33.
52. See the comments of S. J. D. Cohen. " 'Anli-Semitlsm' in Antiquity: The Problem of
Definition," in D. Berger, ed.. History and Hate: The Dimensions of Anti-Semitism (Philadel-
phia: Jewish Publication Society, 1986) 43-47.
53. Schafer, Judeophobia, 197.
54. Ibid., 206.
12 INTRODUCTION

Egypt, and the other was the distinctiveness of the Jewish r e l i g i o n . T h e

Jews differed from Syrians and Idumeans insofar as they were more numer-
ous and successful, but also Insofar as they were more cohesive and more re-
sistant to assimilation. In the Ptolemaic period, when Jews enjoyed the favor
of a king such as Phllometor, they inevitably incurred the resentment both of
opposing factions and of other groups in the king's s e r v i c e . I n the Roman
period, the Jews resented the fact that they were classified with the native
Egyptians and denied the privileged status of the Greeks. Consequently, they
often tried to emphasize their affinities with the Greeks and differences from
the Egyptians, and were resented by both. Riots erupted in Alexandria in the
reign of Caligula, and the problems between Greeks and Jews were laid be-
fore both Caligula and Claudius. The letter of Claudius, which confirmed the
Jews' right to observe their own customs but reminded them that they lived
in a city which was not their own, did not put an end to the racial tensions, as
can be seen from the outbreak of fighting in 66 and the tragic revolt under
T r a j a n . I n Rome, much of the most hostile polemic comes from the period
after the Jewish revolt of 66-73 C.E., and much of it is animated by Roman
paranoia about the dilution of Roman culture and values by eastern cults.
The term "Judeophobia," which Schafer adopts from Zvi Yavetz,^^ has some
justification in the case of imperial Rome.
The social tensions between Jews and Gentiles in Egypt were exacer-
bated by the nature of the Jewish religion itself. Much of the hostile propa-
ganda focused on the "strangeness" of the Jews, their refusal to worship the
gods of the land and their alleged hostility to other peoples.^*' In fact, the
Jewish tradition insisted that Yahweh was a jealous god who demanded that
"you shall be holy to me, for I the LORD am holy, and have separated you
from the peoples that you should be mine" (Lev. 20:26). The ideal of holiness

55. Schafer, Judeophobia, 1-6, distinguishes these factors as two kinds of explanation,
the one "functionalist" and the other "substantialist," and provides a useful review of scholars
who have favored each kind. In fact, these two factors must be viewed as complementary.
56. Josephus (Ag. Ap. 2,48) says that Apion derides the names of the Jewish generals
Onias and Dositheus for taking the side of Philometor's widow against Ptolemy Euergetes II.
The rivalry between Jews and Greeks in the Ptolemaic court may be reflected in the Greek
translation of Esther, which makes Haman a Macedonian (see CPJ 1:24).
57. For a concise summary of this history, see CPJ 1:48-93. Also E. M. Smallwood,
Philonis Alexandrini Legalio ad Gaium (2d ed,; Leiden: Brill, 1970) 3-36. For further bibliog-
raphy see J. J. Collins, The Sibylline Oracles of Egyptian Judaism (SBLDS 13; Missoula,
Mont.: Scholars Press, 1974) 184-86,
58. Gager, The Origins of Anti-Semitism, 55-66. Cf the famous saying of Seneca that
"the vanquished have given their laws to the victors" (Augustine, De Civitate Dei 6.11; Stern,
Greek and iMtin Authors, 1:431).
59. Z, Yavetz, "Judeophobia in Classical Antiquity: A Different Approach," JJS 44
(1993) 1-22.
60. Sevenster, The Roots of Pagan Anti-Semitism, 89-144; Daniel, "Anti-Semitism," 51-
54.
 INTRODUCTION 13

by separation from the Gentiles was especially prominent in postexilic Juda-

ism.^^ The priestly laws in Leviticus were probably put in final form during
the exile. The program for restoration in Ezekiel 40-48 provided clear
boundary lines for preserving the purity of the temple and avoiding the errors
of the past: "No foreigner, uncircumcised in heart and flesh, of all the for-
eigners who are among the people of Israel, shall enter my sanctuary" (Ezek.
44:9). A century later, Ezra was outraged to find that "the holy race has
mixed itself with the peoples of the land" (Ezra 9:2) and instituted a reform
which included the divorce of foreign wives. The distinctive command-
ments, such as Sabbath observance, circumcision, and dietary laws, were the
hallmarks of Judaism which were most immediately obvious to Gentile ob-
servers in the following centuries.Hecataeus's observation that the Mosaic
law was "somewhat unsocial and hostile to foreigners" was not unreasonable
from a Greek point of view, and certainly not "anti-Semitic" In any accepted
sense of that word. The fact that Jewish identity was so closely bound up
with these observances obviously created obstacles for Jews who were at-
tracted by Hellenistic culture — as is amply illustrated by the events which
led up to the Maccabean revolt.
We should not, of course, conclude that the Gentile reaction to Judaism
was entirely n e g a t i v e . T h e earliest Greek writers on Judaism, such as
Hecataeus, wrote with respect for the Jews. They were especially impressed
by the laws of Moses and by the rejection of idols. Megasthenes and
Clearchus regarded the Jews as philosophers. Strabo's Geography, book 16,
gives a very sympathetic account of Moses and says that he set up an excel-
lent government, even though Moses' successors took a serious turn for the
worse. Some scholars attribute the passage to Posidonius. Varro, a contempo-
rary of Caesar and Cicero, was impressed by the aniconic religion and identi-
fied the God of the Jews with Jupiter. Pompeius Trogus credited the Jews
with "uniting justice with religion," and the treatise "On the Sublime," attrib-
uted to Longinus, had high praise for Moses. It appears, then, that there was a
dimension of Judaism which was quite attractive to some people in the Helle-
nistic world. This was its philosophical dimension, its ethical code, and
aniconic God.

61. See Bowker, The Religious Imagination, 31-45. The insistence on clear boundary
markers and distinctive observances is typical of a beleaguered community, struggling to retain
its identity in a hostile environment. Gruen, whose discussion includes some material of proba-
ble Palestinian origin, fails to note the prominence of halakic (legal) material in Palestinian Ju-
daism.
62. For references see Daniel, "Anti-Semitism," 55-56.
63. For the following see Stern, "The Jews in Greek and Latin Literature," passim; J. G.
Gager, Moses in Greco-Roman Paganism, 25-79; Feldman, Jew and Gentile, 201-9, 233-87.
14 INTRODUCTION

Jewish Apologetics

The corpus of Jewish literature which has survived from the Diaspora may be
viewed in part as a response to the assessments and polemics of the
Gentiles.^* Since much of this literature is seen as defending a view of Juda-
ism in Hellenistic categories, it is usually described as "apologetic." It is also
commonly regarded as missionary literature — the propaganda which ac-
companied Jewish proselytizing.^^ Against this view, Victor Tcherikover ar-
gued in a celebrated essay that this literature is not properly apologetic but is
directed to a Jewish rather than a Gentile audience.^^ Much of the secondary
literature since Tcherikover's essay has been concerned with choosing be-
tween these alternatives.
Some light can be thrown on this problem if we bear in mind the situa-
tion of the Diaspora Jews. The Hellenized Jew who aspired to participate in
the cultural life of a city such as Alexandria experienced dissonance on two
counts.^'' First, the Jewish tradition affirmed a certain account of Jewish ori-
gins and assessment of Jewish mores that was highly positive. In the Helle-
nistic world, the account of origins was often contradicted, and Jewish mores
were denounced as antisocial superstition. The Hellenistic view of Judaism
was, thus, often dissonant with the Jewish tradition. Second, the Jewish tradi-
tion itself was far from ecumenical and strongly discouraged any form of
syncretism. Mingling with the nations was thought to be bad. Yet for many
Diaspora Jews, mingling with their Hellenistic neighbors was highly desir-
able. Again, dissonance arose, or, in other terms, the plausibility of Judaism
in the Hellenistic world came under strain.
Where dissonance is present, there is inevitably pressure to reduce or
64. Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, argues strongly against the view that this hterature
is reactive, and emphasizes the creativity of the Jewish writers and their pride in their tradi-
tions. But these are by no means mutually exclusive positions, and it would be very unrealistic
to think that the Jewish authors did not take account of Gentile opinion in some way.
65. M. Friedlander, Geschichte der jUdischen Apologetik (Zurich: Schmidt, 1903);
P. Dalbert, Die Theologie der HeUenistisch-Jiidtschen Missionsliteratur unter Ausschluss von
Philo und Josephus (Hamburg: Reich, 1954); D. Georgi, The Opponents of Paul in Second Co-
rinthians (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1986) 83-151; and, selectively, Feldman, Jew and Gentile,
293-98. The whole notion of a Jewish mission has been severely criticized in recent years. See
M. Goodman, Mission and Conversion: Proselytizing in the Religious History of the Roman
Empire (Oxford: Clarendon, 1994); S. McKnight, A Light among the Gentiles: Jewish Mission-
ary Activity during the Second Temple Period (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1991). The issue is dealt
with in Chapter 7 below.
66. V. Tcherikover, "Jewish Apologetic Literature Reconsidered," Eos 48 (1956) 169-
93.
67. I take the term dissonance from L. Festinger, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
(Evanston, 111. and White Plains, N.Y.: Row, Peterson & Co., 1957). A useful summary of the
theory and of the subsequent critical literature can be found in R. P. Carroll, When Prophecy
Failed: Cognitive Dissonance in the Prophetic Traditions of the Old Testament (New York:
Seabury, 1979) 86-128.
 INTRODUCTION 15

eliminate the dissonanee.^^ Perhaps the simplest way to do this was by aban-
doning Judaism altogether. Philo's nephew, Tiberius Julius Alexander, is the
most notorious e x a m p l e . T h e r e were Jews who exercised this option, but
they were always a minority. The majority sought ways to reduce the disso-
nance while remaining Jewish but without rejecting Hellenistic culture.''^
We will observe the various ways in which Jews accomplished this in the
following chapters. Essentially, dissonance is reduced by modifying one or
both of the conflicting bodies of opinion. Only rarely did Jews take issue with
Hellenistic views of Judaism and refute them (as in Josephus's Against Apion)
or simply contradict them. More often they highlighted the aspects of Judaism
which were most acceptable to cultured Gentiles and to Jews who had ab-
sorbed Hellenistic culture, for example, by representing Judaism as a philoso-
phy, while playing down the more peculiar customs and rituals. Conversely,
they distinguished between the loftier elements of philosophical religion, with
which rapprochement was possible, and the vulgar superstitions of the masses
(especially the Egyptians). In this way the dissonance was admitted with some
aspects of Hellenistic life, but was removed in a significant area. The allegori-
cal interpretation of scripture by Philo and others is an evident method of re-
ducing the dissonance between the Jewish scriptures and philosophical reli-
gion. The expression of traditional Jewish material in Hellenistic forms, such
as tragedy and epic, again blurs the differences between the two traditions and
serves to show that Judaism is not an alien body in the Hellenistic world.''^
When we realize that what was at stake was the plausibility of Jewish
tradition in a new environment and the dissonance experienced by the
Hellenized Jew, it is almost inevitable that the "apologetic" would be di-
rected simultaneously to those within and to those outside. If Gentiles
could be persuaded to embrace Judaism, clearly the Jews need not feel so-
cial pressure to abandon it.'''^ The outward movement of the propaganda si-

68. Festinger, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, 18. For various ways in which this
may be done, .see ibid., 182.
69. Another example is Dositheus, son of Drimylus. whose apostasy is recorded in
3 Mace. 1:3 and who is also known from the papyri (CPJ 1:230-36). At the end of the first re-
volt against Rome, an apostate named Antiochus, son of the archon of the Antiochene Jews, in-
cited a pogrom against the Jews of Antioch (J.W. 7.47). On the phenomenon of apostasy, see
further H. A. Wolfson, Philo (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948) 1:73-78.
70. Cf. G. E. Sterling, "'Thus are Israel': Jewish Self-Definition in Alexandria," The
Studia Philonica Annual 7 (1995) 1-18: "there are two foci which constitute the horizons of Al-
exandrian Jewish self-identity: the necessity of maintaining allegiance to the ancestral tradi-
tion, and the right to participation in Hellenism de bon coeur."
71. Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 246, claims, with much justification, that "adjust-
ment to the Hellenistic world expressed itself not as accommodation but as reaffirmation of
their own lustrous legacy." But Gruen fails to notice the selectivity practiced by these writers,
both with respect to their own tradition and with respect to Hellenistic culture.
72. "If more and more people can be persuaded that a system of belief is correct, then
clearly it must after all be correct" (L. Festinger, H. W. Riecken, and S. Schachter, When
16 INTRODUCTION

multaneously has the effect of bolstering the faith of the community. On

the other hand, the concentration on those aspects of Judaism which were
most acceptable in the Hellenistic world could also facilitate propaganda
and proselytism, since it presented Judaism in terms which a Greek could
understand and appreciate. Even if the apologetic had little impact on out-
siders, it still reduced the dissonance for the Jews since it showed how their
tradition could be made compatible with the surrounding culture. In fact,
there is very little evidence that Gentiles took note of any of this literature,
and there can be little doubt that the primary readership was Jewish. But
this in no way precludes the possibility that the Jewish authors also aspired
to address their pagan neighbors, however unrealistic their aspiration may
have been.

Hellenistic J u d a i s m a n d J u d e a

In this volume we are concerned with the Diaspora, and especially with
Egypt, since that is the area for which we have the most ample documenta-
tion.^' However, the problems posed by Hellenization were not confined to
the Diaspora. As has often been pointed out in recent years, Judea was also
profoundly influenced by Hellenism.^'* The so-called Hellenistic reform that
preceded the Maccabean revolt was only the climax of a long and gradual
process. For a century and a half Judea had been governed by the Ptolemies
and Selelicids. The lively contacts between Judea and Egypt in the Ptolemaic
period, and the ease with which prominent Jews engaged in Hellenistic com-
merce and politics, are illustrated by the Zeno papyri and the tales of the

Prophecy Fails [New York: Harper, 1956] 28). See also J. G. Gager, Kingdom and Community
(Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1975) 39. Compare Festinger, A Theory of Cognitive
Dissonance, 200-202.
73. Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora, 231-380, attempts to fill out the pic-
ture by providing chapters on Cyrenaica and Syria, Asia, and Rome, but the value of the exer-
cise is severely limited by the lack of literary evidence that can be reliably attributed to these
locations.
74. See esp. M. Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism: Studies in Their Encounter in Pales-
tine during the Early Hellenistic Period (2 vols.; Philadelphia: Fortress 1974); idem, Juden,
Griechen und Barbaren: Aspekte der Hellenisierung des Judentums in vorchristUcher Zeit
(SBS 76; Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1976), available in English as Jews, Greeks and
Barbarians [Philadelphia: Fortress, 1980]); Tcherikover, Hellenistic Civilization, 39-265;
Schiirer, The History of the Jewish People, 2:29-80. On the Greek language in Palestine, see
G. Mussies, "Greek in Palestine and the Diaspora," in S. Safrai and M. Stern, eds.. The Jewish
People in the First Century (CRINT 1.2; Assen: Van Gorcum; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1976)
1040-64 and the literature there cited. See also D. Flusser, "Paganism in Palestine," ibid., 1065-
100. For Feldman, Jew and Gentile, 3-44, the question is not how thoroughly Jews in the land
of Israel were Hellenized, but how strongly they resisted Hellenism.
 INTRODUCTION 17

Tobiads in Josephus7^ We know of some thirty Greek cities within Palestine

in the Hellenistic period.'''^ The Hasmoneans, while they treated these cities
harshly, rapidly "went the way of Hellenization [and] began to resemble the
normal type of Hellenistic monarch."''^ The names of the Hasmonean rulers
are suggestive in this respect — Hyrcanus, Aristobulus, Alexander,
Antigonus. From the time of Alexander Jannaeus, the Hasmonean coins bear
a Greek inscription in addition to the Hebrew. Aristobulus called himself
philhellen, "lover of the Greeks."''* Needless to say, the trend was continued
by the Herods.
It is not surprising, then, to find that we cannot draw a clear line be-
tween the literature of the Diaspora and that of Judea. At least one of the Hel-
lenistic Jewish writers preserved in Eusebius was a Judean, Eupolemus, and
he was (most probably) an associate of Judas Maccabee. In the case of some
others, such as Philo the epic poet, Alexandrian provenance has generally
been assumed without substantial evidence, but a Judean origin is also possi-
ble. In several other cases where the balance of probability favors a Diaspora
setting, the evidence is extremely slight and arguments for Judean origins
have also been put forward. (The Testament of Abraham is a case in point.)
The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs are the ultimate monument to the
failure of scholarship to pin down the literature of this period to definite his-
torical settings.''^ On the one hand, there is an ongoing debate as to whether
the Testaments are a Jewish composition with Christian redactional elements,
or rather a Christian composition which incorporates Jewish traditions. Even
those who regard them as Jewish disagree as to their provenance. Several re-
cent studies have emphasized their contacts with Egyptian Judaism. Yet,
fragments related to the Testament of Levi and the Testament of Naphtali
have been found at Qumran, and there are many parallel motifs in the Testa-
ments and the Scrolls. The complex history of the Testaments cannot be con-
fined to either Judea or the Diaspora. Similar problems are raised by the fact
that much Judean literature was translated into Greek and circulated in the
Diaspora. Sometimes, as in the case of Esther and Daniel, the Greek version
expanded the original, but even these expansions did not necessarily origi-

75. For the Zeno papyri see CPJ 1:115-46; for the Tobiads, Josephus, Ant. 12.4.1-11
§§154-234.
76. Schiirer, The History of the Jewish People. 2:85-183. See now A. Kasher, Jews and
Hellenistic Cities in Eretz-Israel (Tiibingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1990).
77. Tcherikover, Hellenistic Civilization. 253. See also U. Rappaport. 'The Helleniza-
tion of the Hasmoneans," in M. Mor, ed., Jewish Assimilation, Acculturation and Accommoda-
tion: Past Traditions, Current Issues and Future Prospects (Studies in Jewish Civilization 2;
Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1992) 1-13; T. Rajak, "The Hasmoneans and the
Uses of Hellenism," in P. R. Davies and R. T. White, eds., A Tribute to Geza Vermes (Sheffield:
JSOT, 1990) 261-80; Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism. 1-40.
78. Josephus, A«(. 13.11.3 §318.
79. See Chapter 4 below.
18 INTRODUCTION

nate in the Diaspora — the colophon of Greek Esther says that the Greek ver-
sion was ascribed to "a member of the Jerusalem community."**^ 2 Macca-
bees claims to be the abridgment of a five-volume history of Jason of
Cyrene. Yet it is prefaced by two letters from the Jews of Jerusalem to those
in Egypt. The substance of the book is derived from Judea, although it is pre-
sented for a Diaspora audience. Such a book defies classification as either
Palestinian or Diasporic. Similarly, the works of Josephus stand in the liter-
ary tradition of Hellenistic Judaism.*' Yet he himself was Judean.
We should not, of course, conclude that there were no differences at all
between Palestine and the Diaspora. Palestinian Judaism produced no philos-
opher analogous to Philo. The Diaspora has nothing to compare with the
Rabbinic corpus, which was compiled from Palestinian tradition some centu-
ries later. Hebrew and Aramaic were still widely used in the homeland.*^ Ju-
daism was never a minority religion in Hellenistic Palestine, and the social
and cultural support was obviously greater there than elsewhere. If Judea was
politically and militarily threatened at various times, the cultural threat to the
plausibility of the tradition was greater in the Diaspora. While even such re-
clusive areas as Qumran show Hellenistic influence,^^ attempts to express
the Jewish tradition in explicitly Hellenistic forms are relatively few in Pal-
estinian Judaism, whereas they predominate in the Diaspora. In short, while
the familiar opposition of Hellenistic and Palestinian Judaism cannot be
maintained and while there is a considerable gray area where we cannot be
sure of the derivation of particular works, the fact remains that the main evi-
dence for the attempt to present Judaism in Hellenistic dress derives from the
Diaspora.

80. C. A. Moore, Daniel, Esther and Jeremiah: The Additions (AB 44; Garden City,
N.Y.: Doubleday, 1977) 250-51. The reliability of the ascription is questionable.
81. H. W. Attridge, The Interpretation of Biblical History in the Antiquitates ludaicae of
Flavins Josephus (HDR 7; Missoula, Mont.: Scholars Press, 1976) and the articles by L. H.
Feldman noted in Attridge's bibliography. H. R. Moehring, "The Acta pro Judaeis in the Antiq-
uities of Flavius Josephus: A Study in Hellenistic and Modem Apologetic Historiography," in
J. Neusner, ed., Christianity, Judaism and Other Greco-Roman Cults: Studies for Morton Smith
at Sixty (Leiden: Brill, 1975) 3:124-58; Feldman and Levison, eds., Josephus' Contra Apionem.
Josephus, unlike the Diaspora apologists, addressed his work explicitly to Gentiles.
82. C. Rabin, "Hebrew and Aramaic in the First Century," in S. Safrai and M. Stem,
eds.. The Jewish People in the First Century (CRINT 1.2; Assen: Van Gorcum; Philadelphia:
Fortress, 1976) 1007-39; Schiirer, The History of the Jewish People, 2:20-28.
83. M. Hengel, "Qumran und der Hellenismus," in M. Delcor, ed., Qumran: Sa piite sa
theologie et son milieu (BETL 46; Paris and Gembloux: Duculot and Louvain University,
1978) 333-72.
 INTRODUCTION 19

T h e Constraints of the Tradition

The peculiarity of Judaism from the time of the Babylonian exile is that it is
both a nationality and a way of life. Moses, says Josephus, held "that it is not
family ties (genos) alone which constitute relationship, but agreement in the
principles of conduct (proairesis tou biou)."^^ Most Jews were Jews by birth
and reinforced their identity by attendance at synagogue and observance of
Sabbath, kashrut, and other distinctive Jewish observances.*^ But it was also
possible for a Gentile to adopt the way of life as a convert, and for a Jew by
birth to abandon the way of life. Exactly which beliefs and practices were es-
sential to the way of life were not clearly defined, however, and so people
might define their Jewish identity in various ways.*^ There was, however, an
authoritative body of scriptures which provided a frame of reference, espe-
cially for the formulation of Jewish identity in literary texts.
At least from the early Hellenistic period, Judaism had a corpus of
scripture, of which the book of the Torah, the Pentateuch, was the authorita-
tive foundation.*'' It is significant that the earliest literary activity of the
Greek-speaking Diaspora was the translation of the book of the Torah, and its
influence is pervasive throughout the Hellenistic Jewish corpus.** The trans-
lation inevitably involved some transformation of the material. We need only
mention the celebrated rendering of the divine self-introduction in Exod.
3:14, eimi ho on ("I am the one who is"). However, while Hellenistic sensi-
bilities in theology and style inevitably left some imprints, the Septuagint
version of the Pentateuch is remarkably faithful to its prototypes, and is far

84. Ag. Ap. 2.210. See S. J. D. Cohen, "Religion, Ethnicity, and 'Hellenism' in the Emer-
gence of Jewish Identity in Maccabean Palestine," in P. Bilde, T. Engberg-Pedersen,
L. Hannestad, and J. Zahle, eds.. Religion and Religious Practice in the Seleucid Kingdom
(Aarhus: Aarhus University Press, 1990) 204-23; also S. J. D. Cohen, " 'Those Who Say They
Are Jews and Are Not': How Do You Know a Jew in Antiquity When You See One?" in S. J. D.
Cohen and E. S. Frerichs, eds., Diasporas in Antiquity (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1993) 1-46.
85. Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora, 402-18.
86. Cohen, "Rehgion, Ethnicity and Hellenism," 206-7.
87. J. J, Collins, "Before the Canon: Scriptures in Second Temple Judaism," in idem.
Seers. Sibyls and Sages in Hellenistic-Roman Judaism (Leiden: Brill, 1997) 3-21.
88. See S. Jellicoe, The Septuagint and Modern Study (Oxford: Clarendon, 1968) 55:
"Association direct or indirect with Philadelphus places the undertaking well before the middle
of the third century B.c, Apart from the Aristeas tradition this is borne out by the available ex-
ternal evidence." So also Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 1:690. Jellicoe discusses the various
modern theories of origin on pp. 59-73. A good sample of modern views on the Septuagint can
be found in S. Jellicoe, ed.. Studies in the Septuagint: Origins Recensions and Interpretations
(New York: Ktav, 1974). The main opponent of the view that the Septuagint was translated in
the time of Philadelphus was Paul Kahle, who argued that the Greek Bible developed in the
form of unofficial, targum-like translations and that the Letter of Aristeas was promoting a re-
vised translation about 100 B.C.E. Kahle's view can be found in The Cairo Geniza (Oxford:
Blackwell, 1959). It has been widely rejected in the light of the Qumran discoveries. See
Jellicoe, The Septuagint, 59-63.
20 INTRODUCTION

removed from the free rendering of the tradition we find in some Hellenistie
Jewish authors, or from the paraphrastic nature of the Targums.*^ There is no
doubt that it aspired to render accurately the basic documents of the tradition,
and to a great extent it succeeded.^'^ In short. Diaspora Judaism had the same
scriptural foundation as its Palestinian counterpart.
The Torah provided a common basis for postexilic Judaism, in the
sense that all forms of Judaism related to it in one way or another. It did not
provide a definitive norm in the sense of prescribing a single orthodox way
of being Jewish. To begin with, the corpus of scripture continued to grow
well into the Hellenistic period. The latest addition to the Hebrew canon,
Daniel, was composed only at the time of the Maccabean revolt. The Greek
translation of some of the writings was later still. Further, the religious life of
the people was always informed by the ongoing tradition and by influential
writings which were never accorded the status of scripture. The tradition
drew heavily on the scriptures, but nevertheless rewrote them freely and con-
tinued to provide new formulations and emphases.^' The ongoing process of
reformulation points to a more basic problem with any canon — the possibil-
ity of diverse interpretations. The most celebrated conflict of interpretations
in postexilic Judaism was located in the Egyptian Diaspora, where Philo de-
fended his allegorical interpretation against the "unreflective" literalists on
the one hand, but also against the extreme allegorists "who, regarding laws in
their literal sense in the light of symbols belonging to the intellect, are over-
punctilious about the latter, while treating the former with easy-going ne-
glect."^^ It should be observed that the extreme allegorists are not denounced

89. Hengel, Juden, Griechen und Barbaren, 131-32; E. J. Bickerman, "The Septuagint
as a Translation," in Studies in Jewish and Christian History. 1:167-200; E. Tov, "Die
griechischen Bibelubersetzungen," ANRW 2.1QA, 121-89 (especially 135-51). Since the dis-
covery of the Qumran scrolls, it has become apparent that in many cases where the Septuagint
differs from the Masoretic text, it had a different Hebrew prototype. See F. M. Cross and
S. Talmon, eds., Qumran and the History of the BibUcal Text (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Uni-
versity Press, 1975). It should be noted that the divergence from the Hebrew is more significant
in later books such as Job and Proverbs than it is in the Pentateuch. See Jellicoe, The Septua-
gint, 316-18.
90. See H. M. Orlinsky, "The Septuagint as Holy Writ and the Philosophy of the Trans-
lators," HUCA 46 (1975) 89-114. "It is the literal word-for-word rendering that prevailed in the
Septuagint rendering of the Torah" (ibid., p. 103). There is widespread agreement that "the
translation was made for Jews, undoubtedly for use in synagogue worship and instruction. To
this its style bears whness, and is against its being a translation executed for purely literary ef-
fect" (Jellicoe, The Septuagint, 55).
91. See especially J. L. Kugel, The Bible as It Was (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univer-
sity Press, 1997). Also Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism. 110-36.
92. Philo, De Migratione Abrahami 89-93. See the discussion by Wolfson, Philo, 1:66'
71, Wolfson contends that while Philo "blamed" the allegorists, he did not blame the literalists,
citing De Confusione Linguarum 38, 190, where Philo says that he would "not blame such per-
sons, for perhaps the truth is with them also." However, it does not follow that Philo would
never "blame" the literalists, but only that he did not in this particular case.
 INTRODUCTION 21

as apostates, even though Philo "blames" them. They are still said to be
"over-punctilious" in their own approach. The diversity of interpretation was
not always due to Hellenistic philosophy, but was prompted by several fac-
tors. In fact, the Torah itself was never a consistent systematic treatise, but a
compilation of materials which embraced diverse attitudes and even contra-
dictions, and so by its very nature invited diversity of interpretation.^^
It is of course possible that a particular interpretation of the Torah, or
an understanding of Judaism distilled from the Torah, could attain normative
status. E. P. Sanders has proposed the expression "pattern of religion" for
"the description of how a religion is perceived by its adherents to function,''
that is, ''how getting in and staying in are understood: the way in which a re-
ligion is understood to admit and retain members is considered to be the way
it 'functions.'"^'* Sanders has further argued that the pattern of "covenantal
nomism" was pervasive in Palestinian Judaism and was the "basic type of re-
ligion" there In the period 200 B.C.E. to 200 C.E.,^^ but was also widespread in
the Diaspora and was to a great degree ""the religion of Judaism."^'^
Covenantal nomism is defined as "the view according to which salvation
comes by membership in the covenant, while obedience to the command-
ments preserves one's place in the covenant."^''
There is no doubt that the conception of a covenant with its attendant
obligations was of major importance in Judaism and occupied a central
place in the canonical Torah. Yet here again the question of understanding
and interpretation is crucial. If we grant Sanders's claim that 4 Ezra di-
verged from the pattern of covenantal nomism and is instead legalistic,^*
the fact remains that 4 Ezra clearly presupposes the Mosaic covenant as the
basis of Judaism. The divergence lies in the understanding of the covenant,
and 4 Ezra is none the less Jewish because of it. Again, Sanders's brief
treatment of Diaspora Judaism shows that the pattern of covenantal
nomism could coexist with other patterns in a subordinate role: while Philo

93. On the process see J. A. Sanders, "Adaptable for Life: The Nature and Function of
Canon," in F. M. Cross, W. E. Lemke, and R D. Miller, eds., Magnalia Dei: The Mighty Acts of
God: Essays on the Bible and Archaeology in Memory of G. E. Wright {New York: Doubleday,
1976) 531-60.
94. E. R Sanders, Paul and Palestinian Judaism {Philadelphia: Fortress, 1977) 17.
95. Ibid., 426.
96. E. P. Sanders, 'The Covenant as a Soteriological Category and the Nature of Salva-
tion in Palestinian and Hellenistic Judaism," in R. Hamerton-Kelly and R. Scroggs, eds., Jews.
Greeks and Christians: Essays in Honor of William David Davies (SJLA 21, Leiden: Brill,
1976) 41; idem, Paul and Palestinian Judaism, 75, 235-36. Sanders does not claim that this
was the only pattern of religion in Judaism. In Palestinian Judaism he finds 4 Ezra exceptional
in that salvation is strictly according to an individual's works, whereas in Hellenistic Judaism
he recognizes another view of "realized salvation through a mystic rite or vision."
97. Ibid.
98.1 am not convinced that this view is justified, but the understanding of the covenant
in 4 Ezra is in any case somewhat different from, say, that in 2 Baruch.
22 INTRODUCTION

"did not renounce covenantal nomism,"^^ he regarded "true Judaism" as a

quest for the vision of the incorporeal.'*"' It is not enough, then, to ask
whether the elements of covenantal nomism are present. We must ask what
is the dominant pattern that determines the understanding of Judaism on
the most significant level.
When due emphasis is placed on the element of understanding in "the
way a religion is understood to function," it becomes apparent that Judaism
in the Hellenistic age was not nearly as uniform as Sanders suggests. The tra-
ditional "covenant form," which has been outlined by Mendenhall and
Baltzer,^^' entailed one particular understanding of Judaism. The obligations
of the law arose from the history of the people, especially from the mighty
acts by which God had given them the land. That history imposed a debt of
gratitude and loyalty. Further motivation was supplied by the blessings and
curses which promised well-being to the faithful and punishment for the
rebellious. This understanding of the covenant persisted throughout the Hel-
lenistic and Roman periods. It is clearly shown in a series of prayers of re-
pentance which review the history of the people, confess their breach of obli-
gation, acknowledge their present distress as an appropriate punishment, and
then appeal to the mercy of God. These prayers are found in canonical texts
(Nehemiah 9; Dan. 9:4b-13); at Qumran (IQS l:24b-2:l; CD 20:28-30; 4Q
Words of the Luminaries 1:8-7:2); and in the Diaspora, both east and west
(Tob. 3:1-6; 3 Mace. 2:2-20; LXX prayer of Esther).i'>2
Yet, side by side with these traditional formulations we find other inter-
pretations of Judaism. It is of the essence of the apocalyptic literature that the
history of Israel is no longer a sufficient grounding for the covenant obliga-
tions. There is need of a higher, supernatural revelation. It is the vision of the
apocalyptic seer, over and above the recollection of history, that provides the
insight to support the faithful.'"-* By contrast, in the wisdom literature of the
Hebrew Bible (Proverbs, Qoheleth) there is no such appeal to higher revela-
tion. Yet here, too, the traditional logic of the covenant is thrust into the back-
ground. Wisdom is derived from the observation of human nature, which is
potentially universal. Israel and its law may be the supreme embodiment of
wisdom, but their status is appreciated in the universal categories of wisdom

99. Sanders, "The Covenant as a Soteriological Category," 42.

100. Ibid., 34.
101. Mendenhall, Law and Covenant in Israel and tlie Ancient Near East (Pittsburgh:
Presbyterian Board of Colportage, 1954); K. Baltzer, Tiie Covenant Formulary (Philadelphia:
Fortress, 1971); D. Hitlers, Covenant: Tiie History of a Biblical Idea (Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1969).
102. O, H. Steck, Israel und das gewaltsame Gescliick der Propiieten (WMANT 23;
Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1967).
103. J. J. Collins, "Cosmos and Salvation: Jewish Wisdom and Apocalyptic in the Helle-
nistic Age," HR {\911) 121-42 (= Seers, Sibyls and Sages, 317-38).
 INTRODUCTION 23

rather than asserted on the basis of Israel's history.'"* Wisdom and apoca-
lypticism, then, to mention only two major examples, reflect different under-
standings of Judaism, each distinct from the traditional covenantal pattern.
This is not to suggest that we can isolate rigidly separate and mutually in-
compatible patterns in postexilic Judaism. Quite the contrary. As Sanders has
shown in the case of Philo, distinct ways of understanding the religion can
persist side by side with little attempt to clarify their implications for each
other. Religion is notoriously resistant to attempts to reduce it to consistency.
A religion such as Judaism in the Hellenistic age is nourished by a long
tradition which inevitably contains an accumulation of diverse and often
contradictory elements. The diversity which exists within the book of the To-
rah itself is well known. People remain within the religion as long as they
continue to define their identity in terms of the tradition and find within it ad-
equate resources for life.'*'^ Despite the undeniably central role of the cove-
nant law in the Jewish tradition, not all strands of Judaism had their primary
focus on the law, and even those that did understood it in various ways. None
of the variants of Judaism actually rejects the law, although some pay little
explicit attention to it. Since the purpose of a religion is to assemble re-
sources for living rather than articulate consistent systems, we cannot be sur-
prised to find that different ways of understanding the religion are commonly
found in combination, although it is usually possible to speak of a dominant
pattern.
In the light of the preceding discussion, the importance of the Torah
can be seen In perspective. The Torah was the basic component in the tradi-
tion, and those who would remain within Judaism had to relate themselves to
it in some way. This did not mean that all had to conform to a single pattern.
Not all the laws were necessarily binding, and the element of law was not
necessarily the focal point of the tradition which was most significant for es-
tablishing Jewish identity. Rather, a number of dilTerent approaches could be
taken within the bounds of the tradition.
Further, we must beware of defining Jewish identity too narrowly in
theological terms. As we noted at the outset, national identity was always
built up by a number of factors. Ethnic continuity was evidently a matter of
major importance, despite the acceptance of proselytes, and was a serious
factor in the prohibition of intermarriage. Political allegiance and relations
with the land of Israel were also significant factors in Jewish identity.
Finally, we must recognize that the Jewish identity of a cultivated man
like Philo was not quite the same as that of the Roman Jew "taught by his

104. J. J. Collins, "The Biblical Precedent for Natural Theology," JAAR 45/1 (1977)
Supp B:35-67.
105. Cf. the remarks of J. Bowker, The Religious Imaginaiion, 17-18.
24 INTRODUCTION

mother to beg."'"^ Social stratification undoubtedly modified Jewish under-

standing of the tradition and relations with the Gentiles.'"^ Unfortunately, the
views of the lower classes are not well recorded in the literature. The distinct
groupings which we can identify in Ptolemaic Egypt are political rather than
social — as shown, for example, in the attitudes towards the various Egyp-
tian rulers in the Sibylline Oracles — or are even simply theological. Only
after the first revolt against Rome (66-70 C.E.) do we find significant social
division within the Jewish community — in the rejection of the Slcarii by the
Alexandrian Jews and the destruction of the Jewish upper classes in Cyrene.

Relations with the Gentile E n v i r o n m e n t

Just as Hellenistic Jews might relate to their tradition in various ways, so

they might also have different responses to their Gentile environment. John
Barclay has recently provided a helpful discussion of different levels of as-
similation and acculturation in the Jewish D i a s p o r a . I n his discussion of
the literature, however, he opts for a simpler division between cultural con-
vergence and cultural antagonism. While he recognizes that a given writing
may exhibit both tendencies, the binary division tends to distort the apprecia-
tion of the literature, especially when closely related works such as the writ-
ings of Philo and the Wisdom of Solomon are placed in the opposing catego-
ries. Erich Gruen, in contrast, highlights the literary diversity of Hellenistic
Jewish writing but sees little variation in theme. He takes the literature as a
manifold expression of Jewish pride and superiority that is seldom antago-
nistic or adversarial.'"^ While each of these approaches sheds significant new
light on the subject, neither does justice to the nuanced interaction of the
Jewish writers with their own tradition and their Hellenistic environment.
None of the writings that has come down to us shows either unqualified re-
jection of Hellenistic culture or unqualified acceptance. All of them, in vari-
ous ways, reflect attempts to discriminate between aspects of the culture that
they embrace, beginning with the Greek language and literary forms, and
those elements that were unacceptable, primarily in matters of religion and
cult.''" Apion's famous question accurately identified the dilemma of Helle-

106. Martial 12.57.13.

107. On the social stratification of Jews in the Diaspora, see esp. Applebaum, "The So-
cial and Economic Status of the Jews in the Diaspora."
108. Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora, 82-124.
109. Gruen, The Heritage of Hellenism, 293.
110. For a nicely nuanced account, see C. R. Holladay, "Jewish Responses to Hellenistic
Culture in Early Ptolemaic Egypt." in Bilde et al., eds,. Ethnicity in Hellenistic Egypt, 139-63;
also Sterling, "Thus are Israel."
 INTRODUCTION 25

nistic Jews: "Why, if they are eitizens, do they not worship the same gods as
the Alexandrians?""' Even apart from the issue of citizenship, the same
question might be asked about Greek culture, which was difficult to separate
from pagan Greek religion. Much of the literature of Hellenistic Judaism is
inspired by the attempt to achieve this separation, by endorsing some ele-
ments of Hellenistic culture while repudiating others. It is true that all these
writings testify to Jewish pride and sense of superiority. But the aspects of
Jewish tradition of which they boast are highly selective. Nowhere in the cor-
pus of Jewish literature written in Greek do we find anything like 4QMMT,
the treatise on "some of the works of the Law" that the contemporary Dead
Sea sect regarded as crucial for the practice of true Judaism."^ Instead, we
find the tradition nuanced in various ways that bring it into continuity with
the Hellenistic world, even if Judaism still retains some distinctive empha-
ses. There is always some measure of accommodation and acculturation. The
appreciation of the literature lies in the degree and nuance.

Prospect

With these various factors in mind, our study of the Hellenistic Diaspora is
divided into two main parts:
Part One: National and Political Identity.
Part Two: Identity through Ethics and Piety.
Part One considers Jewish identity primarily in historical and political terms
and is divided into three chapters:
1. The Uses of the Past: The retelling of history as a way of redefining
identity, both by refuting hostile accounts and by modifying the tradi-
tion in the light of the Hellenistic environment. Several of the earliest
documents of Hellenistic Judaism fall into this category.
2. Religion and Politics: The Ptolemaic Age: A number of documents
from the second and first centuries B.C.E. contain a significant element
of political propaganda (Sibylline Oracles 3 is perhaps the prime exam-
ple). These documents throw light on the conception of Jewish identity
in political terms and the consequent attitudes towards Gentile authori-
ties and towards the land of Israel.

m.Ag. Ap. 2.65.

112. E. Qiniron and J. Strugnell, Qumran Cave 4. V. Miqsat Ma'ase ha-Torah (DJD 10;
Oxford: Clarendon, 1994).
26 INTRODUCTION

3. Religion and Polities: The Roman Age: Political aspects of Jewish

identity are again reflected in the struggles in Alexandria in the first
century C.E. and in the events leading up to the Diaspora revolt.
Part Two has four chapters:
4. The Common Ethic: One of the best-known characteristics of Hellenis-
tic Judaism lies in the attempt to build bridges to Hellenistic culture by
affirming Jewish values which were also appreciated by enlightened
Gentiles (e.g., rejection of idolatry and homosexuality) while playing
down the more problematic rituals and observances. While we do not
find strict consistency in the various Jewish documents, there is a
nearly universal trend in this direction, and we will find few excep-
tions.
5. Philosophical Judaism: The main representative of philosophical Juda-
ism was Philo of Alexandria. We will not attempt an analysis of Philo's
copious works here, but will be concerned with the preliminary stages
of the attempt to translate Jewish tradition into philosophical terms, in,
for example, Aristobulus and the Letter of Aristeas; and the philosophi-
cal dimension of rhetorical works, namely, the Wisdom of Solomon
and 4 Maccabees.
6. The Mysteries of God: The understanding of Judaism in terms of divine
mystery which requires a revelation or mystical experience over and
above the Mosaic Torah. The higher vision, again, can be conceived in
various ways, ranging from the philosophical orientation of the Orphic
fragments to the mythic mode of apocalypses such as 2 Enoch and
3 Baruch.
7. Jews and Gentiles: Although there is scant evidence in the Hellenistic
age for an organized Jewish mission to convert Gentiles, there is evi-
dence of looser forms of Gentile attachment to Judaism short of con-
version.

The division of the material proposed above is a practical means of or-

ganizing the various aspects of Jewish identity in the Diaspora. There is no
implication that the different aspects are mutually exclusive. A text which re-
tells Israelite history may also reflect political allegiance and may further at-
tempt to propagate an ethical message. Accordingly, some of the major docu-
ments will be discussed, from different aspects, in more than one chapter.
Our objective is not to impose any simple divisions on Diaspora Judaism, but
rather to appreciate the variety and complexity of the factors which molded
Jewish identity even in a single situation or in a single document.
 PART ONE

NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

 CHAPTER ONE

The Uses of the Past

The expression of Jewish identity in national and political terms is found in a

wide range of writings and literary genres. The form which lent itself most
readily to this purpose was undoubtedly history writing, not in the modern
critical sense but broadly construed to embrace the myths and legends of the
people. History, as the story of the people's past and origin, had always been
highly valued in Judaism. Much of the biblical material has a "history-like"
character in the sense that it tells the story of the people within a chronologi-
cal framework.' In the Hellenistic age the Jews had new reason to retell the
story of their past.
The spread of Hellenism under Alexander and his successors was accom-
panied, at least initially, by considerable Greek curiosity about the strange peo-
ples of the East. A number of writers, such as Megasthenes and Hecataeus of
Abdera, attempted to satisfy it.^ While these writers were "important and re-
sponsible persons,"^ they had only a superficial knowledge of the cultures they
described and were hampered by their ignorance of the relevant languages.
They did, however, have a tradition of ethnography dating back to the histories
of Herodotus and the geographical writings of Hecataeus of Miletus, and they
tended to cast the eastern peoples in molds prepared by the Greek imagination.

1. J. Barr, "Story and History in Biblical Theology," JR 56 (1976) 6; J. J. Collins. "The

'Historical' Character of the Old Testament in Recent Biblical Theology," CBQ4\ (1979) 185-
204,
2. A. Momigliano, Alien Wisdom: The Limits of Hellenization (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1975) 7-8, 82-87; B. Z. Wacholder, Eupolennis: A Study of Judaeo-Gieek Lit-
erature (Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College, 1974) 261-62; G. E. Sterling, Historiography and
Self-Defmition: Josephos, Luke Acts and Apologetic Historiograpliy (Leiden: Brill, 1992) 55-
102. On Greek accounts of the East, see further R, Drews, The Greek Accounts of Eastern His-
tory (Center for Hellenic Studies; Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1973).
3. Momigliano, Alien Wisdom, 86.

29
30 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

So, for example, the early Hellenistie writers tended to depict the Jews as
"priestly sages of the type the East was expected to produce."* Romance and
legend were blended with factual reporting. Hecataeus of Abdera preserves a
detailed description of the Ramasseum, the mortuary chapel of Rameses II, but
also a lengthy and highly legendary account of the conquests and deeds of
Sesostris.^ Other factors besides simple curiosity undoubtedly influenced these
writers. Hecataeus's tendency to assert the superiority and greater antiquity of
Egyptian culture may well have been motivated by a desire to establish the su-
periority of the Ptolemaic kingdom.^
The writings of the Greeks about the East prompted some of the native
peoples to explain their own culture to the Greek world.^ Their attempts were
inevitably influenced by Greek prototypes, but they were diverse in kind.
Some "wanted to replace the romantic tales of Herodotus, Ctesias, Megas-
thenes, and other Greek authorities on the orient by a dry but authentic reca-
pitulation of native records."^ Such, essentially, were Berossus of Babylon
and Manetho of Egypt.^ Yet their free inclusion of myths and legends could
not satisfy the more scientific of the Greeks, who had grown skeptical of the
historical value of myths. Bickerman has observed the implausibility of the
primeval history of Berossus, or of the Bible, for those who questioned the
historicity of Homer's epics.'" On the other hand, some gave free rein to the
romantic and legendary elements, and tales about Semiramis and Nebuchad-
nezzar, Sesostris and Nektanebo circulated widely." The writers of the vari-

4. Ibid.
5. See P M. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria (Oxford: Clarendon, 1972) 1:500.
6. Ibid., 1:504.
7. D. Mendels, " 'Creative History' in the Hellenistic Near East in the Third and Second
Centuries BCE: The Jewish Case," JSP 2 (1988) 13-20.
8. E. J. Bickerman, "The Jewish Historian Demetrios," in J, Neusner, ed., Christianity,
Judaism and Other Greco-Roman Cults: Studies for Morton Smith at Sixty (Leiden: Brill,
1975) 3:72-84 (here, p. 77); reprinted in idem. Studies in Jewish and Christian History (3 vols.;
AGJU 9; Leiden: Brill, 1976-86) 2:347-58.
9. G. P. Verbrugghe and J. M. Wickersham, Berossos and Manetho, Introduced and
Translated: Native Traditions in Ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt (Ann Arbor: University of
Michigan, 1996); Sterling, Historiography and Self-Definition, 103-36. On Berossus see also
S. M. Burstein, The Babyloniaca of Berossus (SANE 1/5; Malibu: Undena, 1978); on Manetho,
see Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 1:505-11.
10. Bickerman ("The Jewish Historian Demetrios," 79-80): "since Ephorus (ca. 340),
Greek scholarship had given up the pretension to be able to discover the historical facts under-
lying the myths. The realm of the legend began beyond ca. 1200 B.C. In the days when
Eratosthenes refused to discover history in the Homeric tale of Odysseus' wanderings,
Berossus asserted that in his land the kings reigned for more than 30,000 years before Alexan-
der the Great."
11. For this literature see M. Braun, History and Romance in Graeco-Oriental Litera-
ture (Oxford: Blackwell, 1938) and S. K. Eddy, The King Is Dead: Studies in the Near Eastern
Resistance to Hellenism (Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 1961). Also Fraser, Ptolemaic Alex-
andria 1:675-87, and the literature there cited, esp. for the Alexander Romance, which derives
 THE USES OF THE PAST 31

ous nations were also aware of each other, and their writings often had a
competitive aspect, as each laid claim to the greatest antiquity and most im-
pressive culture heroes.'^ They also engaged in polemics. The fragments of
Manetho include a derogatory account of Jewish origins'^ which is recorded
in Josephus's tract Against Apion at the end of the first century C.E. as initiat-
ing a long line of anti-Jewish polemics.
The earliest literature of the Hellenistic Diaspora developed in the con-
text of this initial mutual discovery by the Greeks and their subjects. The
Septuagint itself could be viewed in part as a contribution to this process, but
it was singularly unsuited to catch the attention of the Greeks.'* In fact, the
Greeks paid little attention to any of the writings of the native orientals,'^ but
many Jewish writers did express themselves in forms which might have been
accessible to the Greeks. Even if they failed to make any significant impact
on the Gentile audience, they surely helped satisfy the self-understanding of
the increasingly Hellenized Jewish community.
The earliest writings of the Hellenistic Diaspora have survived only in
fragments. Their survival was due to the industry of Alexander Polyhistor of
Miletus, who was brought to Rome as a prisoner of war and given his free-
dom by Sulla about 80 B.C.E. and who wrote in the following decades.'^
While he may have "lacked taste and originality,"''' his compilations of ex-
cerpts from other authors preserved samples of much literature that would
otherwise have been lost. It is noteworthy that the work of Berossus, too, was
known to posterity only through Alexander.'^ Alexander's own work has not
survived, but substantial fragments have been preserved by other authors.'^

from the third century C.E. in its present form but contains material dating back to the early Hel-
lenistic age.
12. See esp. Braun, Histoiy and Romance. Syncellus states that Manetho wrote "in imi-
tation of Berossus" (Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 1:505; 2:728n.95).
13. Whether this account should be ascribed to Manetho is vigorously disputed. See
Verbrugghe and Wickersham, Berossos and Manetlio, 116.
14. See Momighano, A/iCH Wisdom, 91-92. Despite the account of the Letter of Aristeas,
there is little doubt that the LXX was primarily designed for the internal needs of the Jewish
community.
15. See Bickerman, "The Jewish Historian Demetrios," 79.
16. J. Freudenthal, Hellenistisclie Studien, 1-2, Alexander Polyhistor und die von ihm
erhaltenen Resle juddischer und samaritanischer Geschichtswerlce (Breslau: Skutsch, 1875);
E. Schwartz, "Alexandros von Milet," PWRE 1/2 (1894) 1449; F. Jacoby, FGH, Hla, 96-126;
F. W Walbank, "Alexander (II) 'Polyhistor,'" OCD, 35; A. M. Denis, Introduction aux
Pseudepigraphes Grecs d'Ancien Testament (SVTP 1; Leiden: Brill, 1970) 244-46; Wacholder,
Eupolemus, 44-52; J. Strugnell, "General Introduction, with a Note on Alexander Polyhistor,"
in J. H. Charlesworth, ed.. The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha (2 vols.; New York: Doubleday,
1983, 1985) 2-J11-19; Sterling, Historiography and Self-Defmition, 144-52.
17. Walbank, "Alexander," 35.
18. Bickerman, "The Jewish Historian Demetrios," 79.
19. Apart from the transmission of the Jewish authors, Alexander was an important
source for Diogenes Laertius and Stephanus of Byzantium. See Wacholder, Eupolemus, 45.
32 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

His work on the Jews was cited at length by Eusebius in the ninth book of his
Praeparatio Evangelica, and this is our chief source for the fragments of the
early Hellenistic Jewish authors.^" Fragments are also preserved by Clement
of Alexandria and by Josephus.^' Both Eusebius and Alexander repeated
their sources accurately, insofar as we can judge.^^ While the preserved frag-
ments are less than we should wish, they attest a rich variety in Jewish Helle-
nistic literature.
We may distinguish three main approaches to the past in the Jewish
Hellenistic literature;

1. The faithful chroniclers, whose main representative is Demetrius.

2. The historical romances, represented by, for example, Artapanus.
3. The epic poets, Philo and Theodotus.

20. K. Mras, Eusebius' Werke, 8, Die Praeparatio Evangelica {GCS 43; 2 vols.; Berlin;
Akademie, 1954). Previous editions of the Jewish fragments are now superseded by C. R.
Holladay, Fragments from Hellenistic Jewish Authors (4 vols.; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1983-
96), Annotated English translations can also be found in Charlesworth, ed.. The Old Testament
Pseudepigrapha, 2:775-919.
21. Wacholder, Eupolemus, 52-70. It is possible that Clement also had independent
knowledge of the Hellenistic Jewish authors.
22. Ibid., 48-49; Denis, Introduction. 242-43.
23. The classic study is still Freudenthal's Hellenistische Studien. Significant modem
treatments include P. Dalbert, Die Theologie der hellenistischjudischen Missionsliteratur unter
Ausschluss von Philo und Josephus {Hamburg: Reich, 1954); Y. Gutman, The Beginnings of
Jewish-Hellenistic Literature (Jerusalem: Bialik, 1958, in Hebrew); N. Walter, Fragmente
jUdisch-hellenistischer Historiker (JSHRZ 1.2; Gtitersloh: Mohn, 1976); idem, Fragmente
jiidisch-hellenistischer Exegeten (JSHRZ 3.2; 1975); idem, "Jiidisch-hellenistische Literatur
vor Philon von Alexandrien (unter Ausschluss der Historiker)," ANRW\\.2d.\, 68-120; idem,
"Jewish-Greek Literature of the Greek Period," in W. D. Davies and L. Finkelstein, eds.. The
Cambridge History of Judaism. Volume 2: The Hellenistic Age (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 1989) 385-408; M. Hengel, "Anonymitat, Pseudepigraphie und-'Literarische
FHlschung' in der judisch-hellenistischen Literatur," Entretiens sur I 'Antiquite Classique XVIII
(Pseudepigrapha I) (1972) 231-309; Denis, Introduction, 239-83; Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexan-
dria, 1:687-716; H. W. Attridge, "Historiography," in M. E. Stone, ed., Jewish Writings of the
Second Temple Period (CRINT 2.2; Assen: Van Gorcum; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984) 157-84;
R. Doran, "Jewish Hellenistic Historians before Josephus," in ANRW II.20.1, 246-97;
M. Goodman, in E. Schurer, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ (175
B.C.-A.D. 135) (rev. and ed. G. Vermes, F. Millar, and M. Goodman; 3 vols.; Edinburgh: Clark,
1973-87) 3.1:509-66; Sterhng, Historiography atid Self-Definition, 137-225; E. Gruen, Heri-
tage and Hellenism: The Reinvention of Jewish Tradition (Berkeley: University of California
Press. 1998) 110-60.
 THE USES OF THE PAST 33

T h e Faithful Chroniclers

Demetrius

The eariiest known Hellenistie Jewish author, Demetrius, often called the
Chronographer,^^ has been aptly classified by Bickerman with those oriental
historians like Berossus and Manetho who sought to produce "a dry but au-
thentic recapitulation of native records."^^ His date is indicated by the pas-
sage in Clement {Stromateis, 1.141.8), where he reckons the time from the
fall of Samaria to the fourth Ptolemy. The numbers given are problematic,
but we may agree with Fraser that the reference to Ptolemy IV is less likely
to be corrupt than the numbers, and so accept the usual dating to the time of
Philopator (222-205 B.C.E.), approximately half a century after Manetho.^^
The rather scanty fragments have been variously characterized.
Freudenthal regards Demetrius as a forerunner of midrashic literature; Wal-
ter classifies him as an exegete; while Fraser insists that he is more historian
than exegete. There is some basis for each of these opinions. Demetrius is
concerned to resolve problems in the biblical text, but the problems on which
he focuses are primarily matters of chronology and genealogy.^'' By resolv-
ing the apparent historical problems, he sought to establish the reliability of
the tradition. His picture of Judaism, such as it is, is then allowed to emerge
from the retelling of history. The approach to Jewish identity is through the
record of the people's past.
The concerns of Demetrius may be illustrated by the passage {Praep.
Evang. 9.29.1-3) on the marriage of Moses and Zipporah, the daughter of
Jethro.^^ Demetrius postulates, on the basis of "the similarity of the names,"

24. There is no ancient warrant for this label. The fraginents were preserved by Alexan-
der Polyhistor and are found in Eusebius, Praep. Evang. 9.19.4 (where the attribution to
Demetrius is conjectural); Praep. Evang. 9.21.1-19; Praep. Evang. 9.29.1-3; Praep. Evang.
9.29.15; Praep. Evang. 9.29.16c; and Clement, Stromateis. 1.141.1-2. See Freudenthal,
Hellenistische Studien, 219-23; Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria. 1:690-94; Wacholder,
Eupolemus, 98-104; Walter, "Demetrios," in Fragmente ... Exegeten. 280-92; Holladay, Frag-
ments, 1:51-91; Attridge, "Historiography," 161-62; J. Hanson, "Demetrius the Chronog-
rapher," in 077; 2:843-54; Goodman in Schurer, The History of the Jewish People, 3.1:513-17;
Sterling, Historiography and Self-Definition. 153-67; Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 112-18.
Demetrius's work is called "On the Kings of the Jews" by Clement, although most of what sur-
vives is concerned with the Pentateuch.
25. Bickerman, 'The Jewish Historian Demetrios," 77.
26. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria 2:960-61n.94. See the strong endorsement of this dat-
ing by Goodman, in Schurer, The History of the Jewish People, 3.1:515. Gruen, Heritage and
Hellenism, 115, belabors the uncertainty on the grounds that Demetrius does not actually say
that he wrote under Philopator.
27. Doran, "Jewish Hellenistic Historians," 251. We cannot be sure how fully the pre-
served fragments represent the work of Demetrius. See Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 1:691.
28. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 1:692; Wacholder, Eupolemus, 100-101.
34 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

that Zipporah was descended from Abraham and Khettourah. He then fills
out her genealogy by following the Septuagint version of Gen. 25:1-3
(against the Hebrew) in saying that Raguel was a descendant of Abraham in
the fourth generation.He goes beyond the Septuagint in saying that Raguel
is the father of Jethro. (The two are identified both in the Hebrew and in the
Greek Bible.) Zipporah is thus in the sixth generation from Abraham.
Demetrius next sets himself to show how Moses in the seventh generation
could be contemporary with Zipporah in the sixth. He points out that "Abra-
ham married Khettourah at the age of one hundred and forty, when Isaac,
from whom Moses was descended, was already married." Hence the gap of
one generation. He goes on to assert on the basis of Gen. 25:6 that Abraham
had sent the children of his concubines to the East, and he concludes that this
is how Moses was said to marry an Ethiopian woman — that is, Zipporah and
the Ethiopian woman were one and the same.
On the one hand, this passage shows that Demetrius was sensitive to
"the requirements of scientific historical writing"^" in attempting to resolve
chronological problems. On the other hand, the passage also reflects a typi-
cally Jewish concern by showing that Moses was not polygamous and did not
marry outside his own people. The historical record can then lend its support
to a legal view of Judaism on an issue which must have been highly relevant
for Diaspora Judaism.
Demetrius's method was certainly influenced by Hellenistic standards.
Fraser and Wacholder have pointed out a general similarity to Eratosthenes
in the critical attitude towards his sources.^' The entire work reflects the
common Alexandrian procedure of aporiai kai lyseis ("problems and solu-
t i o n s " ) . N o t all his aporiai are chronological. He also addresses such ques-
tions as why Joseph delayed to bring his relatives to Egypt and how the Isra-
elites got their weapons at the time of the Exodus.
The issues that Demetrius discusses would scarcely be of interest to
anyone other than Jews.^^ Fraser contends that "the Jews of Alexandria did
not need a chronological study of the book of Genesis."^^ We have seen that
there is some concern to satisfy the requirements of Greek scientific histori-

29. We may accept the general view that Demetrius is the earliest witness to the LXX
(with Ezekiel the tragedian, who may have been roughly contemporary). For further evidence
of his use of the LXX, see Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 2:961n.98.
30. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 1:692. Also 1:509-10 on the importance of chronol-
ogy in the work of Manetho. Wacholder, Eupolemus, 103, points out that Demetrius is more re-
strained than Manetho on the mythical period.
31. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 1:692-94; Wacholder, Eupolemus, 104.
32. Hengel, "Anonymitat," 236; Walter, "Demetrios," 281.
33. So also Sterling, Historiography and Self-Definition, 162; Gruen, Heritage and Hel-
lenism, 117.
34. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 1:693.
 THE USES OF THE PAST 35

ography. Demetrius evidently assumed a readership whieh used the Greek

language and was aware of Hellenistic critical standards. But the Jews of Al-
exandria may well have constituted such an audience by the end of the third
century B.C.E., and it was precisely the educated Jews who needed a chrono-
logical study of Genesis. The credibility of the biblical record had to be es-
tablished in face of the growing critical awareness of the Hellenistic Jews
themselves. Fraser tentatively suggests that Demetrius wished to refute
Manetho's hostile account of the Exodus, but there is no trace of polemic in
Demetrius, so such a refutation would be very indirect. On the other hand,
the demonstration that Moses did not marry outside his people had very di-
rect relevance for the Hellenistic Jews. Demetrius would surely have wel-
comed, and perhaps hoped for. Gentile readers, but his work can be most
fully understood as an attempt to shape the self-understanding of the Jewish
community.
What survives of Demetrius's history is too fragmentary to permit a
full grasp of his understanding of Judaism. He was obviously attached to the
Torah and was concerned to establish its credibility. He dealt with it as his-
tory that might be compared with the histories of other peoples. The surviv-
ing fragments do not explicitly discuss the Jewish law, but the identification
of the Cushite woman as a descendant of Abraham makes it probable that he
saw Judaism as a "covenantal nomism" in which it was important to remain
within the bounds of the chosen people by keeping its laws. He lacks the ten-
dencies to syncretism and to symbolism which are common in other Jewish
Hellenistic writers, and he gives an impression of narrow concentration on
the Torah, which is quite rare. Yet in attempting to establish the credibility of
the Torah for Gentile or Hellenized Jew, he accepted Hellenistic forms of
thought as the framework for his presentation and helped lay the foundation
for the fusion of Jewish tradition and Hellenistic culture.

The Followers of Demetrius

Demetrius had few followers in his detailed exegetical approach to Jewish

history. Aristeas, sometimes called "the exegete," may have been a kindred
spirit, but his work "On the Jews" survives only in a single fragment.
This fragment is entirely devoted to Job. Its dependence on the Septua-
gint of Job is evident from several factors. Job is identified with lobab of
Gen. 36:33. The Hebrew forms of the names would not suggest the identifi-

35. Praep. Evang. 9.25.!-4. See Freudenthal, Hellenistische Studien, 136-43; Walter,
Fragmente... Exegeten, 293-96; Holladay, Fragments, 1:261-75; R. Doran, "Aristeas the Exe-
gete," in OTP 2:855-59; idem, "Jewish Hellenistic Historians," 251-54; Goodman, in Schiirer,
The History of the Jewish People, 3.1:525-26; Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 118-20.
36 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

cation. Job's homeland is given as Ausitis, as in the Septuagint. The state-

ment that Job's mother was Bassara is most easily explained from the LXX
of Gen. 36:33, lobab huios Zara ek Bosorras, where Bosorra represents the
place name Bozra of the Hebrew. The friends of Job are called basileus,
tyrannos, and basileus as in the Septuagint, and there are further verbal cor-
respondences.^^
There are also striking correspondences between Aristeas and the addi-
tion to the LXX Job in 42:17. Both assert that Job is descended from Esau
and from Bassara. Ausitis is located on the borders of Edom and Arabia, and
Job is identified with lobab. Freudenthal argued that the addition to the Sep-
tuagint was dependent on Aristeas, and this position is accepted by Walter,
but the relationship may be more complex. LXX Job 42:17 claims to be de-
rived from "a Syriac book," and there are minor differences between the
two.^'' Both may depend on an exegetical tradition.
None of this is of much help for dating Aristeas since we cannot date
the translation of LXX Job. The possible time period is approximately 250-
60 B.C.E. (the time of Polyhistor). Whether this Aristeas is at all related to the
pseudonymous Aristeas of the Letter to Philocrates is doubtful. Walter cate-
gorically rejects any relation.^^ It is conceivable that this work of Aristeas is
the referent in the Letter of Aristeas 6: "On a previous occasion also I trans-
mitted to you an exposition of matters I deemed worthy of record concerning
the race of the Jews which I received from the most erudite High Priests in
the most erudite land of Egypt." In view of the lack of anything that could be
construed as propaganda in the fragment of Aristeas's "On the Jews," it is
most unlikely that the two authors were the same. If the pseudonymous
writer of the Letter did mean to take the name of this Aristeas, he would pre-
sumably have taken him for a Greek, Gentile, author.
The affinity of Aristeas with Demetrius lies in his exegetical interest.
While he lacked the latter's complicated chronological calculations (insofar
as we can tell from the surviving fragment), he too was not content to repeat
the biblical story. He wanted to tie up loose ends and resolve the historical
and geographical problems. So he identified Job with lobab and thereby pro-
vided a specific location for Ausitis. In theology, Aristeas appears quite
Deuteronomic. Job is tested, suffers patiently, and is rewarded. Aristeas
avoids the perplexing divine speech to Job in Job 3 8 ^ 1 and takes no note of
Job's complaints. The supernatural element is minimized (in strong contrast
to the later Testament of Job). The reference to Job's resurrection, which Is

36. Walter, Fragmente . . . Exegeten, 293.

37. In Aristeas, Job is a son of Esau; in LXX Job, a great-grandson. LXX Job also says
that Eliphaz was among the sons of Esau. Aristeas may have known this tradition and changed
Job's genealogy to make them contemporary.
38. Walter, Fragmente . . . Exegeten, 294.
 THE USES OF THE PAST 37

found in LXX Job 42:17a, is absent here, but this was possibly a later addi-
tion to the Septuagint. In view of the brevity of the fragment, we cannot be
sure whether the "prologue in heaven" was omitted by Aristeas or by Poly-
histor. Aristeas does, however, go beyond the tradition in one respect. The
striking formulation that "God admired his courage" has no biblical basis
and puts the emphasis on the virtue in a way that is Hellenistic rather than
Hebraic. (We shall find analogies to this development in Part Two below
when we discuss the approaches to Jewish identity through ethics and piety.)
The fragment of Aristeas is too brief to permit any definite conclusions,
but the impression we are given is that a traditional Deuteronomic theology
is being adapted for a Hellenized audience through a retelling of history that
still endeavors to be faithful to the biblical account.
One other name may be associated with Demetrius, that of a historian
Philo, called "Philo the Elder" by Josephus. He is mentioned twice, by Clement
(Stromateis, 1.141) and Josephus (Ag. Ap. 1.218) in the sequence Demetrius,
Philo, and Eupolemus. Clement says that he (like Demetrius) wrote on the
kings of the Jews but that he did not agree with Demetrius. Josephus seems to
regard all three as pagan authors and to have no direct knowledge of them. In
short, we know nothing whatever about the nature of this author's history.
Some scholars have even wondered whether he is not identical with Philo the
epic poet. His separate existence has been defended by Walter.

History a n d R o m a n c e

Artapanus

Demetrius and (insofar as we can judge) Aristeas represent sober attempts to

present the Jewish tradition to the Hellenistic world. They depart from the
biblical text only to clarify it and resolve its problems. A very different use of
the tradition is found in Artapanus, who was arguably the most colorful of all
the Hellenistic Jewish writers.

39. Ibid., 295. So also Doran, "Jewish Hellenistic Historians," 254.

40. Three fragments of Artapanus are preserved in Praep. Evang. 9.18, 23, and 27, deal-
ing respectively with Abraham, Joseph, and Moses. The Moses fragment is partially paralleled
in Clement. Stromateis, 1.23.154. 2-3. See Freudenthal, Hellenistische Studien. 143-74; K. I.
Merentitis, Ho loudaios Logios Artapanos kai to Ergon auton (Athens: Murtidos, 1961); D. L.
Tiede, The Charismatic Figure as Miracle Worker (SBhDS 1; Missoula, Mont.: Scholars Press,
1972) 146-71; Walter, Fragmente ... Historiker, 121-43; C. R. Holladay, Theios Aner in Helle-
nistic Judaism (SBLDS 40; Missoula, Mont.: Scholars Press, 1977) 199-232; idem. Fragments,
1:189-243; Attridge. "Historiography," 166-68; J. J. Collins, "Artapanus." in OTP 2:889-903;
Goodman, in Schurer, The History of the Jewish People. 3.1:521-25; Doran, "Jewish Hellenis-
38 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

The date of Artapanus is far from certain. Since he depended on the

Septuagint^' and was used by Polyhistor, he must have written somewhere
between 250 and 60 B.C.E.^^ Three considerations may help to specify the
date further. Lucien Cerfaux has argued that certain passages in Artapanus
reflect an attempt by Ptolemy IV Philopator (222-205 B.C.E.) to assimilate
Jews to the worship of Dionysus.*^ Such an attempt is explicitly alleged in
3 Mace. 2:29-30, but 3 Maccabees is of questionable value as historical evi-
dence.*'' An enigmatic passage in Artapanus {Praep. Evang. 9.27.24-27) tells
how the king bids Moses speak the name of his God and then writes the name
on a tablet and seals it. Cerfaux relates this to the evidence of the Schubart
Papyrus that Philopator attempted to organize the cult of Dionysus by requir-
ing those who practiced initiation to deposit their sacred doctrine (hieros lo-
gos) sealed and signed with their names.'*^ According to Praep. Evang.
9,27.20 the Egyptian Chenephres required the Jews to wear linen garments.
Cerfaux takes this also as an allusion to the attempted assimilation to the cult
of Dionysus. If Artapanus is indeed referring indirectly to measures taken by
Philopator, then we must emphasize that he regards them negatively, as an
imposition on Judaism. In no case is he promoting a Jewish Dionysiac cult.
Whether in fact Philopator did take such measures against the Jews is still
uncertain, but Cerfaux's theory would provide an explanation for these pas-
sages in Artapanus, which are otherwise very puzzling. On Cerfaux's theory,
Artapanus would have written during the time of Philopator or shortly there-
after.

tic Historians," 257-63; A. J. Droge, Homer or Moses? Early Christian Interpretations of the
History of Culture (TQbingen: Molir Siebeclc, 1989) 25-35; Sterling, Historiography and Self-
Definition, 167-86; J. M. G. Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora from Alexander to
Trajan (323 BCE-II7CE) (Edinburgh: Clark, 1996) 127-32; Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 87-
89; 150-51; 155-60.
41. Freudenthal, Hellenistische Studien, 216. The verbal correspondences are closest in
the account of the plagues.
42. A. M. Denis (Introduction, 257) suggests a date in the time of Philopator (221-204
B . C . E . ) , following a suggestion of L. Cerfaux ("Influence des Mysteres sur le Judaisme
Alexandrin avant Philon," in Recueil L. Cerfaux [BETL 6; Gembloux: Duculot, 1954] 1:81-
85). Wacholder (Eupolemus, 106n.40) suggests the early second century. Hengel ("Anonym-
itat," 24) suggests the second century. Walter (Fragmente . . . Historiker, 125) and K. I.
Merentitis (Ho loudaios Logis. 9) propose a date about 100 B.C.E.
43. Cerfaux, "Influence des Mystferes," 1:81-85. Philopator's interest in the Dionysus
cult is well attested (Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 1:202).
44. Philopator is said to require that the Jews be registered and "branded on their bodies
by fire with the ivy-leaf symbol of Dionysus." Cf. 2 Mace. 6:7-8, which says that in the perse-
cution of Antiochus Epiphanes Jews in Jerusalem were compelled "to wear ivy wreaths and
walk in the Dionysiac procession." Judaism was occasionally confused with the cult of Diony-
sus because of the nature of the celebration of Tabernacles (see Plutarch, Quaestiones
Convivales 4.6 [671-72]).
45. For the text of the papyrus, see Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 2:345-46n.ll4. It is
debated whether the decree was intended to promote or arrest the growth of the Dionysus cult.
 THE USES OF THE PAST 39

A second possible clue to the date arises from the mention of the dis-
ease elephantiasis in Praep. Evang. 9.27.20. Despite a statement in Plutarch
that this disease was first identified in the time of Asclepiades of Prusa, who
flourished in the first century B.C.E.,*'^ it had already been the subject of a
treatise falsely ascribed to Democritus and believed to be the work of Bolus
of Mendes in Egypt, who was a contemporary of Callimachus in the third
century B.C.E.*^ Artapanus could have referred to it at any later time, but he
would have had more reason to single it out for mention if it were newly
identified when he wrote.
The third consideration is provided by the statement in Praep. Evang.
9.27.7 that Moses included Egyptian farmers in his army. Ptolemy IV
Philopator was the first Ptolemy to permit the Egyptian peasantry to bear
arms in his service, before the battle of Raphia in 217 B.C.E.'*^ The allusion by
Artapanus to peasant participation in Moses' army is not prompted by the
biblical account, nor by the polemics of Egyptians such as Manetho. It may
be taken to reflect the historical development in the time of Philopator.
All these specific clues point to a date at the end of the third century
B.C.E., and there is nothing against such a date. But none of these consider-
ations is conclusive. Artapanus may have written at any time in the period
250-100 B.C.E.*^ That he wrote in Egypt cannot be doubted. All the frag-
ments, including the one on Abraham, are set in Egypt. Within Egypt we
need not necessarily think of Alexandria. Artapanus has little in common
with the known Jewish literature of Alexandria and may well have lived in
another settlement.^**
While Demetrius had been content to wrestle with the internal prob-
lems of the biblical text, Artapanus is engaged in what might be called "com-

46. Plutarch, Quaestiones Convivales, 8.9.1.

47. Wacholder, Eupolemus, 106, ii. 40. On Bolus see H, Diels, Die Fragmente der
Vorsokratiker {m ed.; Berlin: Weidmann, 1956) 2:216.
48. See W. W. Tarn, Hellenistic Civilization (New York: World, 1961) 179. I owe this
suggestion to Prof. John Strugnell.
49. For further discussion of the dating, see Goodman, in Schurer, The History of the
Jewish People, 3.1:523-24.
50. Fraser argues that Artapanus "is familiar with the native life of Egypt and the purely
priestly traditions" and suggests that, as his Persian name might suggest, he was "a Jew of
mixed descent, possibly resident in another centre such as Memphis" {Ptolemaic Alexandria,
1:706; 2:985n.l99). Fraser notes the occurrence of related Persian names in Egypt and the vil-
lage of Artapatou, near Oxyrhyncus, attested from the third century C.E. Barclay, Jews in the
Mediterranean Diaspora, 127-28, suggests "the Hellenized milieu of a country town (perhaps
Heliopolis)." Hengel ("Anonymitat," 239) tentatively suggests that Artapanus's work "konnte
auf Grund ihrer politische Aiisprtiche und ihrer synkretistischen Tendenz aus der Militar-
kolonie um den jiidischen Tempel van Leontopolis staramen" (cf. also Holladay, Theios Aner,
217). There is nothing to tie Artapanus specifically to either Memphis or Leontopolis, but there
is nothing to tie him to Alexandria either. In qualification of Fraser, it should be said that
Artapanus appears to have derived his knowledge of Egyptian customs primarily from Greek
sources, such as Hecataeus, rather than from Egyptian priests (see Wacholder, Eupolemus. 80).
40 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

petitive historiography" (with the understanding that historiography here ean

include a liberal component of legend and romance).^' Abraham, Joseph, and
Moses are each presented as founders of culture. Abraham taught the Egyp-
tians to study the stars. Joseph organized the division of the land and discov-
ered measurements. Moses is described at greatest length. He Is identified
with Mousaeus, teacher of Orpheus (reversing the relationship in Greek
lore), and also with the god Hermes. He is credited with a wide variety of dis-
coveries and with establishing the Egyptian animal cults. He is also credited
with a great military success in a campaign against Ethiopia and with super-
natural powers in his encounter with the pharaoh to secure the release of the
Hebrews.
The competitive aspect of his presentation can be seen most directly by
comparison with the unflattering account of the Jews preserved in the history
of Manetho.^^ Manetho (or Pseudo-Manetho) had alleged that Moses forbade
his people to worship the gods or abstain from the flesh of the sacred animals
(Ag. Ap. 1.239). Artapanus claimed that it was Moses who established these
cults. Manetho alleged that Moses had invaded Egypt (Ag. Ap. 1.241).
Artapanus claimed that Moses restrained Raguel and the Arabs from invad-
ing. According to Manetho, the pharaoh had to protect the sacred animals
from Moses (Ag. Ap. 1.244). Artapanus claims that the pharaoh buried the
animals which Moses had made sacred, since he wished to conceal Moses'
inventions. In Manetho's account, the pharaoh sought refuge in Ethiopia
when Moses invaded (Ag. Ap. 1.246). In Artapanus, Moses conducted a cam-
paign against Ethiopia on behalf of the pharaoh. In view of these correspon-
dences, it seems highly probable that Artapanus intended, inter alia, to refute
Manetho's version of Jewish origins. How far that version represented a
wider Egyptian polemic is not clear, but at least some of Manetho's charges
were derived from an older tradition.Unlike Josephus, Artapanus does not
set out the material he wishes to refute. His polemic is carried on implicitly
in the course of his own account.
The refutation of writers such as Manetho is only the negative side of
Artapanus's work. More positively he portrays each of his subjects, espe-

51. See esp. Braun, History and Romance, followed by Tiede, The Charismatic Figure,
149-50. Holladay (Theios Aner, 215) categorizes it as "national romantic history" and classifies
it with Hecataeus's work "On the Egyptians." Sterling calls it "romantic national history" (His-
toriography and Self-Defmition, 186). R. 1. Pervo, Profit with Delight: The Literary Genre of
the Acts of the Apostles (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1987) 119-21, classifies it as a Jewish novel.
52. Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora, 129 comments: "In an age when eth-
nic groups bolstered their pride with tales of national heroes, Artapanus portrayed Moses as the
greatest hero of them all."
53. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 1:705-6; Holladay, Theios Aner, 213.
54. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 1:508-9. Hecataeus already had the story that the Jews
were descended from foreigners expelled by the Egyptians during a plague. Manetho goes fur-
ther in claiming that Moses was leader of a group of "lepers and other polluted persons."
 THE USES OF THE PAST 41

cially Moses, as a founder of culture and attributes to each inventions which

are beneficial to humanity.^^ Here again the claim was competitive. While
the romantic legends of the Egyptians extolled the greatness of Sesostris and
Nektanebo, and others recounted the glorified exploits of Semiramis,
Nebuchadnezzar, or even Alexander, Artapanus claims for Moses accom-
plishments elsewhere attributed to others, so that "not only does he surpass
each one individually, but also all of them combined."^^ The correspon-
dences with Sesostris are especially striking.Sesostris was credited with
being the first Egyptian to build warships, with dividing Egypt into thirty-six
nomes, and with organizing Egyptian religion. All of these accomplishments
are claimed for Moses by Artapanus. The motif of a campaign against Ethio-
pia was widespread. Semiramis was said to have subdued it. Cambyses
failed. Sesostris was said to have been the first man to conquer Ethiopia and
the only Egyptian to rule over it. The Moses of Artapanus conquers it with a
nonprofessional army.
Not only does Moses outshine the heroes of other peoples and espe-
cially of the Egyptians.^* He also outshines their gods. The Egyptian goddess
Isis was taught by H e r m e s . M o s e s "was deemed worthy of divine honor by
the priests and called Hermes." (Hermes was portrayed by Hecataeus as the
culture-bringer s u p r e m e . T h e subordination is explicit in Praep. Evang.
9.21.'M, where Moses strikes the earth with his rod and Artapanus adds that
"the earth is Isis."^' He was also called Mousaeus by the Greeks and "this
Mousaeus was the teacher of Orpheus."^^
Artapanus's zeal to exalt his national heroes above those of other na-

55. Sterling, Historiography and Self-Definition, 175.

56. Braun, History and Romance, 26. See also Tiede, The Charismatic Figure, 151-77.
Cf. Plutarch (Isis and Osiris 24 [360 B]): "Mighty deeds of Semiramis are celebrated among
the Assyrians; and mighty deeds of Sesostris in Egypt, and the Phrygians even to this day call
brilliant and marvellous exploits 'manic' because Manes, one of their early kings, proved him-
self a good man and exercised a vast influence among them."
57. Tiede, The Charismatic Figure, 153-59. For Sesostris see Diodorus 1.54-57;
Herodotus 2.102-109.
58. Droge, Homer or Moses? 25-26, notes that "Artapanus challenges the view of
Hecataeus by demonstrating that the apparent Egyptian contributions to the advance of civili-
zation were actually introduced by the Jewish heroes."
59. Diodorus 1.17.3; 1.27.4; Tiede, The Charismatic Figure, 155.
60. Diodorus 1.15.9-16,2; Droge, Homer or Moses? 26-27. See G. Mussies, "The
Interpretatio Judaica of Thot-Hermes," in M. H. van Voss et al., eds.. Studies in Egyptian Reli-
gion: Dedicated to Professor Jan Zandee (Leiden: Brill, 1982) 89-120.
61. The identification is also found in Diodorus 1.12.4; Plutarch, Isis and Osiris 32 and
38.
62. In Greek tradition Orpheus is usually the teacher, not the pupil, of Mousaeus. Ac-
cording to Hecataeus (Diodorus 1.96.4-9), Orpheus brought back cultural and religious lore to
Greece from his travels in Egypt. Artapanus is here claiming that Moses was the ultimate
source also of Greek culture. See Walter, Fragmente . . . Historiker, 123; Tiede, The Charis-
matic Figure, 152.
42 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

tions not only led him beyond the traditional history. It also led to a view of
Judaism sharply at variance with the Deuteronomic tradition. While other
Jewish writings use the story of Abraham to denounce astrology, Artapanus
has Abraham teach it to the Egyptians.More strikingly, he says that Moses
established the animal cults,^* which were so frequently the objects of deri-
sive polemic at the hands of other writers,^^ and even claims with apparent
approval that the Egyptian priests identified Moses with the god Hermes.
While all of these views must be considered syncretistic, Artapanus still con-
tends that the god of the Jews is "the master of the universe." The pagan
gods, including the animals worshipped by the Egyptians, are explained
euhemeri Stic ally as inventions which were useful to h u m a n k i n d . T h i s in-
volves a positive evaluation of the pagan cults, which flies in the face of all
Jewish tradition, but it also undermines their divinity.^'' The animals wor-
shipped by the Egyptians are "only" animals which Moses judged to be use-
ful. Hermes, though he is superior to Isis, is really only the man Moses, and
great though he is, Moses is still human. It is crucial to the theology of
Artapanus that the god of the Jews is never demythologized in this
euhemeristic way.^^ On the contrary, the very endorsement of the pagan di-

63. Abraham is also a teacher of astrology in Pseudo-Eupolemus (Praep. Evang.

9.17.3). Cf. Am. 1.8.2 §§167-68, a passage which may be derived from Pseudo-Hecataeus.
Contrast Abraham's rejection of astrology in Philo, De Abrahamo, 69-71, 77, and Jubilees
12:60. Also Sib. On 3:218-30 (where the reference is to the descendants of Abraham). See in
general J, H. Charlesworth, "Jewish Astrology in the Talmud, Pseudepigrapha, the Dead Sea
Scrolls, and Early Palestinian Synagogues," HTR 70 (1977) 183-200. The most striking en-
dorsement of astrology by a Jewish author is found in the Treatise ofShem, on which see J. H.
Charlesworth, "Rylands Syriac Ms. 44 and a New Addition to the Pseudepigrapha: The Trea-
tise ofShem, Discussed and Translated," BJRL 60 (1978) 376-403.
64. This is apparent from Praep. Evang. 9.27.12: "the creatures which Moses had made
sacred." Holladay (Theios Aner, 229-31) emphasizes that the ibis is not consecrated by Moses
but by his associates and that Chenephres institutes the Apis cult, while Moses only explains
that the bull is useful to humankind. Nonetheless, Moses has a causal role in both these cases.
65. E.g., Wisd. 13:10; Philo, De Decalogo 16; Sib. Or 3:218-36.
66. Euhemerism is the theory that the gods were originally kings and conquerors who
brought benefits to humankind and that their worship arose as an expression of gratitude. The
term is derived from Euhemerus of Messene, who put forward this theory about 300 B.C.E.
67. Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora, 131n.l7, objects that "Divinity in the
ancient world was a function of worship, and if . . . Artapanus presents a positive evaluation of
these cults he must approve of the divine status thereby accorded." But Barclay fails to note that
Artapanus only approves (patronizingly) of the cults as beneficial for the Egyptians. He does not
say that Moses worshipped the "gods" he set up. D. Flusser and S. Amorai-Stark, "The Goddess
Thermuthis, Moses, and Artapanus," Jewish Studies Quarterly 1(1993/94) 217-33, rightly note
the utilitarian character of the cults, but go too far when they claim that Artapanus regarded Egyp-
tian religion as foolishness. It was useful for the Egyptians, within its limitations.
68. Barclay's claim that Artapanus is "both a monotheist and a polytheist" (Jews in the
Mediterranean Diaspora, 132) can only be defended if "theist" is understood in two quite dif-
ferent senses in the two words. Artapanus approves of polytheism for the (inferior) Egyptians;
monotheism may not be the right word for his own faith, but he is at least a henotheist, who be-
lieves that "the master of the universe" is superior to other deities.
 THE USES OF THE PAST 43

vinities as useful for humanity shows their inferiority not only to the god of.
the Jews but even to Moses.
The piety of Artapanus is eonspicuously similar to that of Hellenistic
paganism. He is especially interested in the miraculous, and even in the mag-
ical. While the Egyptian magicians might seem to be disparaged for their re-
liance on tricks and charms, great emphasis is placed on Moses' rod and on
the mysterious power of the divine name.^^ In the events related to the Exo-
dus, even when they are not based on the biblical account, Moses is clearly
subordinate to his god. Yet for much of the narrative, the emphasis is on the
human achievements of the Jewish heroes, in which God plays no explicit
role. Even in the Exodus, God acts through Moses and is in effect the guaran-
tor of his own people's superiority.
A few passages suggest the traditional biblical theme of divine retribu-
tion in history. Chenephres contacts elephantiasis because of his treatment of
the Jews. A priest who disparages the divine name which Moses wrote on a
tablet is stricken with a convulsion. This kind of retribution is found in every
religion that believes in a god (or gods) who is at all capable of showing dis-
pleasure, but at least the first case posits a special bond between God and the
Jews. This bond, however, is the nearest Artapanus comes to anything that
could be called covenantal. While Moses is credited with all kinds of inven-
tions from waterworks to philosophy, he is conspicuously not presented as a
lawgiver.™ The fact that the biblical story locates the giving of the law out-
side Egypt and after the Exodus cannot account for the omission, since
Artapanus does refer to Moses' later life. The omission is all the more sur-
prising in view of the focus on Moses as lawgiver in Hecataeus of Abdera,
who was apparently one of Artapanus's sources.''^ -
Artapanus evidently thinks of Moses as national hero rather than as
lawgiver. The purpose of the work is evidently to bolster the ethnic pride of

69. See Tiede, The Charismatic Figure, 166-74. This aspect of Artapanus was empha-
sized by Otto Weinreich, Gebet und Wunder (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1929). The most spectac-
ular example is Moses' escape from prison in Praep. Evang. 9.27.23-26, but also the promi-
nence given to the plagues. It is noteworthy that the citation in Clement plays down the
miraculous element in Moses' escape from prison. According to the text in Eusebius, the doors
opened automatds. In Clement they open "in accordance with the will of God." Also, Moses
pronounces the divine name in pharaoh's ear and causes him to fall speechless. The name of the
god of the Jews was noted for its potency in Hellenistic magic (M. Hengel, Judaism and Helle-
nism [Philadelphia: Fortress, 1974] 1:260).
70. This point is rightly stressed by Droge, Homer or Moses? 29. Moses is identified
with Hermes "on account of the interpretation of the sacred letters" {Praep. Evang. 9.27.6), but
the letters in question are the Egyptian hieroglyphs (cf. Praep. Evang. 9.27.4) and associate
Moses with Thoth (see Holladay, Theios Aner, 226).
71. For Artapanus's dependence on Hecataeus, see Freudenthal, Hellenistische Studien,
160-61; H. Willrich, Judaica (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1900) 111-16. Artapanus
has numerous parallels with Diodorus Siculus, and Hecataeus is the most likely common
source.
44 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

Jews, partly by refuting their detractors, such as Manetho, and partly by fab-
ricating a more glorious history than that of other peoples. Such propaganda
is directed to both Gentile and Jew, with the complementary objectives of in-
spiring respect from without and self-respect from within. The portraits of
Abraham, Joseph, and especially Moses are determined, not by the biblical
story, but by the demands of competitive historiography, which draws on the
biblical material (among other sources) for its own purpose. Holladay con-
cludes his analysis of Artapanus by claiming "that he was not totally without
scruples, and that his faith imposed some restrictions on what he would al-
low. Indeed, his faith is the only plausible explanation of why he attempted
what he dld."^'^ This assessment is valid only if faith is understood not as fi-
delity to the Mosaic law, or even a strict avoidance of other gods, but as faith
in the superiority of the Jewish people, with its God and its heroes. The re-
strictions on what Artapanus would allow are quite simply determined by
whatever would augment the glory of the Jews. He is not an assimilationist,
but he is not devoted to holiness by separation either. He is concerned with
the identity of the Jewish people. This identity must remain rooted in the tra-
dition, but not necessarily in the articulation of that tradition found in the
book of the Torah. It is enough that people be able to define their own iden-
tity in terms they can relate (however imaginatively) to the traditional
heroes, just as Egyptians in the Hellenistic age could relate their identity to
Sesostris, or Babylonians to Semiramis. The only fidelity required is that
Jews maintain a distinct identity and affirm their superiority over against
other peoples.''^
We do not know how widely this view of Judaism was shared, but it is
unlikely to have been unique to Artapanus. Some modem scholars, even
some who celebrate the diversity of ancient Judaism, have great difficulty in
accepting it. So Erich Gruen asserts that not only would Egyptians not ac-
knowledge Moses' initiation of animal worship but "Jews would certainly
not take it seriously."^^ No doubt there were many Jews who would not take
it seriously, but it is entirely gratuitous to suppose that all Jews were of one
mind on this issue. There is indeed an element of humor in Artapanus, but it
is humor directed against the Egyptian cults, not against Moses.''^ The com-
petition for supremacy was not somber, but it was none the less real for that.
To suggest that he wrote "tongue In cheek"''^ is to refuse to accept a view of

72. Holladay, Theios Aner, 232.

73. That Jewish solidarity is a virtue may also be implied: when Raguel wants to cam-
paign against Egypt, Moses restrains him "taking thought of his compatriots." The reference
here is almost certainly to the Jews in Egypt, not to the Egyptians. A similar moral is found in
Greek Esther and 3 Maccabees.
74. Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 158.
75. Attridge, "Historiography," 167-68.
76. Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 159.
 THE USES OF THE PAST 45

Judaism that departs so exuberantly from modern preconceptions of what

Jews in antiquity would take seriously.
Artapanus's theology is an offshoot of his politics. In this respect his at-
titude to the Egyptians is significant. Holladay has underlined the strongly
pro-Egyptian cast of the fragments, in the sense that the Jewish heroes are
consistently benevolent and beneficent to Egypt. Abraham, Joseph, and Mo-
ses are all consistently portrayed as introducing things that are beneficial for
Egyptian life. Even the animal cults fall under this heading. Yet there is also
considerable destruction of Egyptians not all required by the biblical ac-
count. Chenephres is smitten with elephantiasis, Egypt is ravaged by plagues
and most of the temples are destroyed, and the Egyptians, apparently with
their sacred animals, are killed at the Red Sea. In part, the benevolence of the
Jews to the Egyptians is meant as a refutation of Manetho, but it also ex-
presses Artapanus's attitude in his situation of exile.''^ The Jews bear the
Egyptians no ill will. If friction arises, it is because of the envy of individual
Egyptians such as Chenephres, or their abuse of the Jews. In this respect we
may compare the attitudes towards the Gentiles in the stories of the eastern
Diaspora, Esther and Daniel 1-6.''^ In each case, friction arises when a Jew
(or Jews) has risen to a position of prominence. In each case, the Jews are be-
nevolent and loyal subjects and do nothing to warrant the antagonism. But
when conflict arises through the Gentiles' fault, the Jews prevail. The tales In
Daniel emphasize the role of God in the triumph of the Jews. Those in Esther
do not. In Artapanus the issue is not true religion. Moses does not even at-
tempt to convert the Gentiles to the worship of the God of the Jews, and
when the Jews are persecuted or treated badly {Praep. Evang. 9.27.2, 20) no
reason is given. While Artapanus does not acknowledge the divinity of the
Egyptian gods and rather demythologizes them, his attitude towards them is
still positive. They are useful. There is no reason to oppose their cults. In
fact, Jews encourage their cults. Problems arise only through the misguided
opposition of some leaders to the Jews.

From all of this we may wonder whether Artapanus wrote in a time of

conflict. The generally positive attitude to the Egyptians makes it unlikely
that there was any severe persecution in his time. Undoubtedly there were
occasional local conflicts from the earliest settlement of Jews in Egypt. The
writings of Manetho show that there was some anti-Jewish sentiment at the
beginning of the Hellenistic age, even if this was no more than the disparage-

77. Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora, 130, n. 14, objects to this statement
on the grounds that Artapanus was fully "at home" in his Egyptian environment. But all three
fragments deal with the exploits of Jews in Egypt, and it is reasonable to suppose that
Artapanus was especially interested in stories of Jews in Diaspora situations,
78. See L, M. Wills, The Jew in the Court of the Foreign King (Minneapolis: Fortress,
1990).
46 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

ment typically directed against otlier ethnic groups. The setting of Artapanus
is adequately explained by this general background. On the other hand, the
fact that the Egyptian rulers in Artapanus are consistently portrayed in a neg-
ative light makes it improbable that Artapanus wrote under a ruler who was
particularly favorable to the Jews, such as Philometor.
In all, then, Artapanus reflects an understanding of Judaism which is
based on pride in the national tradition, but is prepared to treat that tradition
in a rather plastic manner to bolster the identity of the Jews as a distinctive
people worthy of respect In Hellenistic Egypt.

Eupolemus

Artapanus provides the most elaborate example of "competitive historiogra-

phy" which has survived from the Egyptian Diaspora. While he is extreme in
his imaginative elaboration of the tradition, he represents a phenomenon
which was widespread in Hellenistic Judaism, as can be seen from the wide
distribution of the fragments of the genre which have survived.
One of the most striking examples of "competitive historiography" ap-
pears to come not from the Hellenized Diaspora but from the heart of Judea in
the wake of the Maccabean revolt. Eupolemus''^ is almost certainly the
Eupolemus named in 1 Mace. 8:17-18 who was entrusted with a mission to
Rome by Judas Maccabee about 160 B.C.E.^'^ The fact that he wrote his propa-
gandistic history in Greek^^ is highly significant for our understanding of Juda-
ism in this period. The Tendenz of the work bears a general similarity to
Artapanus. "Moses was the first wise man; and he handed over the letters to the
Jews first, the Phoenicians received them from the Jews, the Greeks from the

79. Praep. Evang. 9.26.1 (Clement, Stromateis, 1.153.4); 9.30.1-34.8 (Clement, Stro-
inateis, 1.130.3); 9.34.20; 9.39.2-5; Clement, Stromateis, 1.141.4-5. See Wacholder, Eupolemus;
Walter, Fragmente . . . Historilier, 93-108; Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism, 1:92-95; J. Giblet,
"Eupoleme et I'historiographie du Judaisme hellenistique," ETL 63 (1963) 539-54; Holladay,
Fragments, 1:93-156; Goodman, in Schiirer, Tfie History of the Jewish People, 3.1:517-21;
F. Fallon, "Eupolemus," in OTP, 2:861-72; R. Doran, "Jewish Hellenistic Historians," 263-70;
Attridge, "Historiography," 162-65; D. Mendels, The Land of Israel as a Political Concept in
Hasmonean Literature (Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1987) 29-46; Droge, Homer or Moses? 13-19;
Sterling, Historiography and Self-Defmition, 207-22; Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 138-46.
80. The mission is also recorded in Josephus, Ant. 12.10.6 §415 and 2 Mace. 4:11
(where the main reference is to Eupolemus's father John, who obtained royal privileges for the
Jews in the time of Antiochus III). The date of Eupolemus is indicated in Clement, Stromateis,
1.141.4, where he calculates the total number of years from Adam to the fifth year of King
Demetrius, which is usually taken as 158 B.C.E., the fifth year of Demetrius I.
81. That he also knew Hebrew is shown by the fact that he translates some terms in the
passage on the temple which were not translated in the LXX (Walter, Fragmente... Historiker,
95). That he used both the Greek and the Hebrew text has been established since Freudenthal.
Eupolemus's Greek style was pronounced "miserable" by Jacoby, PWRE, 6:1229.
 THE USES OF THE PAST 47

Phoenicians." Moses is also noted as "the first who wrote laws for the Jews."
The most lengthy fragment concerns the building of the temple. The detailed
account of the building lends plausibility to the view that Eupolemus was in-
spired by the Maccabean purification of the temple.However, the account is
embellished by the insertion of the purported letters of Solomon to the kings of
Egypt and of Tyre and Sidon and their replies. The tone of the correspondence
implies the superiority of Solomon. Indeed, the very choice of Solomon as the
focal figure suggests a measure of triumphalism. Eupolemus details the con-
quests of David and Solomon in the Seleucid territory but emphasizes their
good relations with Egypt. Hengel has rightly seen here a reflection of Macca-
bean politics.The concluding verse of this fragment contains the striking in-
formation that Solomon gave the king of Tyre "a pillar of gold which was set
up in Tyre in the Temple of Zeus." Apparently Eupolemus was not embar-
rassed by this contribution to a foreign God.^* Yet in another fragment he ex-
plains the Babylonian exile as a punishment for sacrificing to a golden idol
named Baal. Even in this passage there is no hostility to Gentiles. Nebuchad-
nezzar only decides to campaign against Jerusalem when he hears of the proph-
ecy of Jeremiah. The Jews are apparently forbidden to engage in idol worship,
but the Gentiles are not criticized for having their own religions, and Solomon
is not criticized for indirectly contributing to them.

Pseudo-Eupolemus ?

The authenticity of another fragment attributed to Eupolemus by Eusebius is

d i s p u t e d . T h i s fragment is usually identified as Samaritan, because it says

82. Walter, Fragmente . . . Historiker, 96; Dalbert, Die Theologie der iietlenistisch-
judischen Missionsliteratur, 42; Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism, 1:94.
83. Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism, 1:93.
84. Cf. the gold shield sent to Rome in 1 Mace. 14:24, but contrast the sensitivity of
2 Mace. 4:18-20. When Jason sent envoys to Tyre with 300 silver drachmas for the sacrifice of
Hercules, the envoys diverted it to the construction of triremes {war vessels). A parallel to this
incident in Eupolemus is found in the lone fragment of Theophilus {Praep. Evang. 9.34.19),
who says that Solomon gave the king of Tyre all the gold that was left over at the building of
the temple, and that the king used it on a statue of his daughter.
85. Eusebius {Praep. Evang. 9.17), which is said to be from Eupolemus, "On the Jews."
Another fragment (Praep. Evang. 9.18.2) appears to be a briefer summary of the same source,
but is said to be from an anonymous work. See Wacholder, Eupolemus. 287-93; Walter,
Fragmente . . . Historiker, 137-40; Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism, 1:88-92; H. G.
Kippenberg, Garizim und Synagoge (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1971) 80-83; Holladay, Fragments,
1:157-87; Goodman, in Schurer, The History of the Jewish People, 3.1:528-31; R. Doran,
"Pseudo-Eupolemus," in OTP, 2:873-82; idem, "Jewish Hellenistic Historians," 270-74;
Attridge, "Historiography," 165-66; Droge, Homer or Moses? 19-25; Sterling, Historiography
and Self-Definition, 187-206; Gruen, Hellenism and Heritage, 146-50. Doran is exceptional in
defending the attribution to Eupolemus.
48 NATIONAL A N D POLITICAL IDENTITY

that Abraham was received as a guest at the temple Argarizim, translated as

"the mount o^the Most High God," where, in reversal of the biblical account,
he received gifts from Melchizedek. In Genesis, Melchizedek is king of Sa-
lem. The Septuagint of Gen. 33:18 reads kai elthen lakob eis Salem polin
Sikimdn. Here Salem is "a city of Shechem." {The Hebrew sdlem, "safely," is
construed as a place name.) The fragment attributed to Eusebius goes beyond
the Septuagint in identifying the location of Abraham's meeting with
Melchizedek as the temple on Mt. Gerizim. Most scholars have inferred that
he must have been a Samaritan, since the opposition of Gerizim and Jerusa-
lem was one of the issues that defined Samaritans over against Jews.^^ The
fact that Abraham is said to have come into Phoenicia (Praep. Evang. 9.17.4)
is also thought to favor Samaritan authorship, since the Samaritans were
known to refer to themselves as Sidonians.^'' It is probable, however, that
Pseudo-Eupolemus wrote before the schism between the Samaritans and the
Jews reached its final and irreparable stage. Recent research has shown that
the sectarian redaction of the Samaritan Pentateuch should be dated to the
Hasmonean period and that the final break was most probably a result of the
destruction of Shechem and ravaging of Gerizim by John Hyrcanus.^^ While
the Samaritans were certainly distinct from the Jews throughout the
postexilic period, and relations between the two communities were often
strained, especially after the building of the temple on Mt. Gerizim in the
early Greek period and the Hellenizing of Shechem under Antiochus IV,^^
the identity of both groups was still grounded in the same biblical tradition.
The disputed fragment was dependent on the Septuagint.^*' Doran has argued
strongly that the fragment could derive from Eupolemus, who identified Je-
rusalem as the city of Solomon and therefore would have sought a different
identification for Salem.^' If this fragment is authentic, and the work of a
Jewish author, it reflects a remarkably ecumenical spirit, which was prepared
to recognize Gerizim as well as Jerusalem as a mountain of the Most High.

86. Jewish tradition identified Salem with Jerusalem (e.g., Josephus, Ant. 1.10.2 §180).
See B. Z. Wacholder, "Pseudo-Eupolemus' Two Greek Fragments on the Life of Abraham,"
HUCA 34 (1963) 107.
87. According to Josephus, the Shechemites at the time of Alexander "were Hebrews
but were called the Sidonians of Shechem" {Ant. 11.8.6 §344). Again in Am. 12.5.5 §§257-64
the Samaritans who appeal to Antiochus Epiphanes refer to themselves as "Sidonians in
Shechem" and protest that they are "Sidonians by origin." Sidonians were, of course, Phoeni-
cians.
88. J. D. Purvis, The Samaritan Pentateuch and the Origin of the Samaritan Sect (HSM
2; Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968) 86-118. On the history of the Samaritan
schism, see further Kippenberg, Garizim und Synagoge, 33-93.
89. Purvis, The Samaritan Pentateuch, 98-112.
90. Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism, 1:89; Walter, Fragmente . . . Historiker, 138-39.
The forms of the names provide the decisive evidence.
91. Doran, "Pseudo-Eupolemus," 875; idem, "Jewish Hellenistic Historians," 272-73;
Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 146-47.
 THE USES OF THE PAST 49

This possibility should certainly not be ruled out of court in the pre-
Hasmonean period, but it is perhaps easier to suppose that this fragment was
written by a Samaritan.^2 (hat case, the conventional label "Pseudo-
Eupolemus" is misleading, as there is no reason to believe that the anony-
mous author attributed his work to Eupolemus. If it is the work of a Samari-
tan, as most scholars think, there is no clear evidence as to whether he wrote
in Samaria or in E g y p t . H i s use of the Septuagint, which might be taken to
favor an Egyptian origin, must be balanced against the parallels with the
Enoch traditions and the Genesis Apocryphon from Qumran, and, in any
case, neither the Septuagint nor the supposedly Palestinian traditions can be
restricted to a single geographical location.
"Pseudo-Eupolemus" drew not only on the biblical tradition. There are
also indications of influence by Berossus.^"* The work is marked by a
euhemeristic attitude to pagan gods (the first giant was Belus, who is Kronos,
who begat Belus and Cham) and by an attempt to correlate the figures of var-
ious mythologies. Belus is Kronos; Atlas is the same as Enoch. The discov-
ery of astrology is traced ultimately to Enoch, indicating a familiarity with
the traditions reflected in 1 Enoch. The main focus of the narrative is on
Abraham, "who surpassed all men in nobility and wisdom, who also discov-
ered the Chaldean science, and who, on account of his piety, was well-pleas-
ing to God." Abraham teaches the Phoenicians "the changes of the sun and
the moon and all things of that kind" and also teaches the priests at
Heliopolis astrology and other sciences."Pseudo-Eupolemus" seems to
draw on more of the biblical framework than Artapanus did. Abraham's so-
journ in Phoenicia involves the exploits recorded in Genesis 14, while his so-

92. Jewish attitudes to Samaritans in the early second century B . C . E . are reflected in Ben
Sira's reference to "the foolish people that live in Shechem" (Sir. 50:26), but Sirach did not
necessarily speak for all Jews.
93. Hengel (Judaism and Hellenism. 1:88), Wacholder (Eupolemus. 289), and Walter
(Fragmente . . . Historiker, 139) all favor Palestinian origin. G. Vermes (Scripture and Tradi-
tion in Judaism [Leiden: Brill, 1961] 124) assumes Alexandrian provenance. On the Samari-
tans in Alexandria, see Josephus, Ant. 13.3.4 §§74-79 and in Egypt generally. Ant. 12.1.1 §§7-
10.
94. Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism. 1:89; Wacholder, Eupolemus, 288; P. Schnabel,
Berossos und die babylonisch-hellenistische Literatur (Berhn: Teubner, 1923) 67-69; Sterling,
Historiography and Self-Definition, 201-2. The influence of Berossus is apparent in the foun-
dation of Babylon by Bel (Belus). It is possible that the claim that the builders of the tower
were giants reflects the influence of Hesiod's Theogony.
95. Cf. Artapanus, above, for Abraham as a teacher of astrology. Many scholars have
held that Sib. Or. 3:218-36 is a direct criticism of Pseudo-Eupolemus; so J. Geffcken, Composi-
tion und Entstehungszeit der Oracula Sibyllina (TU 8/1; Leipzig: Hinrichs 1902) 7; A. Peretti,
IM Sibilla Babilonese netla Propaganda Ellenistica (Biblioteca di Cultura 21; Firenze: La
Nuova Italia Editrice, 1943) 131; Wacholder. Eupolemus, 290-91. The evidence for direct de-
pendence is not, however, sufficient. See V. Nikiprowetzky, Troisieme Sibylle (Etudes
Juives 9; Paris: Mouton, 1970) 127-33; J. J. Collins, The Sibylline Oracles of Egyptian Judaism
(SBLDS 13; Missoula, Mont.; Scholars Press, 1974) 164.
50 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

joum in Egypt is occasioned by a famine and involves the wife/sister episode

of Genesis 12. However, "Pseudo-Eupolemus" is no exegete. He adds freely
to the biblical story. His conception of his religion is closely similar to that of
Artapanus. It finds its identity in a glorified tradition, but one that is placed in
a cosmopolitan, syncretistic setting.
Hengel claims that an essential difference can be found between "the
universalist breadth of the Abraham narratives in the anonymous Samaritan
and the Judean nationalistic narrowness of the fragments of Eupolemus,
where even the international relationships of Solomon only serve to the
greater glory of the Jewish king and the sanctuary built by him." He further
claims that it makes a significant difference whether Abraham or Moses ap-
pears as the first wise man, for "in one case the universalist tendency pre-
dominates, and in the other the nationalist."^^ Abraham had come from
Chaldaea and lived among the Phoenicians and Egyptians. Unlike Moses, he
was not associated with the restrictive aspects of the Jewish law. He was a fa-
vorite figure in the syncretistic literature of the Diaspora, as can be seen most
clearly in the genealogical fictions of Cleodemus Malchus. Yet, both
Eupolemus and "Pseudo-Eupolemus" were concerned to assert the superior-
ity of their tradition and to build a cosmopolitan platform on which that supe-
riority could be displayed. Eupolemus may be a nationalist, but he is no iso-
lationist. His vision of Judaism includes alliances with other peoples and a
tolerance of their religion. On the other hand, the more obviously syncretistic
"Pseudo-Eupolemus" and Artapanus are universalistic only in a limited way.
They are not assimllatlonists. They retain the sense of the value of their dis-
tinct identity and bolster it with a claim of superiority. Again, as is surely ap-
parent from Artapanus, the figure of Moses could be used in a highly syncre-
tistic way. Eupolemus mentions the law only in passing, despite its major
role in the Maccabean movement, as recorded in the books of Maccabees,
and even despite its potential for propaganda In the Hellenistic world. The
identity of Judaism for Eupolemus is not rooted in the law. He takes the bibli-
cal record as a point of departure but adds to it freely.^'' His view of Judaism
can be defined by association with Moses, Solomon, and the major figures of
the tradition. One gets in, presumably, by birth, and stays in by not denying
one's heritage. The ideals of Judaism are the popular ideals of the Hellenistic
world: to be first in everything that is beneficial to humankind. The primacy
of Judaism is never abandoned, but it is seen in the context of a common hu-
man enterprise.

96. Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism, 1:95. Cf. D. Georgi, The Opponents of Paul in Sec-
ond Corinthians {Philadelphia: Fortress, 1986) 49-60.
97. As Hengel also notes, Eupolemus handles the biblical text with great freedom.
Wacholder also points out that "Eupolemus' reports frequently contradict the traditions, creat-
ing more discord than do any differences found in the Bible" (Eupolemus. 70).
 THE USES OF THE PAST 51

Thallus and Cleodemus

Two other historical writers, Thallus and Cleodemus M a l c h u s , w e r e

thought by Freudenthal to be Samaritans.Thallus wrote later than Alexan-
der Polyhistor, and his work Is lost except for eight scattered fragments
which have been collected by Jacoby.*'''^ His history apparently extended
from the fall of Troy to the time of Christ,^^' but the surviving fragments deal
mainly with the mythological Vrzeit and refer to Bel, Kronos, and Ogygus.
References to the time of Cyrus also survive. The supposition that he was a
Samaritan rests on the identification of the historian with the Thallus men-
tioned by Josephus in Ant. 18.6.4 §167, who was a Samaritan by birth and
was a freedman of Tiberius. It has also been suggested that he is identical
with the figure named in an inscription, Tiberius Claudius Thallus, and even
with the secretary of Augustus mentioned by Suetonius, in Augustus 67,2.***^
Whether the writer was in fact identical with any of these figures remains hy-
pothetical and has been disputed. ^^"^ Insofar as one may judge from such
scanty evidence, his work has some affinity with that of Pseudo-Eupolemus
and the identification with the Samaritan mentioned in Josephus is plausible.
There is no reason to regard Cleodemus as a Samaritan. He is even more
poorly attested than Thallus. He is cited briefly by Josephus, and again, from
Josephus, by Eusebius.*'** He is called a "prophet," but the fragment makes it
clear that he wrote a propagandistic history which endeavored to derive various
peoples from the children of Abraham. Abraham's sons Apher and Aphras are
said to have given their names to the continent Africa and the city Aphras, and
another son, Assurim, to Assyria. The first two join Heracles in a battle against
Libya and Antaeus, and Heracles marries the daughter of Aphras. From their
son Diodorus a barbarian people, the Sophacians, are descended.

98. The name is given as Malchos in Josephus, but Malchas in Eusebius.

99. Freudenthal, Hellenistische Studien, 100. The epic poet Theodotus, who was also
thought to be Samaritan, will be discussed below.
100. Jacoby, FGH 2B (1929) 1156-58. R. Laqueur, "Thallos," PWRE 2 Reihe A 9
(1934) cols. 1225-26; Denis, Introduction. 267-68; J. H. Charlesworth, The Pseudepigrapha
and Modem Research (SCS 7; Chico, Calif.: Scholars Press, 1976) 209-10; Holladay, Frag-
ments, 1:343-69; Goodman, in Schurer, The History of the Jewish People, 3.1:543-45.
101. Africanus (in Syncellus) says that an eclipse which he mentions in his third book
was the eclipse at the crucifixion of Christ. See Goodman, in Schiirer, The History of the Jewish
People, 3.1:543.
102. See Denis, Introduction, 267-68.
103. Wacholder ("Thallus." EncJud 15, col. 1045) regards Thallus as a Gentile;
Kippenberg (Garizim utid Synagoge, 84) regards him as a Hellenized Jew.
104. Josephus, A«/. 1.15 §§239-41; Evang. 9.20.2-4. See Walter, Fragmente . . .
Historiker, 115-20; Hengel, "Anonymitat," 241-42; Holladay, Fragments, 1:245-59; R. Doran,
"Cleodemus Malchus," in OTP 2:883-87; idem, "The Jewish Hellenistic Historians," 255-57;
Goodman, in Schurer. The History of the Jewish People, 3.1:526-28; Gruen, Heritage and Hel-
lenism, 151-53.
52 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

It is generally assumed that Cleodemus wrote in Libya about the sec-

ond century B.C.E. He is probably dependent on the Septuagint and wrote
early enough to be used by Polyhistor, but otherwise there is no specific indi-
cation of date. The fragment, despite its brevity, is of considerable interest.
Not only does Cleodemus attempt to relate the history of Libya and its popu-
lace to Abraham. He also treats Heracles as an historical human being who
can be integrated into the line of Abraham. This fits well with the
euhemeristic tendencies of the other writers we have considered.
Cleodemus refers briefly to Moses the lawgiver as his source. It is not
likely, however, that he understood his identity in terms of the Mosaic law.
While we cannot say anything with certainty on the basis of so brief a frag-
ment, it would seem that descent from Abraham is more important to him
than fidelity to the law.^**^ There is no reason to see his syncretism as pecu-
liarly Samaritan, despite Eraser's argument that "Heracles, no doubt, is
Melkart, to whom the Samaritans dedicated the temple of Zeus Xenios on
Mt. Gerizim."***^ The identification with Melkart is not suggested in the sur-
viving fragment. Kippenberg is probably right that he was a Hellenized
Jew.

Pseudo-Hecataeus

In view of the Palestinian provenance of Eupolemus, Wacholder has raised

the possibility that much of the Jewish-Greek literature preserved by Alexan-
der Polyhistor originated in Jerusalem and that it was primarily the work of
priests. He claims that the tradition of such writing in Jerusalem can be
traced back to "an eye-witness report intended for Ptolemy I, the founder of
the Macedonian dynasty in Egypt," by a native priest who wanted to explain
Judaism to the Greeks just as the Gentile priests Berossus and Manetho ex-
plained their cultures. This report was subsequently attributed to Hecataeus
of A b d e r a . S i n c e the work of Pseudo-Hecataeus was not concerned with

105. The tendency to derive various peoples from Abraham was widespread. The most
striking example was the Spartans in the forged letter of Areus to Onias (1 Mace. 12:19-23;
Ant. 12,4.10 §§226-27). See B, Cardauns, "Juden und Spartaner, zur hellenistisch-jiidischen
Literatur," Hermes 95 (1967) 317-24; Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism 2:62-63n.266.
106. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 2:963.
107. Kippenberg, Garizim und Synagoge, 84.
108. Wacholder, Eupolemus, 259-306, The passage is preserved in Ag. Ap. 1.183-205,
213-14, See M. Stern, Greek and Latin Autliors on Jews andJudaistn (3 vols.; Jerusalem: Israel
Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1974-84) 1:35-44; Walter, Fragmente . . . Historiker,
144-60; Holladay, Fragments, 1:277-335; R. Doran, "Pseudo-Hecataeus," in OTP, 2:905-19;
Goodman, in Schurer, The History of the Jewish People, 3.1:671-77; Attridge, "Historiogra-
phy," Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 2Q2-y,B.B3i-Koc\vwix, Pseudo-Hecataeus "On
the Jews": legitimizing the Jewish Diaspora (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996).
 THE USES OF THE PAST 53

the ancient past but with the contemporary structure of Judaism and its re-
gard for the laws, it will be discussed below in Part Two. Many scholars have
argued that this work was actually written by Hecataeus, or that an authentic
work of Hecataeus had undergone slight r e v i s i o n . C l a i m s of authenticity,
however, have now been definitively refuted by Bezalel Bar-Kochva. An-
other work attributed to Hecataeus was definitely the work of a Jewish au-
thor. This was the book "On Abraham and the Egyptians," which is cited by
Josephus and Clement. jt \^ not certain how far Josephus drew on this
source, but it is likely that Abraham's discovery of God through nature and
his instruction of the Egyptians in astronomy derives from Pseudo-
Hecataeus. The fragment in Clement cites verses on monotheism which are
spuriously attributed to Sophocles and says they were transmitted in
(Pseudo-) Hecataeus's book. Presumably Pseudo-Hecataeus claimed that the
Greek poet had derived his idea of monotheism from Abraham. In all of this
we recognize the familiar motifs of competitive historiography, designed to
establish the antiquity and superiority of Jewish culture over against other
traditions. Since the work was on Abraham and the Egyptians, it is reason-
able to suppose that it was written in Egypt. The date cannot be specified ex-
cept that it was prior to Josephus.''*
In the case of other writers listed by Wacholder, such as Demetrius and
Philo the epic poet, Palestinian provenance is a mere possibility, and there is
no positive evidence of priestly authorship. In the single case of Theophilus,
Palestinian provenance may be supported because of a close parallel to
Eupolemus, but the single surviving fragment is insufficient to permit any
definite conclusion. Josephus, writing at the end of the first century C.E.,
shows some acquaintance with the work of his predecessors, but he probably
knew them only through the work of Alexander Polyhistor.'*^ He mentions
Demetrius, Philo the Elder, and Eupolemus apparently on the assumption
that all were pagan authors.**^ His work shares some of the tendencies we

109. For the literature see Bar-Kochva, Pseudo-Hecataeus, 1-6; M. Pucci Ben Zeev,
"The Reliability of Josephus Flavius: The Case of Hecataeus' and Manetho's Accounts of Jews
and Judaism -— Fifteen Years of Contemporary Research," JSJ 24 {1993) 215-34.
110. Josephus, Am. 1.7.2 §159; Clement, Stromateis, 5.113.1-2.
111. Walter (Fragmente, 151) rightly points out that we cannot assume that Pseudo-
Hecataeus composed the Pseudo-Sophocles verses or the other poetic forgeries which are trans-
mitted with the fragments of Aristobulus (contrast Wacholder, Eupolemus, 264, who infers that
Pseudo-Hecataeus must be prior to Aristobulus).
112. See above, n.84. Theophilus is preserved in Praep. Evang. 9.34. See Walter,
Fragmente . . . Historiker, 109-11; Stem, Greek and Latin Authors, 1:126-27; Holladay, Frag-
ments, 1:337-42; Doran, "The Jewish Hellenistic Historians," 254-55; Goodman, in Schurer,
The History of the Jewish People, 3.1:556-57. Josephus mentions Theophilus in a list of Greek
historians in Ag. Ap. 1.216.
113. See Sterhng, Historiography and Self-Definition, 263-84.
114. Ag.Ap. 1.218.
54 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

have seen in these authors, in augmenting the glory of the Jews, but he does
not seem to be conseious of, or to have acknowledged, a tradition of Helle-
nistic Jewish historiography.

T h e Epic Poets

Philo

Not all the attempts to glorify the tradition were in the form of prose history
writing. At least one poet, Philo, was engaged in the same general enterprise
as Artapanus and Eupolemus.**^ We have nothing to indicate his date except
that he was earlier than Alexander Polyhistor.
Philo's epic appears to have consisted chiefly of a recitation of the bibli-
cal history. His presentation of it as Peri Hierosolyma already indicates his af-
finity with the literature of the Hellenistic age, which had strong geographical
interests and was often concerned with the foundation of cities. Hellenistic
epics also show a predilection for obscure and recherche language."^ In
Philo's case this tendency results in some scarcely inteUigible passages, since
he did not in fact have a great command of the Greek language. The fi-agment
on Joseph is said to be from the fourteenth book. Freudenthal may be right in
emending this to the fourth; even so, the poem must have been lengthy, since it
presumably continued down to the Israelite occupation of Jerusalem.

115. Sterling, Hisloriography, 284, notes that Josephus did not want to detract from the
prestige of his own work
116. Praep. Evang. 9.20.1; 9.24.1; 9.37.1-3. See Wacholder, Eupolemus, 282-83;
Y. Gutman, "Philo the Epic Poet," Scripla Hierosolymitana 1 (1954) 36-63; C. R. Holladay,
Fragments from Hellenistic Jewish Authors. II. Poets (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1989) 205-99;
H. W. Attridge, "Philo the Epic Poet," in OTP 2:781-84; Goodman, in Schurer, The History of
the Jewish People, 3.1:559-61; Walter, "Jiidisch-hellenistische Literatur," 109-10; idem,
"Fragmente jUdisch-hellenistischer Epik: Philon, Theodotos," JSHRZ 4.3 (1983) 139-53;
H. Lloyd-Jones and P. Parsons, Supplementum Hellenisticum (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1983) 328-
31; G. W. Nickelsburg, "The Bible Rewritten and Expanded," in Stone, ed., Jewish Writings,
89-156 (pp. 118-21 on Philo); Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 125-27.
117. Gutman ("Philo," 60-63) points especially to the analogy of the Messeniaka of
Rhianus of Crete, who wrote in the second half of the third century B . C . E . Apollonius of
Rhodes, author of the Argonautica, also composed a Ktiseis, a series of poems concerning
foundation legends. Fraser {Ptolemaic Alexandria, 1:626) comments on the geographical inter-
ests of Apollonius as a typically Alexandrian feature. On the Hellenistic epic, see further Fra-
ser, 1:624-49.
118. See Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 1:633-38 on the scholarly language of Apol-
lonius. The most obscure example of Hellenistic poetry was the Alexandra of Lycophron,
which was deliberately difficult to decipher. Philo has often been compared to Lycophron, but
Wacholder {Eupolemus, 283) is probably right that Philo wished to be understood, since the
fragment on Joseph is quite clear.
 THE USES OF THE PAST 55

The three fragments deal with Abraham, Joseph, and the water supply
of Jerusalem. The last one is evidently a simple praise of the loveliness of the
eity in summer when the streams are flowing. The theme is reminiscent of
the biblical psalms: "there is a stream which gladdens the city of God."**^ Jo-
seph is the lord of dreams who sat on the throne of Egypt. The final line is
striking: dineusas lathraia chronou plemmyridi moires ("spinning secrets of
time in a flood of fate"). The reference to moira, "fate," may be included
only for its bombastic resonance, but it shows that Philo had no great aver-
sion to heathen concepts.
The most controversial fragment is that on Abraham. The passage is
extremely obscure. Wacholder claims that "the first book depicted God's
covenant with Abraham (circumcision),"'^" but there is no reference to cir-
cumcision here. The passage might be taken to suggest that the blessing of
Abraham's descendants results from the sacrifice of Isaac, but the text is too
cryptic to allow certainty. The most elaborate interpretation of the passage
has been offered by Gutman, who argues that Philo's style finds its parallel in
the Orphic hymns "in so far as there too the author's motive is apparent to
shroud himself in a cloud of mystical o b s c u r i t i e s . " H e translates:

A thousand times have 1 heard how once (the spirit of) Abraham
abounded in primeval doctrines, the far-echoing lofty and radiant
link of chains; how (his spirit) abounded with wisdom of great
praise, the ecstasy beloved of God. For when he left the goodly
abode of the blessed born, the great-voiced Blessed One prevented
the immolation, and made immortal His word, from which day
much-sung glory fell to the lot of the son of the blessed born.*^^

On the basis of this rendering he proceeds to expound Philo's intention:

The Law of Israel is in his view one of the principal and basic ele-
ments in the cosmic process. This Law existed before the creation,
but when the word came into existence the Law and its command-
ments served as that force of harmony which created order and rule,
and fused the isolated parts of the cosmos into a process of unity, as
they could not be fused without it. Men had no conception of the

119. Ps. 46:4. Note also Ps. 48:2, which claims that Zion is "the joy of all the earth," and
cf. Philo's claim that it deiknysin hypertaui thambea ladn ("shows forth the greatest wonders of
the peoples").
120. Wacholder, Eupolemus, 283,
121. Gutman, "Philo," 37.
122. Ibid., 40. Gutman makes two emendations: epiemmyre for plemmyre and hamma ti
for hammali. Then the two dative phrases, archegonotsi thesmois and megauchetoisi logismois,
are in apposition and the two accusative phrases, hamma ti desmon and theiophile thelgetra,
are also in apposition.
56 NATIONAL A N D POLITICAL IDENTITY

chains of this harmony in the cosmos — law and its regulations —

till Abraham came and revealed them to humanity.'•^^

This interpretation depends heavily on three elements, all of them doubtful:

First, it is said that Abraham "abounded in primeval doctrines"
(archegonoisi thesmois). Gutman argues that this expression must refer to
"codes or doctrines which preceded all things and anticipated all creation,
even the creation of the world," and infers the Jewish idea of preexistent wis-
dom and the preexistent law.'^* However, it is not apparent that archegonoisi
necessarily implies existence before creation. In accordance with Philo's
generally bombastic style, it may simply connote extreme antiquity. Again,
thesmois is not automatically to be identified as the law of Israel. The parallel
with logismois suggests traditional wisdom. True, the Jewish law is identi-
fied with wisdom in other texts, but there is no clear reference to the Jewish
law here, certainly not to the "book of the law of Moses."*^^ The point is sim-
ply that Abraham is informed by the most ancient wisdom.'^^
Second, hamma ti desmon is understood as "link of chains" in the light
of Plato's use of desmos in the Timaeus, where the heavenly bodies are
linked by desmois empsychois.^^^ Philo of Alexandria evidently drew on the
Platonic tradition when he said that God was the desmos of the universe.
However, the cosmic sense of desmos depends on its context. In itself the
word simply means "bond." Since the immediate context here concerns the
binding of Isaac, the desmoi in question may simply refer to that.'-^^ There is
no explicit cosmic reference here.
Third, Gutman translates theiophile thelgetra as "ecstasy beloved of
God." However, thelgetra means "charm" or "spell," not an experience such
as ecstasy, but something one does to stimulate the experience. If the desmon
refers to the binding of Isaac, Philo is saying that the binding was an act

123. Ibid., 53.

124. Ibid., 40-41. Aristobulus, who may have been roughly contemporary with Philo,
identifies Torah with Wisdom and says that it existed before heaven and earth {Praep. Evang.
13.12.11). The preexistence of wisdom is found in Prov. 8:22 and the identification with the To-
rah in Sin 24:23.
125. The phrase of Sir 24:23.
126. Holladay, following Mras, translates the first verse as 'They unloosed (eiclyon,
taken as exelyon) the loins of our ancestors just as once (they were commanded) by the (divine)
ordinances." This translation requires an emendation, reading fo merion ("thigh," loosely ren-
dered as "loins") for to myrion (ten thousand times). Only by a long stretch of imagination can
this translation yield a reference to Abraham's circumcision. The straightforward translation is
provided by Attridge, "Philo the Epic Poet": "A thousand times have I heard in the ancient
laws . . ." (taking eklyon as second aorist of klyo).
127. Gutman, "Philo," 44-45. Plato, Timaeus 38e.
128. Philo, Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres, 23.
129. So also Attridge, "Philo the Epic Poet." Holladay, Fragments, 2:251, gratuitously
takes the bonds to signify the enduring bond of the covenant.
 THE USES OF THE PAST 57

pleasing to God.*^'* The allusion to the binding as a charm or spell is a strik-

ing conception, but it does not support Gutman's interpretation.
We may then propose an alternative translation for the first sentence:

Ten thousand times have I heard in the ancient laws how once Abra-
ham abounded in glorious reasonings, in respect of the famous, sur-
passing, splendid cord of bonds, spells pleasing to God.

Admittedly the passage abounds in problems, but Gutman's interpretation

strains probability. The Abraham fragment, like the others, should be read as
a bombastic glorification of Jerusalem and Its history.
Philo lacks the direct comparison with the heroes and traditions of other
peoples which we find in Artapanus. The only indications of syncretism might
be dismissed as loose use of terms such as thelgetra or moira. This language is
not insignificant, however, as it reflects the author's desire to express his tradi-
tion in an idiom familiar to the Hellenistic world. The adaptation of terms
which were laden with significance in Hellenistic religion is essentially syncre-
tistic, as it results in a mixture of the ideas of both traditions. The Torah is here
construed as primeval thesmoi, not as unique revelation. The possibility that
truth and wisdom can be gained through other traditions too is fundamental to
the entire apologetic of Hellenistic Judaism. Whether we regard that apologetic
as an outward-directed attempt to persuade the Gentiles or an inward-directed
attempt to boost self-respect, the underlying assumption is that there are uni-
versal norms by which the different traditions can be compared. The desire to
find a common cross-cultural basis underlies the experimentation with Greek
literary forms such as the epic. This kind of cosmopolitan Judaism may have
been fostered in Judea as well as Alexandria, but the similarities between
Philo's work and other Hellenistic epics favors Alexandrian authorship.*^*

Theodotus

The only other biblically inspired epic which has survived is that of Theo-
dotus. *^2 Since it is usually linked with that of Philo, we may discuss it here

130. Compare the cords which Job gives to his daughters in the Testament of Job 46-47.
Holladay again finds a reference to circumcision here, but the reference is clearly to the binding
of Isaac.
131. Wacholder {Eupolemus. 282), following Karpeles, claims that Philo was a native of
Jerusalem. The only element in the fragments which would tie him to the city is the reference to
swimming in Praep. Evang. 9.37.1, but the passage is too obscure to bear any weight.
\32. Praep. Evang. 9.22.1-11. Wacholder {Eupolemus, 283-85) sees Theodotus as a Sa-
maritan counterpart of Philo the epic poet. See also A. Ludwich, De Theodoti carmine graeco-
judaico (Konigsberg University, 1899); Gutman, Beginnings. 1:245-61. See now Holladay,
Fragments, 2:51-204; F. Fallon, "Theodotus," in OTP, 2:785-93; Lloyd-Jones and Parsons,
58 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

for convenience, but in fact it is animated by a very different spirit. The title
of the work is given in Eusebius as Peri loudaidn, but most scholars have as-
sumed that it was in fact a poem on Shechem, which would only have been
written by a Samaritan, and that the title merely reflects Polyhistor's inability
to distinguish between Hebrews (which would include Samaritans) and
Jews.'^^ The scholarly consensus, however, is not well founded.*^'* The fact
that the single surviving fragment concerns Shechem does not prove that the
whole poem was on that subject. Apart from the opening verses, which praise
the beauty of Shechem and refer to it as a sacred town, hieron asty, the con-
tent weighs heavily against the theory of Samaritan authorship. We are told
that God prompted Simeon and Levi to destroy Shechem because the people
in Shechem were impious, dia to tous en Sikimois asebeis einai:^^^ "God
smote the inhabitants of Shechem, for they did not honor whoever came to
them, whether evil or noble. Nor did they determine rights or laws through-
out the city. Rather, deadly works were their care."'^^ Even though the Sa-
maritans claimed descent from the sons of Jacob rather than from Emmor, it
is surely unlikely that a Samaritan author would choose to depict "the inhab-
itants of Shechem" in such a negative light. By contrast, the passage would
make excellent sense as a Jewish work from the time of John Hyrcanus.
The poem has a strongly legalistic bent, insisting on the prohibition of inter-
marriage with Gentiles and the necessity of circumcision. Circumcision is es-
pecially emphasized "for God himself said it." A paraphrasing statement in

Supplementum Hellenisticum, 360-65; Nickelsburg, "The Bible Rewritten and Expanded,"

121-25; Goodman, in Schurer, The Histoiy of the Jewish People, 3.1:561-62; WaUer in JSHRZ
4.3:154-71; Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 120-25.
133. So Freudenthal, Hellenistische Studien, 99-100. Also Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexan-
dria, 2:986; Hengel, "Anonymitat," 242-43; Wacholder, Eupolemus, 285; Denis, Introduction,
272.
134. Kippenberg, Garizim und Synagoge, 84; Charlesworth, The Pseudepigrapha, 210;
Fallon, "Theodotus," 787; Goodman, in Schurer, The Histoiy of the Jewish People, 3.1:562.
For full discussion, see J. J. Collins, "The Epic of Theodotus and the Hellenism of the
Hasmoneans," HTR 73 (1980) 91-104.
135. This phrase is the paraphrase of Polyhistor, not a direct quotation from Theodotus.
136. Trans. Fallon. The first line reads Blapte theos Sikimdn oiketoras. Holladay, Frag-
ments. 2:123, renders "God disabled the inhabitants of Shechem," on the grounds that this is
the more proper Homeric sense, but if this passage comes towards the end of the work, as the
order of the quotations in Eusebius implies, it is more likely to refer to the destruction of the
Shechemites. R. Pummer, "Genesis 34 in Jewish Writings of the Hellenistic and Roman Pe-
riods," HTR 75 (1982) 177-88, correctly argues that blapie should be read here as an epic im-
perfect rather than as an imperative (p. 183).
137. Pummer, "Genesis 34," argues that the account is not necessarily anti-Samaritan,
but is a retelling of the biblical account, intended to portray the patriarchs in a positive light. So
also Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 124; A. Standhartinger, " 'Um zu Sehcn die Tbchter des
Landes': Die Perspektive Dinas in der jiidisch-Hellenistischen Diskussion um Gen 34," in
L, Bormann, K. Del Tredici, and A. Standhartinger, eds.. Religious Propaganda and Mission-
ary Competition in Che New Testament World (Leiden; Brill, 1994) 89-116 (seep. 92). Nonethe-
less, the account fits very well in a Hasmonean selling.
 THE USES OF THE PAST 59

Praep. Evang. 9.22.5 says that Jacob required the inhabitants of Shechem to
be circumcised and convert to Judaism, peritemnomenous ioudaisai. While
the terminology here is Polyhistor's rather than Theodotus's, circumcision
was widely associated with conversion to Judaism in the Hasmonean period.
By contrast, the Samaritans allegedly had gone along with the policies of
Antiochus Epiphanes, even renaming their temple and referring to them-
selves as "Sidonians."*^^ This episode undoubtedly contributed to the ten-
sions between Jews and Samaritans which came to a climax in the reign of
John Hyrcanus.
After the death of Antiochus VII Sidetes in 129 B.C.E., John Hyrcanus
began a campaign against the neighbors of the Jews. He compelled the
Idumeans to be circumcised and accept the laws of the Jews. He ravaged
Shechem, destroyed the temple of Mt. Gerizim, and later, about 107 B.C.E.,
besieged and destroyed Samaria. The poem of Theodotus could easily be
read as a paradigmatic justification for the actions and policies of Hyrcanus.
The laudatory description of the appearance of Shechem may be only the
conventional style of the epic. The accuracy of the description is not surpris-
ing in a Jewish a u t h o r . x h e statement that Shechem is a hieron asty is not
surprising, since Shechem was a traditional holy site in biblical history. In
contrast to "Pseudo-Eupolemus," Theodotus conspicuously does not refer to
a holy mountain at Gerizim. The problem with Shechem was not with the site
but with the inhabitants.
Despite his use of the epic form, and a Greek style far superior to that
of Philo the epic poet, Theodotus lacks the universalism which characterizes
most Hellenistic Jewish writers. His vision of Judaism is covenantal nomism
of the narrowest variety. The children of Abraham are defined by circumci-
sion and marriage within their own race. There is no attempt at correlation

138. Josephus, A H / . 12.5.5 §§257-64. Cf. 2Macc. 6:1-6. Josephus preserves a letter from
the "Sidonians of Shechem" to Antiochus Epiphanes. The authenticity of the letter has been de-
fended by Bickerman {"Un document relatif a la persecution d'Antiochus IV," in Studies in
Jewish and Christian Histoiy. 2:105-35, first published in RHR 115 [1937] 118-223). See also
Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism, 1:293-94. For different opinions, see M. Delcor ("Vom
Sichem der hellenistischen Epoche zum Sychar des Neuen Testaments," ZDPV 18 [1962] 34-
48), who argues that the letter came from a colony of actual Sidonians; and R, J. Coggins (Sa-
maritans and Jews [Oxford: Blackwell, 1975] 99), who dismisses the title as a slighting refer-
ence by a Jewish author. On the name of the Samaritan temple, see Kippenberg, Garizim und
Synagoge. 74-80.
139. Ant. 13.254-58; 275-81; J.W. i.62-65; Purvis, Tlie Samaritan Pentateuch. 113;
Kippenberg, Garizim und Synagoge, 85-92.
140. On the accuracy of Theodotus's description of Shechem as shown by modern exca-
vations, see R. J. Bull, "A Note on Theodotus' Description of Shechem," HTR 60 (1967) 221-
28. Bull argues that Theodotus must have written before the mid-,second century B . C . E . because
he refers to the wall of Shechem as a lofty defense enclosure (aipytlien lierlcos). Archeological
evidence shows that the wall had fallen into neglect in the second half of the first century. It is
sufficient, however, that Theodotus remembered the wall as a substantial defense.
60 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

with universal history. The one apparent piece of syncretism, in Praep.

Evang. 9.22.1, which states that Sikimos was son of Hermes, is controver-
sial. It is often regarded as a blunder by Polyhistor, since the father's name is
otherwise given consistently as Emmor. It is possible, however, that
Theodotus distinguished between Sikimos the founder, in the ancient past,
and the son of Hamor, who is a central figure in the same fragment.'*' The
work is a striking instance of the fusion of a Greek form with an exclusive
view of the Hebraic tradition. The epic form here could scarcely be intended
to appeal to Gentiles. It presupposes a degree of Hellenization in its audi-
ence, despite the insistence on Jewish distinctiveness. Of course, the epic
form lent itself admirably to nationalistic propaganda, but it is striking that
Jewish nationalism is comfortably clad in such an obviously Hellenistic
dress. If this poem was written in support of John Hyrcanus, it offers a re-
markable illustration of the Hasmonean blend of nationalism and Helleniza-
tion. It supports the contention of Tcherikover that the Judaizing policies of
the Hasmoneans were not religious in intent but political and that their strug-
gle with the Greek towns "was not for or against culture, but the rivalry be-
tween two political powers."'*^

Jewish Historiography in the First Century C.E.

Our review of the propagandistic use of ancient history in Hellenistic Juda-

ism would be incomplete without some reference to the two Palestinian his-
torians from the late first century C.E., Justus of Tiberias and Josephus. The
work of Justus is lost except for three fragments. Its nature is described by
Photius, the ninth-century patriarch of Constantinople:

I have read the Chronicle of Justus of Tiberias, which is entitled The

Jewish Kings Arranged in Genealogical Tables. He was a native of
Tiberias in the Galilee. Beginning his history with Moses, he con-
cluded it with the death of Agrippa, the seventh of the Herodian dy-
nasty, the last king of the Jews.^'^'

One of the surviving fragments tells an unhistorical anecdote about Plato at the
trial of Socrates. The other two synchronize the date of the Exodus with those
of Attic and Egyptian kings. It would seem that much of Justus's work was de-
voted to chronography. He is thought to have influenced Africanus and through
him Christian chronography, but he is known chiefly through the polemical

141. See Holladay, Fragments, 2:131-35.

142. Tcherikover, Hellenistic Civilization, 248.
143. Photius, Bibliotheca, 31; FGH, III C, 695-99. See Wacholder, Eupolemus, 298-306.
 THE USES OF THE PAST 61

references of Josephus in his Vita. The remains of Justus's work are too
scanty to give any clear impression of its character, but he evidently stood in
the tradition of the Hellenistic Jewish historians in his endeavor to correlate
Jewish and universal history, whether he actually knew that tradition or not.
Josephus, by contrast, stands with Philo as one of the two Hellenistic
Jewish writers whose work has survived in substantial quantity. Unlike the
earlier Jewish historians, Josephus wrote with an explicitly apologetic pur-
pose.'''^ His Antiquities were designed, in his own words, to demonstrate
"the extreme antiquity of our Jewish race, the purity of the original stock,
and the manner in which it established itself in the country which we occupy
today" {Ag. Ap. 1.1). While he usually stays close to the biblical text, he in-
cludes some of the characteristic motifs of Hellenistic Jewish propaganda.
The account of Abraham borrows from Pseudo-Hecataeus the motifs of in-
structing the Egyptians and of philosophical speculation {Ant. 1.7.1-8.2
§§154-68). The account of Moses includes a legendary campaign against
Ethiopia, a variant of the tradition found in Artapanus {Ant 2.10.1-2 §§238-
53).**^ More significantly, the whole genre of the Antiquities conforms to the
model of patriotic and apologetic history provided by Dionysius of
Halicarnassus, as has been demonstrated by H. W. Attridge.''^^ So, while the
instances of direct dependence on the Jewish historiographical tradition are
limited, the whole work is informed by a basic principle of that tradition —
the assimilation to Hellenistic models, and the competitive desire to establish
the antiquity and significance of Jewish culture.'*^
Josephus only rarely mentions his predecessors, and then he seems to
think that many of them were Gentiles.''*^ He throws invaluable light on their

144. Esp. Vita 336-67 (§65).

145. See H. R. Moehring, "The Acta Pro Judaeis in the Antiquities of Flavius Josephus,"
in Neusner, ed., Clirisliaiiily, Judaism and Other Greco-Roman Culls. 124-58.
146. Whether Josephus depended directly on Artapanus, or drew on a variant tradition,
is disputed. He omits some key points in Artapanus's account, such as the founding of
Hermopolis and the introduction of circumcision, and has an entirely different explanation of
the origin of the campaign. See T. Rajak, "Moses in Ethiopia: Legend and Literature," JJS 29
(1978) 111-22; A. Shinan, "Moses and the Ethiopian Woman," Scripia Hierosolymitana 27
(1978) 66-78; Sterling, Historiography and Self-Defmition. 268-80,
147. H. W. Attridge, The Interpretation of Biblical Histoiy in the Antiquitates Judaicae
of Flavius Josephus (HDR 7; Missoula, Mont.: Scholars Press, 1976) 29-70; idem, "Josephus
and His Works," in Stone, ed., Jewish Writings, 185-232; Sterling, Historiography and Self-
Defmition. 284-97.
148. See further L. H. Feldman, "Abraham the Greek Philosopher in Josephus," TAPA
99 (1968) 143-56; idem, "Hellenizations in Josephus' Portrayal of Man's Decline," in Reli-
gions in Antiquity: Festschrift E. R. Goodenough (ed. J. Neusner; Leiden: Brill, 1968) 333-53;
idem, "Hellenizations in Josephus' Version of Esther (Ant. Jud, 11.185-295)." TAPA 101 (1970)
143-70; Attridge {The Interpretation, 17-27) reviews scholarship on Hellenization in Josephus.
See also Droge, Homer or Moses? 35-48,
149. Attridge, The Interpretation, 33-35. See Ag. Ap. 1.216-18 (§23), which refers fo
Theophilus, Theodotus, Demetrius (of Phalerum!), Philo the Elder, and Eupolemus.
62 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

work, however, by his review of the Graeco-Egyptian polemical literature to

which they often implicitly responded. The tract Against Apion, by its ex-
plicit apologetic, throws much light on the issues in the conflicting propa-
ganda between Jews and Gentiles,*^" but we should remember that the inten-
sity of the anti-Jewish propaganda only developed in the period after
Alexander Polyhistor. Despite the hostility of Josephus toward the Graeco-
Egyptian writings, he still appears eager to impress the Greeks and Romans
by the antiquity and the philosophy of the Jews.
The apologetic of Josephus was far more complex than that of the ear-
lier Jewish historians. It included a significant philosophical component,'^'
and attached great importance to the Jewish law, which he compares with the
Laws of Plato in Ag. Ap. 2.255-58 (36). (Josephus claims that Plato followed
the example of Moses.) He was even capable of allegorical exegesis on occa-
s i o n . I n all of this he had other precedents In Hellenistic Jewish literature,
as we shall see. What is noteworthy is the fusion of competitive historiogra-
phy with a philosophical approach to the law. Yet the "moral lesson" with
which he begins his Antiquities is the doctrine of retribution in history, which
is squarely in the tradition of the Deuteronomic historians of the Hebrew Bi-
ble: "men who conform to the will of God, and do not venture to transgress
laws that have been excellently laid down, prosper in all things beyond be-
lief, and for their reward are offered by God felicity; whereas in proportion
as they depart from the strict observance of these laws . . . whatever good
thing they strive to do ends in irretrievable disasters" (Ant. Proem. 3 §14).
Detailed analysis of Josephus does not fall within the scope of this
study. It is noteworthy, however, that the last and greatest Hellenistic Jewish
historian was a Judean. The distinction between Judea and the Diaspora has
perhaps its least value in the tradition of nationalistic historiography.

Conclusion

In this chapter we have been concerned with the propagandistic rewriting of

history which is characteristic of the earliest Hellenistic Jewish literature. In
a few cases, such as those of Demetrius and Aristeas, the use of history re-

150. See now L. H. Feldman and J. Levison, ed., Joseplius'Contra Apionem: Studies in
Its Character and Context with a Latin Concordance to the Portion Missing in Greek (Leiden:
Brill, 1996).
151. See Attridge's discussion of the idea of Providence and the moralizing character of
the Antiquities (The Interpretation, 71-144). Note also Josephus's own claim in Ant. 1.1.4 §18
that much of his work is devoted to natural philosophy.
152. Cf. Ant. Proem 4 §24, where Josephus acknowledges that some things are written
in solemn allegory, but defers philosophical analysis for the present.
 THE USES OF THE PAST 63

fleets a Deuteronomic theology, by showing how Moses' wife was not really
an alien or how Job was rewarded for his p a t i e n c e . T h i s theology is also
reflected in the exegetical concern to resolve apparent problems in the bibli-
cal text. In the greater number of these writers, however, the dominant focus
is not on the law but on the glory of the Jewish people. Jewish identity is
viewed in terms of ethnic and national solidarity. To be Jewish is to belong to
the same people as Abraham and Moses and the other heroes of the past. The
exploits of these heroes show the preeminence of the Jews by outshining the
heroes of the other peoples. At the same time, the criteria for excellence are
those commonly accepted in the Hellenistic world. The distinctively Jewish
virtues of the Torah are thrust into the background. In this way, the disso-
nance between Jewish tradition and Hellenistic environment is decreased.
Jews and Gentiles have common values, and so far from being witless bar-
barians, the Jewish people have produced the greatest cultural heroes of all.
We can see from the epic of Theodotus that insistence on detailed ob-
servance of the law was compatible with the glorification of Jewish tradition
in Hellenistic categories. In fact, however, the law is seldom emphasized in
this literature. Josephus is exceptional among the historical writers for his
explicit interest in the law. This fact is remarkable in view of the attention
paid to the lawgiver by Gentile authors beginning with Hecataeus of
Abdera.'^* We will find in Part Two of this study that extensive use was made
of the law for apologetic purposes. For the present, we must emphasize that a
significant segment of Hellenistic Judaism did not think primarily in terms of
the law or ethical practices, but found its identity in the often fantastic stories
of ancestral heroes who outshone the best of the Greeks, Babylonians, and
Egyptians.

153. We may note in passing that the presentation of the history of the second century
B.C.E. in 2 Maccabees also has a strongly Deuteronomic flavor, despite its Hellenistic form. We
shall return to 2 Maccabees in Chapter 2 below.
154. See J. 0 . Gager, Moses in Greco-Roman Paganism (SBLMS 16; Nashville:
Abingdon, 1972) 25-112.
 CHAPTER 2

Religion and Politics;

The Ptolemaic Era

The History of the J e w s

in Ptolemaic E g y p t

The history of Jews (or their Israelite forebears) in Egypt can be traced back
to the beginnings of Israel as a people. Reports in the book of Genesis that
the patriarchs went down to Egypt in time of famine could reflect historical
reality at any time in the second or early first millennium. The sale of Joseph
as a slave could appear plausible at any point in antiquity. We also read of
Egypt as a place of refuge for political dissidents (Jeroboam in 1 Kings 11)
and for endangered prophets (Uriah in Jer. 26:20-23). After the fall of Jerusa-
lem in 586 B.C.E., one Johanan son of Kareah took the remnants of the royal
house and also Jeremiah and Baruch and fled to Egypt. Thereafter we hear of
"Judeans living in the land of Egypt, at Migdol, at Tahpanhes, at Memphis,
and in the land of Pathros" (Jer. 44:1). We also know of a colony of Jewish
mercenaries at Elephantine, who had gone to Egypt before the Persian era
and survived until the end of the fifth century.^ The coming of Alexander the
Great, however, ushered in a new era and heralded a period of unprecedented
growth for the Jews in Egypt.
We have three distinct accounts of the beginnings of the Jewish com-
munity in Egypt during the Hellenistic age.
First, Josephus claims that a district by the sea in Alexandria was pre-

1. J. M. Modrzejewski, The Jews of Egypt: From Rameses II to Emperor Hadrian

(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995) 21-44.

64
 RELIGION AND POLITICS: THE PTOLEMAIC ERA 65

sented to the Jews as their residence by Alexander.'^ This claim, however, is

unsupported.^
Second, Josephus also quotes from a book which he attributed to
Hecataeus of Abdera. According to this source, when Ptolemy I became mas-
ter of Syria after the battle of Gaza (312 B.C.E.)

many of the men, hearing of his kindness and humanity, wished to

accompany him to Egypt and take part in the affairs [of the king-
dom]. "One of them (he [Hecataeus] says) was Hezekiah, high priest
of the Jews, a man at the age of around sixty-six, highly thought of
by his compatriots, and not unintelligent in his mind, and moreover,
an able speaker and . . . experienced, if indeed anyone was, in the af-
fairs." . . . "This man," he says, "having obtained this authority and
being well acquainted with us, assembled some of his men and read
to them [a statement describing] the whole advantage [of emigration
to Egypt]. For he possessed in writing tthe conditions of] their set-
tUng and constitution." (Ag. Ap. 1.186-89)'*

The authenticity of this passage has been decisively discredited by Bezalel

Bar-Kochva.^ Ptolemy I is known to have treated the people of the conquered
area harshly. Even Josephus elsewhere says that "Syria at the hands of Ptol-
emy son of Lagus, then called Soter (Savior), suffered the opposite of [what
is indicated by] his surname."^ Josephus cites Agatharcides of Cnidus as say-
ing that Ptolemy entered Jerusalem unopposed on the Sabbath, and conclud-
ing that they were "delivered into the hands of a harsh master," and that the
folly of their Sabbath observance was exposed.'' The voluntary migration of a
high priest would be surprising, but in any case no high priest named Heze-
kiah is otherwise known. There are coins from the end of the Persian period
with the legend "Hezekiah the governor," and others that are slightly later

2. Ag. Ap. 2.35. In J.W. 2.487 he says that Alexander gave them permission to reside in
the city "on terms of equality v/ith the Greeks," but that their special quarter was given to them
by the Diadochi. Cf. Ant. 12.1.1 §8, where he says that they were given equal privileges
(isopoliteia) by Ptolemy I Soter.
3. Nonetheless A. Kasher, The Jews in Hellenistic and Roman Egypt (Tubingen: Mohr
Siebeck, 1985) 2, finds it "quite credible,"
4. Translation (with adaptations) from B. Bar-Kochva, Pseudo-Hecataeus 'On the
Jews': Legitimizing the Jewish Diaspora (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996) 47,
49.
5. Bar-Kochva, Pseudo-Hecataeus, 71-91. For the debate on this issue, see M. Pucci
Ben Zeev, "The Reliability of Josephus Flavius: The Case of Hecataeus' and Manetho's Ac-
counts of Jews and Judaism: Fifteen Years of Contemporary Research (1974-1990)," JSJ 24
(1993) 215-34.
6. Josephus, Ant. 12,1.1 §3. Cf. Diodorus 19.17.4-6. See Bar-Kochva, Pseudo-
Hecataeus, 72-73.
7. Ag. Ap. 1.205-11. Cf. Ant. 12.1.1 §§4-7. The capture of Jerusalem probably dates to
302/1 B . C . E . , See Bar-Kochva, Pseudo-Hecataeus, 77.
66 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

with the name "Hezekiah."^ It is quite possible that this Hezekiah migrated to
Egypt, whether voluntarily or not, and was a leader of the Jewish community,
but the reliability of Pseudo-Hecataeus's account is rendered dubious.^
The third account of the origin of the Jewish community in Ptolemaic
Egypt is found in the Letter of Aristeas. Here we are told that Ptolemy I had
deported 100.000 people from Judea to Egypt. He armed 30,000 of these and
placed them in forts around the land, and sold the others into slavery {Letter
of Aristeas 12-14). The numbers in this account are surely inflated, but it is
quite plausible that a significant number of Jews were brought to Egypt by
compulsion.^" It is also likely, however, that many more came voluntarily,
both under Ptolemy I and under his successors. Since Judea was under Ptole-
maic rule throughout the third century B.C.E., there was no impediment to
such immigration.
Our knowledge of the Jews in Egypt in the third century B.C.E. is derived
from papyri and inscriptions.^^ While this evidence is often elliptic, it provides
some fascinating glimpses of the developing Diaspora. Many Jews found a
path to advancement in the army and became "cleruchs," soldiers to whom the
king granted plots of land as a reward for their service. We find these cleruchs
in various parts of Egypt, especially in the Faiyum, around Krokodilopolis.
There were Jewish policemen. A chief of police named Ptolemy dedicated a
synagogue with "the Jews in Athribis" in the mid-second century B.C.E.^^ There
were Jewish peasants, tenant farmers, and simple craftsmen. Jews engaged in
tax collecting and occupied various administrative p o s i t i o n s . T h e opening

8. Bar-Kochva, P.seudo-Hecataeus. 255-70.

9. The account attributed to Hecataeus is often accepted as reliable; see, e.g., Kasher,
The Jews in Hellenistic and Roman Egypt, 2-3; H. Hegermann, "The Diaspora in the Hellenis-
tic Age," in W, D. Davies and L. Finkelstein, eds.. The Cambridge History of Judaism. Volume
2: The Hellenistic Age (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989) 131-33.
10. Bar-Kochva, Pseudo-Hecataeus, 76; "one cannot imagine that an autho^who so ad-
mired the Ptolemaic dynasty and strove to prove its favorable attitude toward the Jews would
have included in his book a story about their deportation and enslavement unless the event was
indeed deeply rooted in the memory of his contemporaries."
11. V. Tcherikover and A. Fuks, eds.. Corpus Papyrorum Iudaicarum (3 vols.; Cam-
bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1957-64), hereafter CPJ. See also P, M. Fraser, Ptole-
maic Alexandria (Oxford: Clarendon, 1972) 1:54-58; A. Kasher, The Jews in Hellenistic and
Roman Egypt, 1 -74; F. Millar, in E. Schurer, The Histoiy of the Jewish People in the Age of Je-
sus Christ (175 B.C.-A-D. 135) (rev. and ed. G. Vermes, F. Millar, and M. Goodman; 3 vols.; Ed-
inburgh: Clark, 1973-87) 3,1:38-53; Modrzejewski, The Jews of Egypt, 73-98; J. M. O.
Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora from Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE-UJCE) (Edin-
burgh: Clark, 1996) 19-47. For the inscriptions, see W, Horbury and D, Noy, Jewish Inscrip-
tions of Graeco-Roman Egypt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
12. Modrzejewski, The Jews of Egypt, 83-87; Kasher, The Jews in Hellenistic and Ro-
man Egypt, 48-55; Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora, 23.
13. Horbury and Noy, Jewish Inscriptions, 45 (no, 27),
14. Kasher, The Jews in Hellenistic and Roman Egypt, 63-74.
15. Ibid., 58-63.
 RELIGION AND POLITICS: THE PTOLEMAIC ERA 67

chapter of 3 Maccabees tells how one Dositheos son of Drimylos, who was
"bom a Jew, but who had renounced his ancestral faith," foiled a plot to murder
Ptolemy IV Philopator before the battle of Raphia in 217 B.C.E. The story is leg-
endary, but the existence of Dositheos is confirmed by the papyri. He is men-
tioned in the Zeno papyri as record keeper and secretary to the king.^'' He even-
tually rose to become an eponymous priest of the cult of Alexander and the
deified Ptolemies under Ptolemy III Euergetes I in 223/222 B.C.E. This was one
of the highest honors that could be obtained in the service of the Ptolemies.
(The first such eponymous priest was the brother of Ptolemy I.) Such a position
was not open to native Egyptians, but it was open to any Hellene. The Jews,
as Greek-speaking non-Egyptians, ranked as Hellenes. Practically all occu-
pations and walks of life were open to them, although some, hke the pagan
priesthood of Dositheus, might be problematic from the viewpoint of tradi-
tional Judaism.
Egyptian Jews in the third century B.C.E. often took Greek names.
There was a revival of traditional Jewish names in the second century, begin-
ning even before the Maccabean revolt.^^ The early embrace of Greek cul-
ture, reflected in the choice of names, did not, however, imply a loss of Jew-
ish identity. Inscriptions record the dedication of synagogues from the
middle of the third century B.C.E. These synagogues are said to be dedicated
"on behalf of King Ptolemy (III Euergetes) and Queen Berenike."^" Later in-
scriptions, from the second century B.C.E., record not only the name of the
Ptolemy, but also the name of the donor. Some donors bore Greek names
(Ptolemaios, Hermias).^^ A Jew could bear a Greek name and be a loyal sub-
ject of the Ptolemy and simultaneously support his local synagogue.
Little light is shed on this early period from literary sources.
3 Maccabees gives an account of a persecution of Jews by Ptolemy IV
Philopator, which involved an attempt to have the Jews branded with the em-
blem of Dionysus (3 Mace. 2:29-30). Philopator was, in fact, devoted to Dio-
nysus and may have made some attempt to assimilate the Jewish religion to

16. Modrzejewski, The Jews of Egypt, 56-61.

17. CPJ, 1:127A, dated to 240 B . C . E . The Zeno papyri are the papers of a Greek from
Asia Minor who managed the estate of a royal minister named Apollonius. Part of the archive
concerns Palestine. See V. Tcherikover, Hellenistic Civilization and the Jews (New York:
Atheneum, 1970) 60-72.
18. Modrzejewski, The Jews of Egypt, 81.
19. S. Honigman, "The Birth of a Diaspora: The Emergence of a Jewish Self-Defmition
in Ptolemaic Egypt in the Light of Onomastics," in S. J. D. Cohen and E. Frerichs, eds., Dias-
poras in Antiquity (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1993) 93-127. Honigman credits the resurgence of
Jewish names in some part to the use of the Septuagint.
20. Horbury and Noy, Jewish Inscriptions, 35 (no. 22); 201 (no. 117); Modrzejewski,
The Jews of Egypt, 88.
21. Horbury and Noy, Jewish Inscriptions, 45 (no. 27); 48 (no. 28); Modrzejewski, The
Jews of Egypt, 94.
68 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

the Dionysiac cult.^^ 3 Maccabees, however, is a highly fantastic composi-

tion and cannot be regarded as an accurate historical a c c o u n t . I t eontains
some reminiscences of the third century, in the mention of Dositheus son of
Drimylus and the Dionysiac cult, but the story as we have it is surely later
and most probably dates from the Roman period.^* Of the Jewish writings
which can with any plausibility be dated prior to Philometor, only Artapanus
reflects a distinct political attitude. There Moses is depicted as a benefactor
of the Egyptian people and is regarded by the priests as worthy of honor like
a god. The king, however, is jealous of Moses and plots against him. The ar-
rogance of the king further leads him to maltreat the Jews and so is responsi-
ble for the plagues which Moses brings upon the Egyptians, and for the de-
struction of the Egyptians at the Exodus. What is remarkable In all this is the
degree to which the Egyptian people is exculpated and blame concentrated
on the king. The political message of Artapanus to his own time would seem
to be one of solidarity with the Egyptians and suspicion of the (Greek) king.
Some later documents, such as 3 Maccabees, also depict the king as villain
but suggest solidarity with the Greeks, not with the native E g y p t i a n s . I n
fact, most Jewish Hellenistic literature is very hostile towards the native
Egyptians. Artapanus may have been exceptional, even in his own day. Since
his political attitudes are only implicit, no great weight can be placed on
them.
Throughout the third century, Judea was under Ptolemaic control, but
it was conquered by Antiochus III of Syria in 198 B.C.E. Jewish relations
with the Seleucids soon deteriorated, however, and the Maccabean revolt
initiated a period of independence in the Jewish homeland. The most im-
portant effect of the upheavals of these years on the Egyptian Diaspora was
that they led to a new wave of immigration. Most notable of the new refu-
gees was Onias IV, the legitimate successor to the high p r i e s t h o o d . p t o l -
emy VI Philometor, for his own obvious reasons, befriended the Jewish ex-
iles and allowed Onias to build a Jewish temple at Leontopolis. The reign
of Philometor was arguably the high point of Jewish influence in Egypt.

22. On Philopator's interest in Dionysus, see Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 1:202. Cf.
2 Mace. 6:7-8, which says that Jews were compelled to participate in the cult of Dionysus by
Antiochus Epiphanes. Plutarch (Quaestiones Convivales, 4.6 [671-72]) says that the feast of
Tabernacles resembles the cult of Dionysus. Cf. Chapter 1 above on a possible reference to an
incident involving the Dionysiac cult in Artapanus.
23. Kasher, The Jews in Hellenistic and Roman Egypt, 211-32, is exceptional in arguing
for its reliability.
24. 3 Maccabees will be discussed at length in Chapter 3 below.
25. E.g., 3 Mace. 3:8-10 stresses that the Greeks of Alexandria were sympathetic to the
Jews.
26. Ant. 12.9.7 §387. Cf Jerome, Commentary on Daniel, 3.11.14, which says that he
took very many Jews with him, and that on the occasion of the death of Onias III vast numbers
of Jews (infinita examina) fled to Egypt.
 RELIGION AND POLITICS: THE PTOLEMAIC ERA 69

Josephus claims that the Ptolemy entrusted his whole army to Onias and
Dositheus {Ag. Ap. 2.49). While this is undoubtedly an exaggeration, it is
apparent that the cleruchy at Leontopolis held a strategic position and
wielded considerable influence. In the same period, the Jewish philosopher
Aristobulus dedicated a book to Philometor and is called the teacher of
King Ptolemy in a letter prefixed to 2 Maccabees (2 Mace. 1:10). Philom-
etor is also said to have ruled in favor of the Alexandrian Jews in a dispute
with the Samaritans {Ant 13.3.4 §§74-79).

Onias and Leontopolis

There is no doubt that a Jewish temple was built in Egypt, at Leontopolis in

the Heliopolitan nome, by a priest named Onias. Virtually all the details of
the story, however, are unclear.^'' In the Jewish War, Josephus says that it was
Onias "son of Simon" — that is, Onias III — who fled to Egypt when the Je-
rusalem temple was profaned by Antiochus E p i p h a n e s . I n the Antiquities,
however, he says that it was the son of that Onias, namely, Onias IV, and that
he fled when Alcimus was appointed high priest in 162 B . C . E . S i n c e
2 Mace. 4:33-34 explicitly says that Onias III was murdered, after seeking
asylum in a temple at Daphne near Antioch, and there are apparent allusions
to his death in near contemporary sources (Dan. 9:26; 11:22; 7 Enoch 90:8),
most scholars have assumed that it was the younger Onias who fled to
Egypt.30
In the Antiquities, Josephus presents an alleged exchange of letters be-
tween Onias and Ptolemy Philometor about the proposed temple, in which
Onias is said to have been inspired by Isa. 19:19, which prophesied that there
would be an altar to the Lord in the land of Egypt.^^ It would be in the like-

27. For recent reviews of tiie evidence, see R. Hayward, "Tiie Jewisli Temple at
Leontopolis: A Reconsideration," JJS 33 (1982) 429-43; F Parente, "Onias III and the
Founding of the Temple of Leontopolis," in F. Parente and J. Sievers, eds., Josephus and the
History of tlie Greco-Roman Period: Essays in Memory of Morton Smith (Leiden: Brill, 1994)
69-98; G. Bohak, Joseph and Aseneth and the Jewish Temple in Heliopolis (Atlanta: Scholars
Press, 1996) 19-40; E. Gruen, "The Origins and Objectives of Onias' Temple," Scripta
Classica Israelica 16(1997) 47-70; J. E. Taylor, "A Second Temple in Egypt: The Evidence for
the Zadokite Temple of Onias," JSJ 29 (1998) 297-321.
28. J.W. 1.31-33; 7.420-36.
29. Ant. 12.9.7 §§387-88; 13.3.1 §62.
30. Bohak, Joseph and Aseneth. 20; Gruen, "The Origins and Objectives," 49-51. Some
scholars, however, still argue for Onias III: Parente, "Onias HI"; V, Keil, "Onias III — Martyrer
Oder Tempelgrunder," ZAW 97 (1985) 221-33; Taylor, "A Second Temple." 308.
31. The original Hebrew text, preserved in IQIsa, mentions the "city of the sun,"
Heliopolis ("fr haheres). Later manuscripts read "city of destruction" (tr haheres) or "city of
anathema" (tr haherem). The change was presumably deliberate. The LXX reads polls asedek
70 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

ness of the temple in Jerusalem and of the same dimensions, but in fact the
temple built was smaller and p o o r e r . B u t Josephus's account is riddled with
contradictions and implausibilities. Philometor and his queen appear to be
more concerned about the appropriateness of the site than was Onias. It is
difficult to derive any reliable information from this account.^^ Onias is said
to have supported his request by reminding the Ptolemy of the services he
had rendered in the course of a war, when he was in Coele-Syria and Phoeni-
cia. This cannot refer to the time before he fled to Egypt, as he was then too
young, and there was no occasion for services in that region thereafter. None-
theless, it is plausible that the grant of land, which became known as "the
land of Onias," was made as a reward for military service, even if Josephus is
muddled as to when and where the service was rendered.
In Against Apion (2.50-52) Josephus reports that after Philometor's
death Onias took up arms against Philometor's brother, Ptolemy Physcon, on
behalf of his widow, Cleopatra, and he cites Apion as saying that Onias had
marched on Alexandria at the head of a large army. Josephus claims that it
was the Jewish general who negotiated the truce. Later he refers to two other
Jewish generals, Chelkias and Ananias, who supported Cleopatra III in her
conflict with her son Ptolemy Lathyrus, towards the end of the second cen-
tury B.C.E.^"^ These are said to be "sons of the Onias who had built the temple
in the nome of Heliopolis." Later again we are told that the Jews of the land
of Onias blocked Mithridates and Anlipater when they were going to relieve
Julius Caesar in Alexandria in 48/47 B.C.E., but Antipater persuaded them to
change sides by showing them a letter from the high priest Hyrcanus.There

("the city of righteousness," transhterating the Hebrew word for "righteousness"). This is how
Jerusalem is described in Isa. 1:26, where the Hebrew is properly translated in the LXX. Again,
the textual change is probably deliberate, this time reflecting positively on Heliopolis and
Onias's temple. See Bohak, Joseph and Aseneth, 90-91; A. van der Kooij, "'The Servant of the
Lord': A Particular Group of Jews in Egypt according to the Old Greek of Isaiah," in J. van
Ruiten and M. Vervenne, eds.. Studies in the Boole of Isaiah (Leuven: Leuven University Press,
1997) 383-96.
32. Am. 13.3.1-3 §§62-72. In J.W. 7.426-32 Josephus says that the structure resembled a
tower and was 60 cubits in altitude. The British archeologist Flinders Petrie believed that he
had found the structure at Tell-el-Yahoudieh; see his Hyksos and Israelite Cities (Cairo: British
School of Archeology in Egypt and Egyptian Research Account, 1906) 19-27. His identifica-
tion of the temple is not accepted, however. Josephus says that it was located 180 stadia or 22.5
Roman miles from Memphis (/. W. 7.426), and this would put it very close to Heliopolis, not at
Tell-el-Yahoudieh. There seems to have been more than one Oniad settlement. See Bohak, Jo-
seph and Aseneth, 28-29, and the map at the end of his book, and also the discussion by Kasher,
The Jews in Hellenistic and Roman Egypt. 121-32; Taylor, "A Second Temple," 313-20.
33. Gruen, "The Origins and Objectives," 57.
34. Ant. 13. 10.4 §§284-87. The name Chelkias is found in a fragmentary inscription
from Egypt which also mentions a sacred precmct (temenos) and uses the word "general"
(strategos), but the identification with the son of Onias is not certain. See Horbury and Noy,
Jewish Inscriptions of Egypt. 219.
35. A«(. 14.8,1 §§127-32.
 RELIGION AND POLITICS: THE PTOLEMAIC ERA 71

can be no serious doubt that Onias the general was identical with Onias the
priest, and that his settlement in the land of Onias was a military colony.^^ He
was allowed to build his temple as a reward for his service, so this must have
been several years after his arrival in Egypt.^''
In the Jewish War Josephus claims that "Onias was not actuated by hon-
est motives; his aim was rather to rival the Jews at Jerusalem, against whom he
harbored resentment for his exile, and he hoped by erecting this temple to at-
tract the multitude away from them to it." He allegedly promised Philometor
that he would make the Jews his allies against the Seleucids.^^ No doubt the
Ptolemy welcomed him for political reasons. Egypt had twice been invaded by
Antiochus Epiphanes, and the Ptolemies had ruled Judea until the recent past.
Resentment on the part of Onias over his exile would also have been natural in
the circumstances. Whether he intended his temple in Egypt to rival Jerusalem,
however, is quite another matter. Some scholars, most notably Momigliano,
have taken Josephus at face value on this point and assumed that Onias was try-
ing to cause a s c h i s m . B u t this view is highly implausible. If Onias wanted to
set up a temple that would be a center for Egyptian Jewry and rival Jerusalem,
he would have had to set it up in Alexandria. A temple near Heliopolis can only
have been the sanctuary of the local military colony, like the earlier temple at
Elephantine.*'* Onias was evidently a leading figure in Egyptian Judaism, and
there is no record that his temple was ever a bone of contention. Whatever ill
feeling originally existed between Onias IV and the Hasmoneans had appar-
ently been dissipated by the next generation. Ananias, the son of Onias IV, is

36. Gruen, "The Origins and Objectives," 59, objects that Josephus does not explicitly
identify Onias the priest with Onias the general, but in view of the military history of the land
of Onias, there can be no real doubt about the matter.
37. Tcherikover, Helleiiislic Civilization, 279-80; M. Delcor, "Le Temple d'Onias en
Egypte,"RS75 (1968) 188-205. Josephus (Am. 13.3.1 [64]) says that Onias lived at first in Al-
exandria. Gruen proposes a similar dale for different reasons ("The Origins and Objectives,"
69). A. Kasher, "Political and National Connections between the Jews of Ptolemaic Egypt and
Their Brethren in Eretz Israel," in M. Mor, ed., Eretz Israel, Israel, and the Jewish Diaspora:
Mutual Relations (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1991) 30, argues that the temple
was only built when Onias (and Philometor) had lost all hope of returning to Jerusalem.
Modrzejewski, The.Jews of Egypt, 124-25, claims that Onias was a high dignitary at the Ptole-
maic court by 164 B . C . E . He bases this claim on a papyrus from that year, which allegedly con-
veys the greetings of the king to "Onias" and also an exhortation that as many people as possi-
ble should work the fields. The reading of the name is uncertain, however. See Gruen, "The
Origins and Objectives," 55-56.
38. J.W. 7.10.2-3 §§423-31. In the letter to Philometor in Ant. 13.3.1 §§65-66, however,
Onias claims that his motive is to unite the Jews in Egypt, most of whom allegedly had temples!
39. A. Momigliano, Alien Wisdom: The Limits of Hellenization (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1975) 118.
40. Tcherikover, Hellenistic Civilization, 280; Hegermann, "The Diaspora," 141;
Modrzejewski, The Jews of Egypt, 128. Gruen's objection that "this theory fails to account for
the endurance of the temple" ("The Origins and Objectives," 59) is groundless. It endured be-
cause the local Jewish community endured.
72 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

known to have used his influence with Queen Cleopatra III on behalf of Alex-
ander Jannaeus. The words attributed to Ananias by Josephus are significant:
"For I would have you know that an injustice done to this man will make all us
Jews your enemies" (Ant. 13.13.2 §354).
Whatever regional diversity existed in Judaism and whatever the rela-
tion of the Oniad temple to Jerusalem, ethnic solidarity prevailed. Again in
the time of Julius Caesar, the soldiers from the land of Onias were swayed by
a letter from the high priest In Jerusalem. There is no evidence whatever of
schismatic intentions.'** It is noteworthy that, despite the flagrant violation of
Deuteronomic law posed by a temple outside Jerusalem, later Rabbinic Juda-
ism stopped short of condemning the Oniad temple outright. The Mishnah al-
lows that offerings made in the temple of Onias were acceptable to God in
some circumstances, although priests who officiated there would not be ac-
ceptable in the Jerusalem temple (Menahot 13:10). The Talmud confirms this
view and adds explicitly that the temple of Onias was not idolatrous.*^
We have no literature that is attributed to Onias or his followers in the an-
cient sources. Oniad authorship has been proposed for several Hellenistic Jew-
ish writings, and we will argue that it is plausible in the case of some sections of
the Sibylline Oracles, but any such attribution is of necessity hypothetical. Our
only certain knowledge of the people of the land of Onias must be gleaned
from the scanty evidence of epitaphs from Tell el-Yehoudieh, which range in
date from the mid-second century B.C.E. to the early second century C.E."*^
These epitaphs prove that Tell el-Yehoudieh was (at least part of) the land of
Onias, and that the residents viewed it as their homeland. 'The land which
nourished us is called the land of Onias," reads one epitaph, in response to the
request, "Tell me your country (patran)."^^ A little more than half the names
are distinctively Jewish. Some are Hellenized forms of biblical names (e.g.,
Abramos, lesous); other distinctively Jewish names include Dositheus,
Sabbataios, and Sambathion. Other names that were popular with Jews, but not
distinctive, are Eirene, Arsinoe, and Agathokles. Members of the same family

4L Gruen, "The Origins and Objectives," 69, goes to the other extreme and suggests
that the temple of Leontopolis v/as "a beacon announcing that the faith was alive and strong" in
the dark days when there was no High Priest in Jerusalem (159-152 B . C . E . ) . But despite his
claim to the contrary, it would then have had no raison d'etre after the Hasmoneans assumed
the high priesthood. There is no evidence whatever that the Hasmoneans would have viewed
the temple in Egypt as "reinforcement," and it is surely incredible that Onias would have
wanted to reinforce the people who had usurped the office that was his by right.
42. b. Menahot 109a-b. Gruen, "The Origins and Objectives," 62; Parente, "Onias III,"
77, 81.
43. Horbury and Noy, Jewish Inscriptions. 51-182 (nos. 29-105); CIJ, 2:1451-1530;
CPJ, 3:145-63; H. Lietzmann, "Jiidisch-griechische Inschriften aus Teil-el-Yehudieh," ZNW 22
(1923) 280-86.
44. Horbury and Noy, Jewish Inscriptions, 90, no. 38; Kasher, The Jews in Hellenistic
and Roman Egypt, 127.
 RELIGION AND POLITICS: THE PTOLEMAIC ERA 73

could have Jewish and Greek names.*^ It is impossible to be sure whether some
of the epitaphs are Jewish or not. One Hebrew inscription was allegedly found,
but it was lost when a boat overturned on the Nile. The Hebrew letters heth and
'ayin are also found on a stone, but all the extant epitaphs are in Greek. The id-
iom is also Greek. The abode of the dead is Hades: "Suddenly, Hades came and
snatched me away," reads one epitaph.*^ Another says, "The all-subduer
ipandamator = Chronos) himself carried him off to Hades."*'' Moira, fate, is
mentioned once.*^ Only a few articulate a belief in hfe after death, a lower pro-
portion than in epitaphs from other parts of the Diaspora.*^ One epitaph pro-
fesses "a good hope of mercy."^'' Another says that "this grave hides in its
bosom my chastely nurtured body, but my soul has flown to the holy ones."^*
But these are exceptional.Some epitaphs clearly entertain no hope of an af~
terhfe: "I then with no portion or joy was laid here . . . under the earth."^^
Peter Fraser has argued of Egyptian Judaism in the Ptolemaic period,
"In the course of a century and a half its religious beliefs, under the impact of
the surrounding Greco-Egyptian population, became a curious mixture of
Greek, Egyptian and Jewish elements."^* But the syncretism may be quite
superficial. Neither the adoption of the name Hades for the netherworld nor
poetic flourishes about Fate in the context of epitaphs requires more than a
superficial familiarity with Greek thought. With rare exceptions, the epitaphs
do not discourse on the beliefs of the dead. The epitaphs from the land of
Onias seem to fit in quite well with those from other parts of the Diaspora.

T h e B a c k g r o u n d of O n i a s

The career of Onias must be seen against the background of the Oniad family
in the pre-Maccabean period. Two documents are especially important in this

45. Horbury and Noy, Jewish Inscriptions, xviii.

46. Horbury and Noy, Jewish Inscriptions, 61, no. 31.
47. Ibid., 95, no. 39.
48. Ibid., 70, no. 33.
49. U. Fischer, Eschalologie und Jenseitserwarlung im Hellenistischen Diaspora-
judenlum (BZNW 44; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1978) 226-42. For attitudes to death and afterlife in
Diaspora Judaism generally, see P. van der Horst, Ancient Jewish Epitaphs (Kampen: Kok-
Pharos, 1991) 114-26.
50. Horbury and Noy, Jewish Inscriptions, 82, no. 36.
51. Ibid., 70, no. 33.
52. Fischer, Eschatologie und Jenseilserwartung, 238: "Jenseitshoffnungen spielen so
gut wie keine Rolle."
53. Horbury and Noy, Jewish Inscriptions, 64, no. 32.
54. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 1:83. Compare Fischer, Eschatologie und Jenseils-
erwartung, 237-42.
74 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

context. The story of the Tobiads in Josephus (Ant. 12.6.1 §265-13.10.7

§300) is widely believed to rest on an independent literary composition, from
the middle or late second century B.C.E.^^ 2 Maccabees is an abridgment from
the late second century of the five-volume history of Jason of Cyrene, which
was probably composed not long after the Maccabean revolt.Recently Jon-
athan Goldstein has attempted to reconstruct a propagandistic history, alleg-
edly written by Onias IV, from the accounts of the Oniads and Tobiads in
these two w o r k s . D e s p i t e Goldstein's ingenuity, there is in fact no reason to
believe that such a work by Onias IV ever existed, but the material is signifi-
cant for the light it sheds on the Ptolemaic influence on Jewish political iden-
tity in the second century B.C.E.

The Tale of the Tobiads

The story of the Tobiads in Josephus has been described by Hengel as a "ro-
mance" and dated to the second half of the second century B.C.E. since "on
the one hand it contains such gross errors that one must assume that a consid-
erable space of time had elapsed since the events described, but on the other
hand it has such exact information that it is probable that it used good sources
like a family chronicle of the Tobiads."^^ The errors involve a highly con-
fused chronology. Tcherikover and others have shown that the emergence of
Joseph, the son of Tobias, which is here set in the time of Ptolemy V
Epiphanes, should be located in the reign of Ptolemy III Euergetes (246-221
B.C.E.), and in fact the king is once referred to as Euergetes in Ant. 12.4.1
§158.^^ The mistaken assertion in Ant. 12.4.1 §154 that Antiochus III gave
over Coele-Syria, Samaria, Judea, and Phoenicia to Ptolemy V Epiphanes as
a dowry is an attempt to explain why the Tobiads had their dealings with the
Ptolemies in the time of Epiphanes, after the region had passed to the

55. Tcherikover, Hellenistic Civilization. 140-42; M. Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism (2

vols.; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1974) 1:269.
56. So C. Habicht, 2 Makkabderbuch (JSHRZ 1.3; Gutersloh: Mohn, 1976) 175;
U. Kellermann, Auferstanden in den Himmel: 2 Makkabder 7 und die Auferstehung der
Martyrer (SBS 95; Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1979) 13; Hengel, Judaism and Helle-
nism, 1:96-98. Hengel summarizes the conflicting opinions of older scholarship.
57. J. Goldstein, "The Tales of the Tobiads," in J. Neusner, ed., Christianity, Judaism,
and Other Greco-Roman Cults: Studies for Morton Smith at 60 (l^iden: Brill, 1975) 85-123;
idem, 7 Maccabees (AB 41; Garden City, N.Y: Doubleday, 1976) 55-61; 90-103; idem,
2 Maccabees (AB 41A; Garden City, N.Y: Doubleday, 1983) 35-37.
58. Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism, 1:269. On this story as a romance, see also L. M.
Wills, The Jewish Novel in the Ancient World (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1995)
187-93.
59. Tcherikover, Hellenistic Civilization. 128-30; see further J. A. Goldstein, "The Tales
of the Tobiads," in J. Neusner, ed., Christianity, Judaism, and Other Greco-Roman Culls:
Studies for Morion Smith at 60 (Leiden: Brill, 1975) 85-102.
 RELIGION AND POLITICS: THE PTOLEMAIC ERA 75

Seleucids. Despite its inaccuracies, the story paints a vivid picture of the
Tobiad family before the Maccabean revolt, and of one unorthodox ideal of
Jewish life.
Josephus praises Joseph the son of Tobias as "a good and generous man
who brought the Jewish people from poverty and weakness to a brighter way
of life" (Ant. 12.4.10 §224). Whether Josephus found this assessment in his
source or added it himself, it reflects well the spirit of the story. While it is
quite obvious that Joseph and his son Hyrcanus were motivated by self-inter-
est with little concern for the Jewish people, they were in fact Jews who op-
erated successfully on the international scene and often outwitted their Gen-
tile rivals. Their success and the friendship they enjoyed with the Ptolemies
are a source of pride for the Jewish people. The name of Joseph, in a context
of dealings with Egypt, and the rivalry between Hyrcanus and his brothers
inevitably recall the biblical Joseph s t o r y . T h e r e is no attempt, however, to
attribute to these heroes the moral character of Joseph. Joseph the Tobiad be-
comes a successful tax collector by killing those who resist his demands and
by large-scale bribery of the Ptolemaic court.^' He indulges in drunkenness
and falls "in love" with a dancing girl. His son Hyrcanus outdoes even his fa-
ther by giving the Ptolemy a present of two hundred slaves — a hundred
boys and a hundred virgin girls. We know from the Zeno papyri that the
Tobiads had engaged in slave trading before the middle of the third century

Only at one point does a concern for the Jewish law surface: Joseph
wishes to have his affair with the dancing girl in secret because of the viola-
tion of Jewish law, and his brother substitutes his own daughter to prevent
Joseph from having intercourse with a foreigner. It is possible that even this
detail was added by Josephus, but in any case it relates to the ethnic purity of
the Jewish people rather than to any moral concern. It is interesting to note
that avoidance of exogamy does not imply a concern for the whole Jewish
law. At no point does the story disapprove of Joseph or of Hyrcanus. Rather,
they are presented as heroes, and the positive presentation is mirrored in the
sustained approval of the Ptolemaic king. The story maintains the distinc-
tiveness of the Jews, but as a matter of ethnic pride, not religious or moral
principle. All of this is rather reminiscent of Artapanus's syncretistic treat-
ment of Moses, which still insists on his superiority to the Gentiles.
There is no doubt that the story has a strongly pro-Ptolemaic bias. The
rights of the Ptolemies to exact tribute are not questioned. Those who oppose

60. Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 99-106, tries to make the biblical allusions central,
but this is an exaggeration.
61. Ant. 12.1.5 §§180-85. Joseph put to death the leading chizens of Ascalon and
Scythopolis when they refused to comply with his demands.
62. CPJ, 1:118-21. See Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism, 1:268.
76 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

the Ptolemies (the high priest Onias in the time of Joseph) and those who op-
pose the pro-Ptolemaic Hyrcanus (his brothers and, by association, the high
priest Simon, who is lauded by Ben Sira [Ant. 12.4.11 §229]) are depicted as
villains. Hyrcanus is driven to suicide by the rise of Antiochus Epiphanes.
The approval of the Ptolemies for Joseph and Hyrcanus is regarded as defini-
tive. Further, the ambitions of Joseph and Hyrcanus are clearly circum-
scribed by the sovereignty of the Ptolemies. They succeed by ingratiating the
Ptolemies. There is no aspiration to independence. As Stern and Goldstein
have observed, the story uses the Ptolemaic terminology "Syria and Phoeni-
cia" or "Syria" rather than the Seleucid "Coele-Syria."^^
While the tale is definitely pro-Ptolemaic, it is not especially pro-
Oniad, and there is no reason to conclude with Goldstein that it must be the
work of the pro-Ptolemaic Onias IV. Against such a conclusion, we must
note that the story begins with a very negative portrayal of Onias II, ancestor
and namesake of the founder of Leontopolis. This Onias was anti-Ptolemaic
and pro-Seleucid, and it is difficult to see why Onias IV should have chosen
to emphasize this. Further, Onias III, who is known from 2 Maccabees to
have been friendly to Hyrcanus, is not mentioned here in connection with the
Tobiads at all. The story of the Tobiads pays minimal attention to the priestly
Oniad line and depicts Onias II and Simon in a negative light. Tcherikover's
suggestion, that the tale was composed by a descendant of Hyrcanus in
Transjordan, is more plausible but remains, of course, conjectural.^*
While the tale of the Tobiads does not reflect the views of Onias IV, it
does provide valuable background information for his career. The Tobiads,
like Onias, found the way to fame and fortune in the service of the Ptolemies.
The "land of Tobias" in Transjordan anticipates the "land of Onias" in Egypt
by a century.^^ Further, we know from the archeological excavations of the
site that a temple was built there in the early second century B.C.E., appar-
ently at the time when Hyrcanus was repulsed from Jerusalem by his brothers
and the high priest Simon, after the death of his father.^^ Josephus tells us
that at this time Hyrcanus "gave up his intention of returning to Jerusalem."^''

63. Goldstein, "The Tales of the Tobiads," 107-8; M. Stern, "Notes on the Story of Jo-
seph the Tobiad," Tarbiz 32 (1962) 35-47 (in Hebrew).
64. Tcherikover, Hellenistic Civilization, 141-42. Hengel (Judaism and Helletdsm,
2.179n.78) approves Willrich's suggestion that the work was composed in Egypt, but without
supporting argument. Goldstein ("Tlie Tales of the Tobiads," 103) denies that the work can be a
family history because it ignores the earlier glories of the Tobiads, but we simply do not know
whether the original document recorded the earlier history of the family or was only concerned
with its relations to the Ptolemies.
65. CPJ, 1:116; B. Mazar, "The Tobiads," lEJ 7 (1957) 137-45; 229-38.
66. Ant. 12.4.11 §§228-34. For the archeological evidence, see P. V/. Lapp, "The Second
and Third Campaigns at 'Araq el-Emir," BASOR 171 (1963) 8-39. Lapp concluded that "The
Qasr emerges as a unique example of the old Syrian temple type in the Hellenistic period."
67. Ant. 12.4.11 §229.
 RELIGION AND POLITICS: THE PTOLEMAIC ERA 77

Yet Hengel is not justified in assuming that he intended to build "a temple to
compete with Jerusalem."^^ If this were so, he would scarcely have deposited
funds in the temple at Jerusalem in the time of Onias III.^^ Rather, the temple
was for his own convenience, since he appears to have had a self-sufficient
domain in Transjordan. His continued relationship with the temple in the
time of Onias III shows that he did not see any incompatibility between the
two temples. Significantly, Onias III did not find the Tobiad temple objec-
tionable either. All of this casts much light on the actions of Onias IV. While
he inevitably rejected the Hasmonean priesthood, there is no reason to be-
lieve that he would have definitively rejected the Jerusalem temple. He
would also naturally have seen that his future role in Jewish affairs was de-
pendent on the actions and attitudes of the Ptolemies.™

2 Maccabees and the Oniads

Our second source for the history of the Oniads is 2 Maccabees. Unlike the
story of the Tobiads in Josephus, 2 Maccabees does deal at length with
Onias III, who is described in glowing terms as "the benefactor of the city, the
guardian of his fellow countrymen and zealot for the laws" (2 Mace. 4:2).
2 Maccabees records only good and no evil of Onias III. Because of his piety,
the city of Jerusalem enjoyed peace and the laws were observed (3:1). He re-
ceived Hehodorus (the delegate of the Seleucid king) graciously, and it was
through his intercession that the life of Heliodorus was spared by the angels
sent to chastise him (3:33). When he appealed to the king against the intrigues
of Simon, it was not to accuse his fellow citizens but to preserve the welfare of
all the people (4:5). Finally, he was murdered because he rebuked Menelaus for
his abuse of the temple vessels (4:34). In all Onias III is a major figure in
2 Maccabees, in sharp contrast to 1 Maccabees, which ignores him entirely.
The prominence which Onias enjoys in 2 Maccabees has led Goldstein
to suggest that the hypothetical "propagandistic work of Onias IV" served as
a source here too,'^^ but his arguments do not warrant the conclusion. There is

68. Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism, 1:274. Hengel suggests a parallel to the sanctuaries
of Elephantine, Leontopolis, and Gerizim, but Elephantine was definitely not in competition
with Jerusalem, Leontopolis is disputed, and there is nothing to suggest that either Hyrcanus or
Onias led a movement as distinct as the Samaritans.
69. 2 Mace. 3:11. See Tcherikover (Hellenistic Civilization, 138), who asserts that
Hyrcanus did not give up his desire to return to Jerusalem and suggests that he may have lived
there for a time.
70. The suicide of Hyrcanus was prompted not only by the accession of Antiochus
Epiphanes but by the weakness of Egypt after the death of Ptolemy Epiphanes. Hyrcanus did
not have a patron to protect him (Ant. 12.4.11 §§234-36).
71. J. A. Goldstein, 1 Maccabees (AB 41; Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1976) 58-61,
90; idem, "The Tales of the Tobiads," 112-13.
78 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

nothing to suggest that the piety of Onias III is the exclusive cause of the
city's welfare in 2 Mace. 3:1, or that this passage is in any tension with the
rest of 2 Maccabees. The association of Onias III with the pro-Ptolemaic
Hyrcanus in 2 Mace. 3:11, which Goldstein takes as "conclusive proof of an
Oniad source, may be simply historical fact. The hypothesis of a document
written by Onias IV is unnecessary.-"^
Goldstein is on firmer ground when he argues that the neglect of
Onias III in 1 Maccabees and in Josephus arises from a pro-Hasmonean
Tendenz.^^ The account in 2 Maccabees, despite its penchant for the miracu-
lous,'''* fills in an important area of the history of this period and supplies the
most immediate background we have to Onias IV. To be sure, 2 Maccabees
exaggerates the pietistic character of Onias III. His involvement in political
intrigue may fairly be deduced from his association with Hyrcanus and
should in any case be expected from his family history. The fact that he took
refuge in the sanctuary near Daphne (presumably the temple of Apollo and
Artemis) just before his death shows that he did not have a great aversion to
pagan religion. We should also bear in mind that Jason, who initiated the so-
called Hellenistic reform, was the brother of Onias III and uncle of Onias IV.
The portrayal which we find in 2 Maccabees is clearly idealized for the au-
thor's purposes.

2 M a c c a b e e s a n d the Diaspora

The importance of 2 Maccabees for our purpose does not lie only in the back-
ground history of the Oniads. It also provides significant insight into rela-
tions between Jerusalem and the Egyptian Diaspora in the second century
B.C.E. Jason of Cyrene, whose five-volume work is abridged in 2 Maccabees,
"either came from the Jewish Diaspora in Cyrenaica or at least spent a good
part of his life there,"^^ as his name indicates. Yet the content of his work
deals entirely with events in Palestine. Hengel has plausibly suggested that

72. See further the critique of Goldstein by R. Doran, Temple Propaganda: The Purpose
and Character of 2 Maccabees (CBQMS 12; Washington, D.C.: Catholic Biblical Association
of America, 1981) 17-19.
73. Goldstein, 1 Maccabees, 56-57. Note also the tendentious criticism of Philometor in
1 Mace. 11:8-19 and contrast Ant. 13.4.5-9 §§103-20.
74. Wills, The Jewish Novel, 193-201, classifies 2 Maccabees as an historical novel.
75. Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism, 1:95; H. W. Attridge, "Historiography," in M. E.
Stone, ed., Jewish Wntings of the Second Temple Period (CRINT 2.2; Assen: Van Gorcum;
Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984) 177. Hengel reviev/s the spectrum of scholarly opinion as to
whether Jason was an eyewitness of the events he describes and rightly concludes that Jason
probably spent some time in Judea in those years.
 RELIGION AND POLITICS: THE PTOLEMAIC ERA 79

the intention of Jason's work "was to gain some understanding and support in
the Greek-speaking Diaspora and the Greek world in general for the Jews
who were fighting for the integrity of their sanctuary and their piety."^^ We
should not be surprised that a work which supports the Maccabean rebellion
was composed in Greek, following Hellenistic conventions and style.'''' The
Maccabees were not xenophobic, as can be seen from their delegations to
Rome and S p a r t a . J a s o n stands with Eupolemus as a supporter of the
Maccabees who was still concerned to build bridges with the Hellenistic
world.
The view of Judaism presented in 2 Maccabees may reasonably be de-
scribed as covenantal nomism. When the laws were well observed, because
of the piety of Onias III, the city was inhabited in unbroken peace (3:1). The
sufferings of the persecution were not designed to destroy but to discipline
the people (5:12). Even the martyrs suffered for the sins of the people, but
they helped to bring an end to the wrath of God (7:38). In a typical prayer in
8:15, the Jews call upon God to rescue them "if not for their own sake, at
least for the sake of the covenants made with their fathers" (8:15). The pri-
mary emphasis, then, is on God's covenant with the people, but individuals
can fall from the covenant relationship by their sins. So in 2 Mace. 12:40 all
the Jews killed in the battle against Gorgias are found to have idols under
their tunics. The temple plays a pivotal role in 2 Maccabees, but nonetheless
it is clear that "the Lord did not choose the nation for the sake of the holy
place, but the place for the sake of the nation" (5:19). The covenantal rela-
tionship between the people and God provides the underpinning for the polit-
ical and geographical factors in Jewish identity.
The attitude of 2 Maccabees to the Gentiles is ambiguous. On the one
hand, throughout the book the Gentiles are the adversaries of the Jews, the
"blasphemous and barbarous nations" (10:4). On the other hand, 2 Macca-
bees suggests that Gentiles are impressed by Jewish piety. Even Antiochus
Epiphanes "was grieved at heart and filled with pity" at the death of Onias III
because of his moderation and good conduct (2 Mace. 4:37), and Nicanor
was warmly attached to Judas (2 Mace. 14:24). There is also a persistent
hope for the conversion of the Gentiles, which is fantasized in the confession
of Heliodorus (2 Mace. 3:35-40) and the deathbed conversion of Antiochus
Epiphanes (2 Mace. 9:13-18).
The relation of the Diaspora to Jerusalem is directly brought into ques-
tion by the two letters which are prefixed to the abridgment of Jason's his-
tory. The first, 1:1-9, is dated to the year 188 of the Seleucid era, or 124/23

76. Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism, 1:97.

77. On the Hellenistic form of 2 Maccabees and of Jason's work, see Doran, Temple
Propaganda; idem, "2 Maccabees and 'Tragic History,'" HUCA 50 (1979) 107-14.
78. 1 Mace. 8, 12; 2 Mace. 4:11.
80 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

B.C.E., and contains a reference to an earlier letter from 143/42 B.C.E.^^ The
second letter is undated and its provenance is disputed. Some scholars hold
that it is a late composition from approximately 60 B.C.E.^*^ Others distinguish
an interpolation in the legend about the temple fire and allow that the rest of
the letter may be old.^^ Both letters invite the Jews of Egypt to join their
Judean brethren in celebrating the purification of the temple by observing the
festival of Hanukkah, which is called "the feast of Tabernacles in the month
of Kislev" (1:9). The relation of these letters to the rest of 2 Maccabees is
problematic. It is unlikely that either letter was composed by the epitomator,
in view of the lack of cross-references. The second letter actually contradicts
the main text of 2 Maccabees on the manner of the death of Antiochus
Epiphanes.^•^ Yet there is a measure of congruity between the invitation of the
letters and the history itself.^^ Glorification of the Jerusalem temple is unde-
niably a major theme of 2 Maccabees.^* It is possible that the abridgment of
Jason's history was undertaken to provide support for the promotion of the
festival, as Momigliano suggests,^^ or that the author of the letter seized on
2 Maccabees as a convenient and suitable account which supported his gen-
eral enthusiasm for the temple.
In any case, the question arises what message 2 Maccabees would bear
for the Jews of the Egyptian Diaspora. Momigliano has proposed that "like
the introductory letters, the epitome would try to keep the Jews of Egypt
within the influence of the temple of Jerusalem against the competition of the
temple of Leontopolis," and so help to avoid the "fragmentation of Judaism
and the secession of the Egyptian Jews."^^ This view is an elaboration of a

79. The authenticity of this letter was established by E. J. Bickerman, "Ein jUdischer
Festbrief vom Jahre 124 v. Chr. (II Mace 1.1-9)," 2 ^ 3 2 (1933) 233-54 (reprinted in Studies
in Jewish and Christian History [3 vols.; AGJU 9; Leiden: Brill, 1976-86] 2:136-58). See
Habicht, 2 Makicabaerbuch, 199-201.
80. So Bickerman, Studies in Jewish and Christian History, 2:137; Habicht, 2 Mak-
kabderbuch, 199.
81. A. Momigliano ("The Second Book of Maccabees," Classical Philology 70 [1975]
84) expresses doubts about the authenticity of the second letter but "should like to leave open
the possibility that the writer of the first letter was misled by what he considered an authentic
letter of Judas" and so that the second letter was composed before 124 B . C . E . T . Fischer,
"Maccabees, Books of: First and Second Maccabees," ABD, 4:444, asserts that "this document
is really the sole authentic surviving record of Judas Maccabeus himself" •
82. See Doran, Temple Propaganda, 6-7; Momigliano, "The Second Book," 81-82.
83. Fischer, "First and Second Maccabees," 443, claims that "the common purpose of
estabhshing the annual festival of Hanukkah . . . unifies the different parts of the writing."
84. Habicht, 2 Makkabderbuch, 186-87. The importance of the temple in 2 Maccabees
has been stressed by virtually all commentators. Doran has characterized the book as "Temple
Propaganda" and emphasized its affinity with Hellenistic accounts of the epiphanic defense of
cities ("2 Maccabees and Tragic History," 113-14).
85. Momigliano, "The Second Book," 83.
86. Ibid. Compare idem. Alien Wisdom, 119. Cf Attridge, "Historiography," 183;
Fischer, "First and Second Maccabees," 443.
 RELIGION A N D POLITICS: THE PTOLEMAIC ERA 81

widespread scholarly opinion that 2 Maccabees contains an implicit polemic

against the temple of Leontopolis.^-^ In fact, the presence of such polemic is
highly dubious. The relations between Judaism and the Diaspora reflected in
2 Maccabees are far more complex than Momigliano suggests.
The claim that either 2 Maccabees or the letters prefixed to it contain a
polemic against the temple of Leontopolis has been soundly refuted by
Arenhoevel and D o r a n . N o w h e r e in the book is there any explicit reference
to Leontopolis, nor even any insistence on the unique validity of Jerusalem
as a place of worship. The complete lack of reference to Leontopolis may
have a simple enough explanation; it is quite possible that Jason wrote his
history before the temple of Onias was built. There is no doubt that the tem-
ple was in existence by the time the first letter was written, but here again it
is simply ignored. The letter does not command the Jews to desist from wor-
shipping at other places but only to observe the festival of Hanukkah. The
second letter concludes with the hope that God "will soon have mercy on us
and will gather us together from under heaven to the Holy Place" (2:18). This
passage reflects the hope for a definitive Jewish restoration around the tem-
ple in Jerusalem. There is no reason, however, why Onias IV and his follow-
ers should not have shared that hope, or why it should be considered incom-
patible with an interim sanctuary at Leontopolis. In short, the silence of the
letters on the subject of Leontopolis is not necessarily an indication of po-
lemic. It may simply indicate that the temple in Egypt was never seriously
considered as a rival to that of Jerusalem.
Yet the view that 2 Maccabees in its present form was designed to
maintain the unity of Judaism is not without basis. It is noteworthy that at
least two letters were sent from Jerusalem to Egypt, urging the observance of
the festival. The earlier (the former letter referred to in 1:7) must have gone
unheeded if a second (the present first letter) was necessary. In fact, we
should not be surprised if Egyptian Judaism hesitated to celebrate the revolt.
At least Onias IV and his followers must have been initially estranged from
the Jerusalem temple and its illegitimate priesthood. The letters which call on
the Diaspora Jews to celebrate the purification of the temple are attempting
to overcome that estrangement, even though they are not necessarily con-
demning Leontopolis. The letters do this merely by asserting that the purifi-
cation of the temple was an act of divine deliverance. The abridgment of Ja-
son's history may also be seen to contribute to this goal by Its presentation of
the story of the revolt.

87. Habicht, 2 Makkabderbuch, 186; Bickerman, "Ein jiidischer Festbrief," 154-55;

F. M. Abel, Les Livres des Maccabees (Paris: Gabalda, 1949) xliv.
88. D. Arenhoevel, Die Theokratie nach dem L und 2. Makkabderbuch (Mainz:
Matthias-Grunewald, 1967) 100-102; Doran, Temple Propaganda, 11-12. Cf also Kasher, "Po-
litical and National Connections," 31.
82 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

Two aspects of 2 Maccabees are especially significant for the relation

between Palestinian and Egyptian Judaism. The first is the glorification of
Onias III. It is difficult to see how the entirely positive portrayal of the father
of Onias IV could serve as a polemic against Leontopolis, especially when
there is no hint that his son departed from his father's ways. Rather, the virtue
of the father creates the presumption of virtue in the son. 2 Maccabees makes
amply clear that the misfortunes which befell Jerusalem stemmed from the
overthrow of Onias. While the book does not argue for the restoration of the
Oniad line, the portrayal of the history leading up to the revolt would surely
be acceptable to the supporters of Onias IV in Egypt.
Scholars have often noted the relative lack of attention to the Hasmo-
nean house in 2 M a c c a b e e s . J u d a s is indeed the hero, but Mattathias is
overlooked and the brothers have a subsidiary role. We are indeed told that
Judas placed his brothers "Simon, Joseph, and Jonathan" in charge of divi-
sions (8:22),^'^ but Jonathan is never mentioned again. The heroic death of
Eleazar (1 Mace. 6:43-46) is ignored, although the occasion is mentioned in
2Macc. 13:15.Simon is mentioned in 10:19-20, where some of his men take
bribes and let some of their enemies escape from a siege. Judas has to inter-
vene to punish the offenders. Again in 14:15-18, Simon is checked until
Nicanor hears of the valor of Judas. Neither reference is flattering to Simon.
The fact that 2 Maccabees concludes before the death of Judas and does not
pursue the careers of Simon and Jonathan may be simply due to the early
date at which Jason's history was written. At the time of the abridgment, or
of the composition of the first letter, the omission of the history of Simon and
Jonathan was significant. Judas had never claimed the high priesthood. He
had no part in supplanting the house of Onias. On the contrary, he was the in-
strument of God's wrath against the sinners who had disrupted the priest-
hood. 2 Maccabees even claims the support of Onias III for Judas by having
him appear in a vision in 2 Mace. 15:11-16.
The story of Judas, then, might be acceptable to the followers of Onias
in Egypt as part of the common Jewish heritage, while the story of his broth-
ers would not.^^ A history which in effect separated the temple and the story
of the revolt from the Hasmonean priest-kings could avoid party dissensions
and enable the Jews of the Diaspora to affirm both the temple and the inde-
pendent Jewish state without acknowledging the legitimacy of the Hasmo-

89. See G. W. E. Nickelsburg, "1 and 2 Maccabees — Same Story, Different Meaning,"
CTM 42 (1971) 515-26 (esp. 524). In this respect 2 Maccabees is in sharp contrast to
I Maccabees.
90. Joseph is apparently an error for John (cf 1 Mace. 2:2).
91. Gruen overlooks the silence of 2 Maccabees on the Hasmonean dynasty when he
claims that 2 Maccabees expresses "a common purpose between Hasmonaeans and Oniads"
("The Origins and Objectives," 70).
 RELIGION A N D POLITICS: THE PTOLEMAIC ERA 83

neans. In fact, neither the introductory letters nor the text of 2 Maccabees
makes any attempt to subordinate the Diaspora to Jerusalem. The implica-
tions of the book for Egyptian Judaism are highly conciliatory. There is no
polemic, but rather an affirmation of the acceptable common ground and an
avoidance of those issues which might prove to be divisive. The ideal of Ju-
daism which is held forth is not primarily political but is based on the pious
observance of the law, and includes the hope of the martyrs for resurrection.
The law-abiding Jew is content to live in peace and give no offense to his
neighbor, as can be seen in the concern of Onias III for Heliodorus in
2 Maccabees 3.^^

T h e Third Sibyl

The first major document of the Diaspora which explicitly addresses political
relations is the Third Sibylline Oracle. The sibyl was a legendary figure in
the Greek and Roman world.^^ Originally associated with Asia Minor, she
was also linked to Cumae in Italy from the sixth century B.C.E. Tarquinius
Superbus, the last king of Rome, was believed to have initiated a collection
of sibylline verses in Rome, where they were consulted in times of crisis by
decree of the senate.^* By the Hellenistic age, however, sibylline oracles had
proliferated and there were supposed to be multiple sibyls, including Babylo-
nian, Persian, Egyptian, and eventually Hebrew sibyls as well as Greek.^^
The character of the sibyl is already clear in the earliest allusion to her by
Heraclitus: 'The sibyl, with frenzied lips, uttering words mirthless,
unembellished, unperfumed, yet reaches to a thousand years with her voice
through the god."^^ We have only scattered examples of sibylline oracles
from pagan sources. Like other Greek oracles, they were typically written in
epic hexameters. They predict destruction, by war or by natural disasters. A
passage in Sib. Or. 3:401-88, which is usually attributed to a pagan Erythrean
sibyl, and which predicts assorted natural and military disasters, may give a

92. Cf. Doran, Temple Propaganda, 16.

93. See the comprehensive review by H. W. Parke, Sibyls and Sibylline Prophecy in
Classical Antiquity (ed. B. C. McGing; London: Routledge, 1988).
94. On the Roman collection, see H. Cancik, "Libri Fatales: Romische Offen-
barungsliteratur und Geschichtstheologie," in D. Hellholm, ed., Apocalypticism in the Mediter-
ranean World and the Near East (Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1983) 549-76.
95. There are several lists of sibyls. One of the most famous, by the Roman antiquarian
Varro, preserved in Lactantius, Divinae Instilutiones 1.6, lists ten sibyls. Pausanias, in the sec-
ond century C . E . , mentions a sibyl of the Hebrews (Pausanias 10.12). For critical discussion see
Parke, Sibyls, 23-50.
96. Plutarch, De Pythiae Oraculis 6 (397A).
84 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

fair impression of the genre. The individual oracles are brief and strung to-
gether loosely. Oracle collections were notoriously fluid. New oracles could
easily be inserted, and predictions could be transferred from one prophetic
source to another. The Jews of the Hellenistic age inherited a long tradition
of gloomy prophecy, noted for its predictions of wars, famines, and pesti-
lence. These prophecies, too, were often loosely structured and full of inter-
polations. It is not surprising that the sibylline genre had some attraction for
Jews who wished to express themselves in the media of Greek culture.
The reason why a Jewish author might choose to write in the name of the
sibyl is clear enough: to put the praise of Judaism in the mouth of a pagan
prophetess of hoary antiquity and respected authority. Even if Gentiles greeted
such compositions with skepticism, as we might expect, the apparent endorse-
ment of the sibyl could bolster the self-confidence of Jews and their pride in
their tradition. The genre lent itself to prophecies of destruction and a tone of
denunciation. Consequently, John Barclay sees here a prime example of "cul-
tural antagonism," dominated by "scorn of non-Jews" and Jewish national as-
pirations.^'' But if the Jewish writers felt only scorn for non-Jews and their cul-
ture, why would they write in epic hexameters, in the name of a pagan
prophetess? Sibylline oracles are often vehicles for hostility towards the Gen-
tile world, especially in the Roman era when Egyptian Jewry was in open con-
flict with Romans, Greeks, and Egyptians. But it is difficult to believe that Jew-
ish authors originally chose this genre to express only cultural antagonism.
Besides, as Parke has observed, "the Jewish Sibyllist did not deal solely in
gloom."^^ At least the Third Sibylline Oracle has a well-developed positive
message as well.^^ The attitude of the Jewish sibyllist to the Gentile world is far
more complex than Barclay's sweeping characterization allows.
Virtually all scholars have recognized that Sib. Or. 3 is a composite
work.''*'* Verses 1-92 seem to be the conclusion of a different book, as is indi-
cated by an annotation in the manuscripts after verse 92. Verses 93-96 are an
isolated fragment, so book 3 proper begins at verse 97. (The original beginning
is lost.) It is also generally recognized that the oracles against various nations in

97. Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora, 216-28.

98. Parke, Sibyls, 13.
99. Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 287, acknowledges that "the Sibyl reaches out to
the Hellenic world." See also the remarks of M. Simon, "Sur quelques aspects des Oracles
Sibyllins juifs," in Hellholm, ed.. Apocalypticism, 232; and J. J. Collins, "The Jewish Transfor-
mation of Sibylline Oracles," in idem. Seers, Sibyls, and Sages in Hellenistic-Roman Judaism
(Leiden: Brill, 1997) 181-97.
100. I presuppose here my earlier discussion of the source-critical questions; see J. J.
Collins, The Sibylline Oracles of Egyptian Judaism (SBLDS 13; Missoula, Mont.: Scholars
Press, 1974) 21-34; idem, "The Sibylline Oracles," in OTP, 1:354-80; idem, "The Sibylline Or-
acles," in Stone, ed., Jewish Writings of the Second Temple Period. 365-71; idem, "The Devel-
opment of the Sibylline Tradition," ANRW, II.20.1, 430-33. See also H. Merkel, Sibyllinen,
(JSHRZ 5.8; Giitersloh: GUtersloher Verlagshaus, 1998).
 RELIGION A N D POLITICS: THE PTOLEMAIC ERA 85

verses 350-80 are of diverse origin and include some oracles of pagan prove-
nance. Most scholars, however, recognize a main corpus in the remainder of
the book.^"*^ This corpus is loosely structured and is a series of oracles rather
than a single formal unit, but it has a coherent message and may be ascribed to
a common source in the second century B.C.E. The date is indicated by recur-
ring references to the "seventh king" of Egypt in verses 193, 318, and 608.
While there is broad consensus that a corpus of oracles from the second
century B.C.E. can be identified here, it has not gone unchallenged. Valentin
Nikiprowetzky, in an erudite monograph, argued that the book should be
viewed as a redactional unity and dated to the time of Cleopatra VII.^"^^ This
argument identifies Cleopatra as "the seventh king," but it has found no fol-
lowers. More recently, Erich Gruen has tried to strip the reference to the sev-
enth king of all chronological significance. "The number," we are told, "must
be understood as carrying mystical import, an abstract and spiritual sense,
not the denotation of a royal tenure."^"^ But the wording of the sibyl leaves
no doubt that the reference is to a very specific royal tenure: "the seventh
reign when a king of Egypt, who will be of the Greeks by race, will rule"
(vss. 192-93); "when the young seventh king of Egypt rules his own land,
numbered from the dynasty of the Greeks" (vss. 608-9). The fact that the
number seven is used elsewhere by the sibyl "without reference to any kings,
let alone Ptolemies,"^'^* does not in any way lessen or obscure the clear refer-
ence to a Ptolemaic king in these passages. While the number seven might be
chosen as an ideal number, it would have lacked credibility when it was clear
that there had been more than seven Ptolemaic kings.

101.1 define the main corpus as vss. 97-349 and 489-829. Cf G. W. Nickelsburg, Jew-
ish Literature between the Bible and the Mishnah (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1981) 161-65. The
more usual division of the book, however, defines the first section as vss. 97-294, and the sec-
ond as 295-488. See, e.g., V. Nikiprowetzky, La Troisieme Sibylle (Paris: Mouton, 1970) 55;
M. Goodman, in Schiirer, The History of the Jewish People, 3.1:633. Vss. 295-349 belong with
vss. 350-488, insofar as they are oracles against various nations, but they are linked to the main
corpus by some distinctively Jewish references and mention of "the seventh generation of
kings."
102. V. Nikiprowetzky, IM Troisieme Sibylle, 215. An even later date is proposed by
A. Paul, "Les Pseudepigraphes Juifs de Langue Grecque," in R. Kuntzmann and J. Schlgsser,
eds., ttudes sur la Judaisme Hellenistique (Paris: Cerf, 1984) 90, on the grounds that Egyptian
Judaism would not have produced an apocalyptic work before the late first century B . C . E . The
classification of Sib. Or. 3 as apocalyptic, however, is imprecise.
103. Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 277. Gruen argues that the number seven appears
in apocalyptic literature, but he does not observe how it is used. In fact, it is never used in "an
abstract and spiritual sense" in apocalyptic literature. See A. Yarbro Collins, "Numerical Sym-
bolism in Jewish and Early Christian Apocalyptic Literature," in eadem. Cosmology and Es-
chatology in Jewish and Christian Apocalypticism (Leiden: Brill, 1996) 55-138
104. Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 277.
105. Cf Goodman, in Schiirer, The History of the Jewish People, 3.1:635: "It is hard to
believe that such an assertion could be made after the last king who could be described in this
way had died." While numbers were not part of royal titles in antiquity, the names of the
86 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

The enumeration of the Ptolemies is complicated by the question

whether Alexander should be counted and by the overlapping reigns in the
second century. There are three possible identifications; Ptolemy VI
Philometor, who reigned from 180-164, 163-145; Ptolemy VII Neos
Philopator, 145-144; Ptolemy VIII Physcon (also called Euergetes II), 170-
164, 164-163, and 144-117.
The reign of Ptolemy VII was so brief that it might not be counted, es-
pecially as Physcon had already been king. Further, while the oracles could
not have been written after the latest possible seventh Ptolemy, they could
have been written before his reign: the seventh king may be anticipated as a
future ruler. The strained relations of the Jews with Physcon make it unlikely
that he was the "seventh king" in question, but it is conceivable that a Jewish
sibyllist looked forward to a king who would succeed him. However, given
the favorable attitude of Philometor to the Jews, a date in his reign is more
probable. The seventh king could then refer either to Philometor himself
or to his son Neos Philopator.
A more specific indication of date may be found in verses 162-95. This
refers to the rise of Rome, which will fill many places with evils, but espe-
cially Macedonia. Macedonia was divided after the battle of Pydna in 168
B.C.E. and was made a Roman province in 147 B . C . E . T h e reference to
Rome as a world power could not be earlier than the battle of Magnesia
(190), where Rome defeated Antiochus III of Syria, and probably presup-
poses the intervention of Rome in Egypt in 168. In view of these consider-
ations, the period when Philometor was sole ruler in 163-145 is the most
likely time of composition. Rome was still on the rise in this period, but it is
worth noting that the Roman general Scipio, looking on the destruction of
Carthage in 146 B.C.E., foresaw the fall of his own city, "realizing that all cit-
ies, nations and authorities must, like men, meet their doom," a thought wor-
thy of the sibyl. ^'•^

Ptolemies were well known and counting up to seven was well within the intellectual capability
of ancient Jews!
106. In addition to the bibliography in Collins, The Sibylline Oracles, 144, see Fraser,
Ptolemaic Alexandria, 1:709-13; 2:989-99; Goodman in Schiirer, The Hisfoty of the Jewish
People, 3,1:636; Merkel, Sibyllinen, 1062-63.
107. Gruen, Heritage atidHellenism. 271, acknowledges the reference but goes on to ar-
gue that "no ex eventii forecast could have set the fall of Roman power to that period" (p. 273).
But no one has ever suggested that the prophecy of the fall of Rome is ex eventu. Most of the
references that he cites in favor of a later date on p. 271 are not regarded as part of the second-
century core by any modem scholar. He makes a good observation that the short oracle in vss.
156-61 presupposes that Egypt has fallen to Rome. This passage, however, has no necessary
bearing on the date of vss. 162-95, where the sequence is different.
108. Appian 8.19.132; Polybius 38.4.22. It is possible that the description of the vices of
Rome in Sib. Or 3:179-90 incorporates some glosses from the first century B . C . E . or C . E . , when
other additions were made to the book (Goodman, in Schurer, The History of the Jewish Peo-
ple. 3.1:636).
 RELIGION AND POLITICS: THE PTOLEMAIC ERA 87

Virtually all scholars agree that the work was composed in Egypt. ^"^^
Verse 161 refers to a second world empire of Egypt after that of the Macedo-
nians, and the work is punctuated by references to the seventh king of Egypt.
While it is conceivable that these references are the work of a Palestinian
sympathizer of the Ptolemies, the lack of specific reference to Palestine
makes an Egyptian origin almost certain.

The Content of Sibylline Oracle 3

The opening oracle of Sib. Or. 3 (vss. 97-155) constitutes an introduction to

world history. It includes (a) the fall of the tower of Babylon; (b) a
euhemeristic account of the war of the Titans against Kronos and his sons
(105-55); and (c) a list of world empires (156-61). This section establishes a
universal framework for the rest of the book. It introduces the theme of world
kingship and shows that it was a cause of strife from the beginning. Most sig-
nificant here is the attempt to integrate Greek mythology into the overview
of history. While the gods are demythologized in euhemeristic fashion, they
are not simply dismissed as unreal. This opening section shows most clearly
the affinities of the sibyl with the Jewish historians discussed above in Chap-
ter 1.^^'' More broadly, the use of the sibylline form shows that the author,
like his Hellenistic Jewish predecessors, was attempting to bridge two cul-
tures. The sibylline form offered some affinities with the prophetic oracles of
the Hebrew scriptures, but the more immediate analogy was with the use of
oracles for political propaganda in the Hellenistic world.'^^ Here again a
Jewish writer was using a Hellenistic form to present his view of Judaism.
The oracles that follow the introduction to world history present a re-
curring pattern:

1. sin, usually idolatry, leads to

2. disaster and tribulation, which is terminated by
3. the advent of a king or kingdom.

Within these passages religious and ethical exhortation is supported by a po-

litical and eschatological framework. The hortatory sections may fairly be

109. An exception is Fergus Millar, in his review of Nikiprowetzky in JTS 23 (1972)

223-24, who asserts the possibility of a Palestinian origin but does not show that it is more
probable.
110. Nikiprowetzky, La Troisieme Sibylle, 112-33. This passage was known to Alexan-
der Polyhistor, who attributed the destruction of the tower of Babel to "the sibyl." See Good-
man, in Schiirer, Tlie Histoiy of the Jewish People, 3.1:646-47.
111. Collins, The Sibylline Oracles, 1-19.
112. Ibid., 37.
88 NATIONAL A N D POLITICAL IDENTITY

said to contain the view of Judaism which is presented to the Hellenistic

world, and they are accordingly of the utmost importance. We will, however,
defer the discussion of these passages to Part Two of our study, where they
can be compared with other presentations of Jewish ethical and religious re-
quirements. For the present we will focus on the political view of Judaism
within which the exhortation is framed. The argument of Sib. Or. 3 is that
those who keep the law of God will ultimately prosper, while those who do
not will come to destruction. The prosperity of the righteous is envisaged in a
peaceful world centered on the Jewish temple, but the manner in which this
state is brought about is associated with the reign of an Egyptian king. The
role assigned to this king is of crucial importance for understanding the book.
Specifically, the question arises whether this king should be identified with
the "king from the sun" of verse 652 "who will stop the entire earth from evil
war" and so usher in the messianic age, or, alternatively, is not the agent of
transformation but merely the indicator of the date when the Jews will come
to power.^^^

The Seventh King

There are three explicit references to the seventh king. In verses 175-95 we
are told that the kingdom which will succeed the Macedonians will endure
"until the seventh reign when a king who will be of the Greeks by race, will
rule." Then "the people of the great God will again be strong, who will be
guides in life for all mortals." The kingdom in question is described as
"white and many-headed from the western sea" and is quite unambiguously
Rome.
Many commentators have found such a denunciation of Rome by a Jew
in the second-century-B.c.E. problematic.'^"* Arnaldo Momigliano objects
that the hostile allusions to Rome cannot be dated with the reference to the
seventh king "since between 170 and 160 both Egypt and Judea were in-
debted to Rome, and in 161 Judea made an alliance with Rome."^'^
Momigliano, like P e r e t t i , c o n s i d e r s the allusion to Rome a later addition.

113. The latter view has been defended by A. Momigliano, "La Portata Storica dei
Vaticini sul Settimo Re nel Terzo Libro degli Oracoli Sibillini," in Forma Futuri (Studi in
Onore del Cardinale Michele Pellegrino; Torino: Bottega d'Erasmo, 1975) 1077-84, and it is
implied in the interpretation of Nikiprowetzky. So also Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean Di-
aspora, 222.
114. Colhns, The Sibylline Oracles, 31. See especially Nikiprowetzky, La Troisiime
Sibylle. 199.
115. Momigliano, "La Portata Storica," 1082.
116. A. Peretti, La Sibilla Babilonese nella Propaganda Ellenistica (Biblioteca di
Cultura 21; Firenze: La Nuova Itaha Editrice, 1943) 190.
 RELIGION AND POLITICS: THE PTOLEMAIC ERA 89

Geffcken preferred to elide the reference to the seventh king."^

Nikiprowetzky, who quite rightly protests that such procedures are unsup-
ported by any textual arguments, dates the entire passage to the first century
B.C.E. and takes the seventh king, somewhat paradoxically, as Cleopa-
tra VII.^^^ However, the statement that Rome will "fill everything with evils
. . . in many places, but especially in Macedonia" can only refer to the Roman
conquest of Macedonia which took place precisely in the reign of
Philometor, and so is fully compatible with a second-century "seventh king."
The time in question is not long after the Maccabean revolt, and so
Momigliano reasons that "it will not be difficult to recognize a precise allu-
sion to the Jewish rebellion in lines 194-5," which say that "the people of the
great God will again be strong."^^^ But this inference is far from obvious.
The Maccabees looked on Rome as a friend. It is true that Egypt was also
protected by Rome from Antiochus Epiphanes, but the role of Rome in Egypt
was more complex, because of the civil strife between Philometor and
Physcon. At first the Romans supported Philometor, but in 161 he incurred
their displeasure by refusing to cede Cyprus to Physcon.^^'^ In view of
Philometor's favor towards the Jews, an anti-Roman oracle by an Egyptian
Jew is quite conceivable after 161, but not by a supporter of the Maccabees.
The friendship between Rome and the Maccabees would not have impressed
all the Jews in Egypt favorably, especially those who had fled to Egypt in the
wake of the revolt. The fall of Rome is clearly not ex eventu, and neither is
the prophecy of the rise of the "people of the great God" in verse 194. So,
while this passage does not clarify the eschatological role of the Egyptian
king, it provides no reference to the Maccabean revolt either. In fact, the
sibyl, quite remarkably, never refers to the Maccabees.'^' Momigliano notes
that Daniel does not refer to them clearly either.^^^ In Daniel silence does not
mean tacit support. At most, Daniel considered the Maccabees "a little help"
(Dan. 11:34), and it is doubtful whether he thought they were any help at
all.^'^^ The silence of the sibyl about the revolt would scarcely be credible if
the work were written in support of the rebellion as Momigliano claims.
The second reference to the seventh king, in verse 318, concerns the

117. J. Geffcken, Die Oracula Sibyllina (GCS 8; Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1902) 58, apparatus
to vs. 192.
118. Nikiprowetzky, La Troisieme Sibylle, 208-16. The numeral seven was not part of
Cleopatra's title in antiquity, and it is doubtful that she could be referred to as a "king."
119. Momigliano, "La Portata Storica," 1081; cf. idem. Alien Wisdom, 119. So also
Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora, 223.
120. Polybius 31.18,20. Eraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 1:120; 2:214 n. 225 and the refer-
ences in Collins, The Sibylline Oracles, 147n.70.
121. Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora, 223, admits this but still argues that
the sibyl is inspired by the nationalistic spirit of the revok.
122. Momigliano, "La Portata Storica," 1081.
123. See J. J. Collins, Daniel (Hermeneia; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993) 386.
90 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

cessation of civil strife in E g y p t . T h e passage may be inspired by the rela-

tive calm in the later reign of Philometor, but more likely it is not ex eventu
and simply expresses a hope for the future. Egypt continued to be torn by
civil strife throughout the Ptolemaic period. The passage throws no light on
the relation of this king to the Jews.
The third reference claims that men will cast away their idols when the
"young seventh king of Egypt rules his own land, numbered from the dy-
nasty of the Greeks" (vss. 608-9).^^^ Again, the passage does not specify the
role of the king. The passage goes on to tell how "a great king will come
from Asia." The invasion by this king is seen as the prelude, and perhaps the
indirect cause, of the conversion of the Egyptians to the one true God.
Most scholars have assumed that the king from Asia should be identi-
fied as Antiochus Epiphanes, who invaded Egypt in 170 and again in
168.'^^ This identification would require a very precise date for the pas-
sage. The king is said to depart in triumph. This would be appropriate for
the first campaign of Antiochus but not for the second. The oracle would
have to have been written immediately after the first campaign, before it
became apparent that no conversion of Egypt would follow. The identifica-
tion with Antiochus Epiphanes is not, however, as compelling as has gen-
erally been assumed. Taken as a whole, the passage in verses 601-18 is
clearly not ex eventu but a real prophecy (which was never fulfilled). A
king from Asia was a traditional threat to Egypt (we might compare a
"king from the north" in biblical prophecy). The invasion by the Hyksos
was recalled by Manetho. More recently, the Persians, Cambyses, and
Artaxerxes Ochus were notorious invaders. In Egyptian prophecy, the Pot-
ter's Oracle refers to a king who will come down from Syria and be hated
by all, and the oracles of Nechepso and Petosiris say that a great man will
come from Asia to the land of the Egyptians, capture the ruler of Egypt,
subject some of the people, and kill others. It is gratuitous to assume that
these oracular passages must refer specifically to Antiochus Epiphanes.
The presentation in Sib. Or. 3 is in all probability colored by the invasion
of Antiochus Epiphanes as the most recent king from Asia, but the passage
cannot be taken as an historical reference. It is part of an eschatological or-
acle in which any historical reminiscences are used to project the future.

124. "A sword will pass through your midst." Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 274, ar-
gues that this is "pure conjecture," but he does not argue that any other interpretation is more
plausible.
125. On the significance of the epithet neos, see Collins, Tlie Sibylline Oracles, 30. Both
Philometor and Physcon first came to the throne at an early age. The epithet was part of the title
of Neos Philopator. Moreover, it was commonly applied to Horus, the divine king.
126. On the invasions, see Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 1:119. On the identification of
the king from Asia, see Collins, The Sibylline Oracles, 39-40. Momigliano ("La Portata
Storica," 1081) accepts the identification with Antiochus.
 RELIGION AND POLITICS: THE PTOLEMAIC ERA 91

Again, while the passage does not specify the role of the Egyptian king, it
does not provide a reference to the Maccabean revolt or its setting.

The Analogy with the Persian Period

Two other passages are significant for the political context of Sib. Or. 3. The
first concerns the restoration from the Babylonian exile, in verses 286-94.
The second is the reference to the "king from the sun" in verse 652.
In verses 286-94 we read:

And then the heavenly God will send a king and will judge each man
in blood and the gleam of fire. There is a certain royal tribe whose
race will never stumble. This too, as time pursues its cyclic course,
will reign, and it will begin to raise up a new temple of God. All the
kings of the Persians will bring to their aid gold and bronze and
much-wrought iron. For God Himself will give a holy dream by
night and then indeed the temple will again be as it was before.

This passage follows directly on the exile, when "for seven decades of times
all your fruitful earth and the wonders of the temple will be desolate."
The reference to the kings of the Persians makes it clear enough that the
reference is to the restoration in the sixth century. Yet a number of scholars
have tried to find a messianic reference here.'^^ J. Nolland has argued that
the use of the second person in verses 265-85 indicates an address to the
present time. Further, the statement that the temple will again be as it was be-
fore ill fits the historical restoration of the sixth century, and the judgment "in
blood and fire" (v. 287) has eschatological overtones and echoes Joel 3:3 and
4:2. Nolland concludes that the sibyllist is applying the sixth-century restora-
tion to his own day and infers a situation where the temple was profaned.
Analogies with Daniel 9 and Jubilees support a date in the time of Antiochus
Epiphanes. Nolland then sees the restoration as eschatological and takes the
reference to the "royal tribe whose race will never stumble" (vss. 288-89) as
a reference to "the whole notion of the inviolability of the Davidlc kingship
(2 Sam vii etc.)" — and so to a Davldic messiah. Since such a hope is not
easily applied to the Maccabees, he concludes that this oracle was composed
"prior to significant Maccabean success . . . before the rise of popular hopes
in the Maccabees."'^^

127. Nikiprowetzky, La Troisieme Sibylle, 133-35. See Collins, The Sibylline Oracles.
38-39.
128. J. Nolland, "Sib Or 111.265-94, An Early Maccabean Messianic Oracle," JTS 30
(1979) 158-67.
92 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

The argument for an appHcation of the oracle to the author's own time
is not a necessary one — not all Jews need have thought of the postexilic
temple as inadequate. However, it is possible. At least the passage concludes
a section of the book and one period of history, and so is functionally parallel
to the eschatological oracles. This does not necessarily mean that the book
was written at a time when the temple was profaned but that there is a pattern
in history — punishment for sin and restoration for the faithful — which will
be repeated in the eschatological period. However, if we grant a parallel be-
tween the restoration under Cyrus and the author's time and/or the eschato-
logical age, the passage still does not support either the messianic interpreta-
tion or the dating proposed by Nolland. The only individual mentioned (vs.
286) is not a Davldide, but Cyrus. If he is meant as a type of an eschatologi-
cal messiah, he would suggest not a Davidide but a Gentile king (a sugges-
tion supported by other passages in Sib. Or. 3). It is doubtful whether the
"certain royal tribe" can be identified as the Davidic house. The more natural
interpretation is the Jewish race, which attained a significant measure of self-
rule after the exile. ^•^^ Further, even if we suppose with Nolland that the au-
thor was awaiting a restoration of the temple (and this supposition is not
clearly warranted by the text), the precise dating would not follow. Not all
Jews recognized the Maccabean restoration. The lack of support for the
Maccabean rebellion here was not necessarily due to an early date. It may
have arisen from lack of sympathy with the Maccabees.
Since the primary reference in this passage is indisputably to the sixth-
century restoration, inferences for the political context of the eschatological
kingdom are only tentative. Insofar as such inferences can be drawn, the pas-
sage suggests that the Jewish state and its temple will be established through
the mediation of a Gentile monarch like Cyrus. It should, of course, be noted
that Cyrus himself never set foot in Palestine. His role in the Jewish restora-
tion was indirect in the sense that he enabled and permitted the Jews to rees-
tablish their own state and rebuild their own temple. This analogy may be
significant for the reticence of Sib. Or. 3 on the role of the seventh king in the
messianic age.

The King from the Sun

The final reference to an individual king is found in verses 652-56:

And then God will send a king from the sun (Icai tot'ap' eelioio theos
pempsei basilea) who will stop the entire earth from evil war, killing

129. So also H. C. O. Lanchester, in APOT, 2:384.

 RELIGION A N D POLITICS: THE PTOLEMAIC ERA 93

some, imposing oaths of loyaky on others; and he will not do all

these things by his private plans but in obedience to the noble teach-
ings of the great God.

The king in this passage is not said to act directly on the Jews, although the
following verses go on to describe the prosperity of the temple. His role is
to put an end to war in the entire world. We may compare the historical role
of Cyrus, who is also said to act in accordance with the purpose of God (Isa.
44:28).
The expression "from the sun" has given rise to considerable contro-
versy. It has commonly been translated as "from the east" on the analogy of
Isa. 41:2, 25 (where the phrases apo anatoldn and aph heliou anatoldn refer
to Cyrus), and presumed to refer to a Jewish messiah.'^^ This position is rid-
dled with difficulties. First, the actual phrase Is different: Isaiah specifies the
geographical connotation with the word anatoldn}^^ The phrase ap' eelioio
does not mean "from the East," but "from the sun." Second, in Isaiah the ref-
erence is not to a Jewish messiah but quite clearly to the Persian Cyrus, who
did in fact come from the East. Third, despite assertions to the contrary, there
is no evidence that a Jewish messiah was ever referred to as a king from the
east, or expected from the East. On the contrary, in the Testament of Moses
(3:1) the king from the East is the destructive Nebuchadnezzar, and the kings
from the east are also destructive in Rev. 16:12,^^^ Fourth, given that the
phrase was not a traditional title for a Jewish messiah, it is difficult to see
why a Jew in the second century would have expected salvation from a king
from the East. The Third Sibyl never indicates interest or hope in the East.
On the contrary, the messianic age is always associated with the reign of a
king of Egypt.

130. The text is disputed. Nikiprowetzky reads "people."

131. So Momigliano, "La Portata Storica," 1081; Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 277-
78.
132. This is even more clearly the case in Phlegon, Mirabilia 3.7, adduced as a parallel
by H. Schwier, Temple und Tempelzersldrung: Untersuchungen zu den theologischen und
ideologischen Faktoren im ersten jUdisch-romischen Krieg (66-74 n. Chr) (Gottingen:
Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1989) 236-37, 242-43, where the phrase is ex Asies hothen heliou
anatolai eisin: "from Asia where the sunrise is." See also A. Chester, "Jewish Messianic Ex-
pectations and Mediatorial Figures and Pauline Christology," in M. Hengel and U. Heckel,
eds., Paulus und das antike Judenlum (Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1991) 35.
133. Collins, The Sibylline Oracles, 152 n. 29. The famous passage in Tacitus 5.13
("Many were convinced that it was said in the ancient writings of the priests that at that very
time the East would grow strong and men coming from Judea would come to power") is written
from a Roman point of view from which Judea was East. Josephus (J.W. 6.5.4 §312) omits the
reference to the East in reporting this prophecy. The opposition of East and West, which plays a
prominent role in later Sibylline prophecies (Collins, The Sibylline Oracles, chap. 4), has no
role in the earliest stratum of the Third Sibyl, but only emerges when Rome becomes the arch-
enemy.
94 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

The closest parallel that we have to the phrase in Sib. On 3:652 is in

fact found in an Egyptian document of the Hellenistic age, the Potter's Ora-
cle: "and then Egypt will increase when the king from the sun, who is benev-
olent for fifty-five years, becomes present, appointed by the greatest goddess
Isis."^^"* In an Egyptian document, the king from the sun has a clear meaning
— it refers to the old pharaonic ideology. The Potter's Oracle is explicitly
anti-Alexandrian and sees the king from the sun as a native Egyptian who
would overthrow the Ptolemies. Momigliano admits the relevance of this text
for Sib. Or. 3 but asserts "that the king from the sun is not a Ptolemy in either
text."'^^ Presumably, because the phrase does not refer to a Ptolemy in the
Potter's Oracle it cannot in Sib. Or. 3 either. But there is ample evidence that
the Ptolemies also appropriated the ideology and titles of the pharaohs. Ptole-
maic kings are elsewhere said to be "chosen by the sun" and "son of the sun,
to whom the sun has given victory."'^^ The phrase "king from the sun" in a
document written in Egypt most naturally evokes pharaonic ideology, to
which both the Ptolemies and the native Egyptians laid claim. Hellenistic
Jewish literature is conspicuously void of sympathy for native Egyptians. At
a time when the Palestinian Jews were locked in combat with the Seleucids,
it was also natural for Jews, especially those In Egypt, to look to the Ptole-
maic line to establish a world situation which would be favorable to Judaism.
Despite Momigliano's assertion that the seventh king is not identical
with the king from the sun,'^'' the identification is inevitable. Both are
Egyptian kings. While the passages which refer to the seventh king do not
explicitly say that he will bring about the messianic age, it is surely implied

134. Collins, The Sibylline Oracles, 41; idem, "The Sibyl and the Potter: Political Pro-
paganda in Ptolemaic Egypt," in idem. Seers, Sibyls, and Sages, 199-210. Gruen, The Heritage
of Hellenism, 278, apparently misses the point of the latter article, which is primarily a contrast
between the oracles of the Sibyl and the Potter The parallel is also noted by J. Bidez and
F. Cumont, Les Mages Hellinises (Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1938) 2:372, who implausibly see
a reference to Mithras; and J. G, Griffiths, "Apocalyptic in the Hellenistic Era," in Hellholm,
ed.. Apocalypticism, 290, who puts the references in their proper Egyptian context.
135. Momigliano, "La Portata Storica," 1081-82. Similarly Gruen, The Heritage of Hel-
lenism, 278 and Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora, 223.
136. Collins, The Sibylline Oracles, 41, and the literature there cited. The pharaonic im-
agery is acknowledged by Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 278, but he asserts that Sib. Or 3
represents a "Jewish adaptation of Egyptian lore to forecast a Messiah." He cannot, however,
cite a single parallel for Jewish messianic use of Egyptian imagery, or any other hint of a Jew-
ish messiah in Sib. OK 3. His reference to D. Frankfurter, Elijah in Upper Egypt (Minneapolis:
Fortress, 1993) 176-82, is misleading. Frankfurter has a good discussion of Egyptian eschato-
logical prophecy, but he in no way supports the messianic interpretation of Sib. Or 3.
137. Momigliano, "La Portata Storica." 1081.
138. So also 0 . Camponovo, Konigtum, Kdnigsherrschaft, und Reich Gottes in den
FruhjUdischen Schriften (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1984) 344; Nickelsburg, Jew-
ish Literature, 164; J. Bartlett, Jews in the Hellenistic World (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, 1985) 38; pace Gruen, The Heritage of Hellenism, 211, who fails to provide any ex-
planation of the recurring references to the seventh king.
 RELIGION AND POLITICS: THE PTOLEMAIC ERA 95

that he will have something to do with it. In fact, the king from the sun is not
directly said to bring about the messianic age either, but only to bring about
the universal peace which is its precondition. The statements about the two
are perfectly compatible, and there is no reference to any other individual
king in the eschatological transformation.

Jerusalem and the Gentile Kings

Two final passages require a brief mention. Verses 657-68 describe how "the
kings of the peoples" will be moved to envy against "the temple of the great
God." The motif of the opulence of the temple and envy of the kings is remi-
niscent of the story of Heliodorus in 2 Maccabees 3. Yet the whole scene is
evidently eschatological and has its biblical prototype in Psalms 2 and 48.
The experience of the Maccabean era may have helped shape this scenario,
but the reference is to a future eschatological attack.
However, in verses 732-40 we have a clear address to the author's own
situation: "But wretched Greece, desist from proud thoughts. Do not send
against this city your planless people which is not from the holy land of the
Great One." The Greeks who in fact sent armies against Jerusalem in this pe-
riod were the Seleucids, and it is to them that the admonition Is most directly
addressed, but it could also apply to the Ptolemies or to anyone else if they
sent forces against Jerusalem. The author does not expect or want the seventh
king of Egypt to intervene in the internal affairs of Judea. He does not call on
any Greek force either to assist or to oppose the Maccabees. The king from
the sun should establish universal peace. Then, when the "sons of the great
God" are allowed to "live peacefully around the temple" (vss. 702-3), God
himself will shield them (vs. 705) and "the hand of the Holy One will be
fighting for them" (vss. 708-9).

A Ptolemaic Messiah

It appears, then, that Sib. Or. 3 looks for a Ptolemaic messiah in the same
sense that Second Isaiah looks for a Persian one. In neither case is there any
acceptance of a pagan religion. Rather, both look for the conversion of
Gentiles to Judaism. While the sibyl is definitely open to Gentile conversion,
she chides the Gentiles, and especially Gentile kings, quite severely, just as
Second Isaiah does. The Ptolemaic king, hke Cyrus, has a crucial role to play
but is ultimately at the service of Judaism in the designs of God.
We will return to the sibyl's ethical and religious conception of Judaism
in Part Two below. For the present we must underline the political dimension
96 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

of Jewish identity. The hopes of the sibyl are still directed toward Jerusalem
but do not require the political independence of Judea. It is sufficient that a
favorable international order be provided by a Gentile king.^^^ Ultimately,
too. Gentiles as well as Jews will bring their gifts to the temple of Jerusalem.

The Provenance of Sibylline Oracle 3

What circles in Judaism would have produced such a document? It combines

an insistence on the Jewish law, which we will examine in Chapter 4 below,
and a strong insistence on the temple cult with hope in a Ptolemaic messiah
and the ultimate conversion of the Gentiles. Prior to the Maccabean revolt
such attitudes could plausibly be attributed to Onias III, the last high priest of
the legitimate line of succession.^"^^ 2 Maccabees depicts him as a man of
great piety, especially devoted to the temple cult as befitted a high priest. The
high priests were inevitably political figures, and Judean politics was heavily
influenced by the rival claims of the Ptolemies and the Seleucids. The father
of Onias III, Simon the Just, was a supporter of the Seleucids, but Onias him-
self inclined to the Ptolemies, as may be inferred from the deposit of funds in
the temple by the pro-Ptolemaic Hyrcanus, the Tobiad, and Onias's displace-
ment by Antiochus Epiphanes.''*^ After the revolt his son Onias IV sought
refuge in Egypt, attained military distinction in the service of Philometor,
and founded the temple at Leontopolis. I have suggested in previous publica-
tions that the Third Sibyl originated in circles associated with the younger
O n i a s . W h i l e this proposal is necessarily hypothetical, I believe that it re-
mains plausible. It also explains why the Maccabean rebellion is passed
over in silence. Onias was evidently no supporter of the Maccabees. Yet he
never actively opposed them either, and his sons actually interceded with
Cleopatra III in defense of Alexander Jannaeus.'** Rather than engage in in-

139. This attitude is, in fact, typical of much of Second Temple Judaism. It is also exem-
plified in Daniel 2-6. See J. J. Collins, "Nebuchadnezzar and the Kingdom of God," in idem.
Seers, Sibyls, and Sages, 131-37.
140. V. Tcherikover, Hellenistic Civilization, 156.
141. Josephus (J.W. 1.1.1 §§31-33) claims that the outbreak of hostilities which led to
the Maccabean revolt was directly related to the struggle between the Seleucids and the
Ptolemies for Palestine and that Onias was on the Ptolemaic side. Unfortunately, Josephus's en-
tire account is confused.
142. Collins, Tlie Sibylline Oracles, 52-53; idem, "The Provenance of the Third Sibyl-
line Oracle," Bulletin of the Institute of Jewish Studies 2 (1974) 1-18.
143. Cf Doran, Temple Propaganda, 11-12; Parente, "Onias III," 87; Merkel, Sibyl-
linen, 1064. The "qualifications and reservations" of A. Chester, "The Sibyl and the Temple,"
in W. Horbury, ed., Templum Amicitiae: Essays on the Second Temple presented to Ernst
Bammel (JSOTSup 48; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1991) 39-43, are quite reasonable
and serve to underline that the proposal is hypothetical.
144. Ant. 13.13.2 §354; Tcherikover, Hellenistic Civilization, 283.
 RELIGION A N D POLITICS: THE PTOLEMAIC ERA 97

ner-Jewish polemics, which could only impress a Gentile audience nega-

tively, the sibyl simply ignores the Maccabees.
Oniad provenance may seem implausible in view of the sibyl's strong
insistence on the Jerusalem temple.'*^ Yet we have seen that there is little ev-
idence of schismatic intentions on the part of Onias. His fellow Zadokites at
Qumran retained their hope for an eschatological restoration of the Jerusalem
temple, even while they deemed it defiled in the present. It is likely that the
followers of Onias also dreamed of restoration of the traditional Jerusalem
cult. The text, however, stops well short of indicating the specific circles in
which it was written. We cannot insist on attribution to the circles of Onias,
or any other circles. We can, however, insist that the sibyllist saw the Ptole-
maic king as playing an important role in the achievement of Jewish political
goals. In this respect, the sibyl is not atypical of Diaspora Judaism, whose
political well-being always depended on the goodwill of the Gentile rulers.

The Letter of Aristeas

Our view of the political stance of Diaspora Judaism after the Maccabean re-
volt can be filled out from a few documents which are not primarily histori-
cal or political in nature. The so-called Letter of Aristeas to Philocrates^^^ is
one of the best-known compositions of Hellenistic Judaism.'*'' It has been
studied mainly in connection with the problem of the origins of the Septua-
gint. Much of the interest of the work lies in its understanding of the Torah,
which is its primary expression of Judaism and which will be discussed in
Part Two below. The Letter of Aristeas is also significant, however, for the
light it throws on the relations of Diaspora Judaism both with the Ptolemies
and with Jerusalem.

145. The temple is not explicitly identified as that of Jerusalem, but the identification
can hardly be doubted. See Chester. "The Sibyl and the Temple," 37-69.
146. M. Hadas {Aristeas to Philocrates [Dropsie College Edition; New York: Harper.
1951] 56-59) has pointed out that the work is not a letter, h\H a diegesis, a genre defined by the
rhetorician Theon as "a discourse expository of things which happened or might have hap-
pened." By the canons of ancient rhetoric, the work of Pseudo-Aristeas could be considered a
plasma or "an imaginative treatment of history," which should, however, preserve historical
verisimilitude and present a higher "poetical" truth.
147. In addition to Hadas's useful edition, which is cited here, see the commentaries of
R. Tramontano, La lettera di Aristeo (Naples: Ufficio Succursale della CiviM Cattolica, 1931);
H, G. Meecham, The Letter of Aristeas (Manchester: Manchester University, 1935); A. Pel-
letier. La Lettre d'Aristee a Philocrate (SC 89; Paris: Cerf, 1962); and N. Meisner,
Aristeasbrief {SSHKL 2.1; Gtitersloh: Mohn, 1973); and also Meisner's two-volume disserta-
tion Untersuchungen zum Aristeasbrief (Berlin: Kirchhche Hochschule, 1973). An English
translation can be found in R. J. H, Shutt, "Letter of Aristeas," in OTP, 2:7-34.
98 NATIONAL A N D POLITICAL IDENTITY

The date of Pseudo-Aristeas is set in the reign of Ptolemy II Phila-

delphus (283-246 B.C.E.), but this is universally recognized as a fiction.'*^
Among the more conspicuous "giveaways" are: (1) the claim that Demetrius
of Phalerum was in charge of the Alexandrian library under Philadelphus (he
was never librarian, and he was banished from Alexandria by Philadelphus
for supporting Ptolemy Geraunus instead of Philadelphus as successor of
Ptolemy I Soter); (2) the introduction of the philosopher Menedemus of
Eretria (201) who had died about 287 B.C.E.; and (3) the statement that "these
kings used to administer all their business through decrees and with great
precaution" (28). Philadelphus had only one predecessor. The termini post
and ante were established by Bickerman at 160 and 125 B.C.E. (approxi-
mately) on the basis of the salutations and other linguistic u s a g e . H e ar-
gued that the terminus post quern could be lowered to 145 by the geograph-
ical allusions, yielding a date in the reign of Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II
(Physcon). The latter argument rests on the interpretation of the "some parts,
those in Samaria so-called" of section 107 as the districts of Lydda,
Aphairema, and Ramathain, which came under Judean control in 145
B . C . E . O n the basis of the same passage, Momigliano argued that the Letter
depended on I Maccabees and proposed a date about 110 B . C . E . T h e ma-
jority view favors a date in the second half of the second century B.C.E., but
there is still no consensus.
Arguments for an earlier date have been based in part on the alleged de-
pendence of Aristobulus on Pseudo-Aristeas for the story of the translation
of the S e p t u a g i n t . H o w e v e r , the actual story of the translation, while it
frames the work of Pseudo-Aristeas, occupies only a small part of the work
and would seem to be derived from tradition rather than the fresh composi-

148. For a concise review of the objections to the purported date, see Hadas, Aristeas, 5-
9. The classic demonstration was made by Humphrey Hody in 1685.
149. E. J. Bickerman, "Zur Datierung des Pseudo-Aristeas," in idem. Studies in Jewish
and Christian Histoiy, 1; 108-36, esp. 128 (first published in ZNW 29 [1930]). On the hnguistic
evidence, see further Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 2:910-1 \.
150. Bickerman, "Zur Datierung," 128-32. See 1 Mace. 10:30, 38; 11:28, 34 for the ac-
quisition of these territories from Samaria. Bickerman's identification is endorsed as "the only
possible one" by Bar-Kochva, Pseudo-Hecataeus, 282-83.
151. A Momigliano, "Per la data e la caratteristica della lettera di Aristea," A e g y / J t o 12
(1932) 161-73 (= Quarto Contributo [1969] 213-24).
152. See Goodman, in Schurer, The History of the Jewish People, 3.1:681-84.
153. Bar-Kochva, Pseudo-Hecataeus, 287-88. A pre-Maccabean date was endorsed by
Schurer, Tramontano, Vincent, Wellhausen, Pelletier, and Orlinsky. See S. Jellicoe, The Septua-
gint and Modern Study (Oxford: Clarendon, 1968) 48-49, with a summary of Orlinsky's argu-
ments in his review of Hadas in the Crozer Quarterly 29 (April 1952) 201-5. Orlinsky notes,
but does not commit himself to, the possible dependence of Aristobulus on Pseudo-Aristeas.
Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 1:696, uses the supposed relation to Aristobulus as an argument
for a date about 160 B . C . E . Shutt, "Letter of Aristeas," in 077^ 2:9, follows Jellicoe and
Orlinsky and puts the date about 170 B . C . E .
 RELIGION AND POLITICS: THE PTOLEMAIC ERA 99

tion of the author.'^'* We shall see below in Part Two that the other parallels
between the two works favor the priority of Aristobulus. The lack of any ex-
plicit reference to the Maccabean revolt raises the complex problem of the
attitude of Pseudo-Aristeas to the Maccabees but does not require a pre-
Maccabean date.'^^
Considerations which might support a date under Philometor are inde-
cisive. Ptolemy's letter to Eleazar says that "when he (Ptolemy I) judged
their chief men to be loyal, he gave them fortresses which he built" (36). The
best-known endowment of a Jewish leader in Egypt was the grant of
Leontopolis to Onias by Philometor, but there were already Jewish garrisons
in Egypt in the third century B . C . E . T h e further claim in the letter, that
some Jews were elevated to offices of state (37), points less ambiguously to
the reign of Philometor or later.'^^ A date under Philometor is supported by
Fraser because of the author's "use, in the correct context, of the technical
language of the Ptolemaic court and administration, which is parallel to his
knowledge of court protocol, and reveals an intimate knowledge of the whole
administrative system."'^^ Fraser concludes that the author was "a Jew of
high rank at the Ptolemaic Court, and no member of that house was more
likely to elevate a Jew than Philometor."'^^ All this is true, but a Jew who ac-
quired his experience at court under Philometor could still have written un-
der Physcon, or continued in the service of Queen Cleopatra when she was
reconciled with Physcon and became his co-ruler.
A possible indication of the author's date may be found in the attention
given at the beginning of the work to the question of the liberation of Jewish
slaves. The incident is evidently fictional and is designed to illustrate the
generosity of the Ptolemy. Yet it has the peculiar disadvantage of drawing at-
tention to the fact (if fact it was) that the Ptolemaic house had held Jews in
slavery.'^'* The prominence which is quite unnecessarily given to this inci-
dent suggests that the author had some reason to illustrate Ptolemaic gener-
osity especially in the form of clemency to the Jews. Now we know from

154. So also Meisner, Aristeasbrief. 39; M. Hengel, "Anonymitat, Pseudepigraphie und

'Literarische Falschung' in der jiidisch-hellenistischen Literatur," Entretiens sur t'Antiquity
Classique XVIII (1972) 298.
155. Much of Orlinsky's argument centers on the silence of the letter on Leontopolis and
the Jewish struggle against Syria.
156. A. Kasher, "Three Jewish Communities of Lower Egypt in the Ptolemaic Period,"
Scripta Classica Israelica 2 (1975) 113-23; idem, "First Jewish Military Units in Ptolemaic
Egypt," JSJ 9 (1978) 57-67; idem, Jews in Hellenistic and Roman Egypt. 106-67. The word
pro-ontas ("leaders") could also be translated "those who were there before."
157. But here again we must remember the case of Dositheus son of Drimylus!
158. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 1:703.
159. Ibid., 1:699.
160. Tcherikover {Hellenistic Civilization, 273) finds "no grounds for doubting the his-
torical trustworthiness of this tale" except for the inflated number of 100,000.
100 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

Josephus that after the death of Philometor the Jews from the land of Onias
continued to support his widow Cleopatra II against Physcon.'^' Since
Physcon triumphed, the Jews were in a difficult situation. Josephus makes
this the occasion for the legendary story of an attempted persecution of the
Jews, which appears in a different form in 3 Maccabees. Tcherikover has ar-
gued that the story may well reflect, in an exaggerated way, historical events
in the time of Physcon.'^^ physcon would naturally have considered some re-
prisals against the Jews, and the danger, or some actual persecution, may be
reflected in the legendary account of 3 Maccabees. The entire reign of
Physcon was extremely turbulent, but there were periods of reconciliation
with Cleopatra, and finally, in 118, a decree of amnesty was i s s u e d . W e
have no clear documentation of the fortunes of the Jews during this period,
but two dedications of synagogues "on behalf of the king" survive from the
reign of Physcon,'^* and the sons of Onias survived to play a prominent role
under Cleopatra III.'^^ It would seem that Jewish life in Egypt was not dis-
rupted in any lasting way.
The account of the liberation of slaves in Pseudo-Aristeas may have
been designed as a subtle appeal to the king by praising the clemency of his
ancestor, or it may have been designed to reassure Jews of the basic good-
will of the monarchy and suggest that the threat to the Jews was due either to
the greed of soldiers (14) or to the impulses of the mob (37). Two other items
in the Letter might be illuminated by this context. In 166-67 the high priest
singles out informers (emphanistae) for special condemnation and praises
the king for putting such people to d e a t h . D i o d o r u s 33.6 reports that
Physcon exiled many people and seized their property on the false allega-
tions of sycophants.'^^ Pseudo-Aristeas may be subtly suggesting how such
informers should be treated. In 148 the high priest interprets some of the di-
etary laws as symbols "that they may be just and achieve nothing by vio-
lence, nor confiding in their own strength oppress others." This statement

\6\.Ag. Ap. 2.51-56.

162. Tcherikover, Hellenistic Civilization, 274-75; idem, "The Third Book of Macca-
bees," 1-26.
163. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 1:119-23. Physcon married Cleopatra II after his re-
turn to Egypt in 145 and bore him a son, whom he later murdered. However, he later married
her daughter Cleopatra III, without divorcing her mother He was expelled from Alexandria in
131 B . C . E . by "a rising of the population, supported or sponsored by Cleopatra II," but he re-
turned in 127. He was reconciled with Cleopatra II in 124 and reigned with both queens until
his death in 116 B . C . E .
164. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 2:215 n. 232; CPJ, 1:23 n. 8.
165. Tcherikover, Hellenistic Civilization, 283. Josephus (Ant. 13.10.4 [287]), citing
Strabo, says that they "were held in very high esteem by the queen."
166. This passage has been used as a basis for dating the work to the time of Tiberius,
assuming a reference to the Roman delatores put to death in 33 C . E . See Hadas, Aristeas, 15.
167. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 2:215 n. 232.
 RELIGION AND POLITICS: THE PTOLEMAIC ERA 101

would seem to distance the Judaism of Pseudo-Aristeas from the military fol-
lowers of Onias, on the one hand, and from the Hasmoneans on the other, and
to advocate a nonmilitant stance which would be inoffensive to Physcon. By
contrast, the prominence of Jews under Philometor was due in no small part
to their military activities. In view of these considerations, Bickerman's dat-
ing to the time of Physcon would seem to be most probable.
Pseudo-Aristeas makes no reference to Leontopolis, but scholars
have inevitably speculated on his implicit attitude to the temple of Onias.
So Jellicoe has proposed that Pseudo-Aristeas's endorsement of the Septu-
agint translation which originated in Jerusalem was intended to counter an
otherwise unknown translation from L e o n t o p o l i s . M e i s n e r has accepted
this proposal and further suggested that Pseudo-Aristeas is polemicizing
against the Leontopolis settlement for its military role against Physcon.'''*'
However, Pseudo-Aristeas shows little sign of a polemic against Leon-
topolis. While it presents an idealized picture of Jerusalem, it is supposed
to be a pre-Maccabean Jerusalem, presided over by a high priest who was
an ancestor of O n i a s . T h e references in Ptolemy's letter to Jews who
were given fortresses and exalted to offices of state presume that these
things are for the glory of Judaism. There is no evidence whatever that
Leontopolis had its own translation of the Torah or that there is any po-
lemic in this regard. This is not to say that Pseudo-Aristeas was pro-
Leontopolis. The claim that Judaism is nonviolent fits as ill with the aspira-
tions of a military colony as it does with the policies of the Hasmoneans.
Pseudo-Aristeas distances himself from the military colony without
thereby carrying out any polemic against it.
Again, the attitude of the Letter to Jerusalem is by no means clear-cut.
The manner of the description of the cult and city has been taken to suggest
that Pseudo-Aristeas had visited Jerusalem as a p i l g r i m . T h i s is far from
certain. The description of Jerusalem is based on biblical sources,'''^ and
some of the details, such as the alleged flooding of the Jordan (section 116),

168. Recently Bar-Kochva, Pseudo-Hecataeus, 271-88, has argued for a date between
118 and 113 B . C . E . , near the end of Physcon's reign or shortly after his death. The description of
Jerusalem favors a period of Jewish independence. Bar-Kochva opts for the middle period of
the reign of John Hyrcanus.
169. S. Jellicoe, "The Occasion and Purpose of the Letter of Aristeas: A Reexami-
nation," NTS 12 (1965-66) 144-50; idem. The Septuagint and Modern Study, 50.
170. Meisner, Aristeasbrief, 43. He also dates Pseudo-Aristeas to the reign of Physcon
but specifies the later period of his reign.
171. It is noteworthy that the Greek translation of Sirach 50:24 omits the Hebrew verse
which ascribes to Simon's house the eternal priesthood promised to Phineas (Bickerman, "Zur
Datierung," 132). There is no such evidence of polemic here.
172. Hadas, Aristeas, 6, 136-37.
173. V. Tcherikover, "The Ideology of the Letter of Aristeas," HTR 51 (1958) 77-79;
Hadas, Aristeas, 64.
 102 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

suggest an ignorance of the actual conditions of the land.'-'* Pseudo-Aristeas

never claims that it was customary for Diaspora Jews to visit Jerusalem on
pilgrimage, although such a statement could have fitted in very well with his
narrative. The bold assertions that Ptolemy's prodigious gifts were deposited
in the temple could hardly withstand the possibility that some of his readers
would actually check.'''^ In all, the description of Jerusalem is of a Utopian,
rather fantastic and remote city, not one with which the author or his readers
had any great personal familiarity.'^^ Jerusalem and its cult are brought in to
embellish the portrayal of Judaism. It is important for the author that Dias-
pora Judaism has an illustrious source. It does not follow that Jewish life in
the Diaspora is in any sense directed from or towards Jerusalem.'^^
A similar point must be made on the entire issue of the translation of
the Torah. As we have seen, Pseudo-Aristeas regards the Torah as indispens-
able. It is also true that he tells of an official translation made by duly ap-
pointed authorities from Jerusalem. The purpose of this account has given
rise to endless debate. Much of it has centered on the memorandum of
Demetrius to the king in 29-32, which says that the books of the law of the
Jews "are written in Hebrew characters and in the Hebrew tongue, and they
have been committed to writing somewhat carelessly and not adequately, ac-
cording to the testimony of experts, for they have never benefited from a
king's forethought." Despite the contentions of Kahle,'^^ it is now widely
agreed that this passage does not refer to pre-Septuagint Greek translations
but to inadequate copies of the Hebrew text.'^^ We may assume with
Gooding'^*' that the texts in question are those available in Alexandria. If
there were no adequate Hebrew text, there could be no translation. However,
the net effect is to say that the Greek translation is more reliable than the He-
brew available in Alexandria. Further, it is formally canonized by the ac-
claim of the people and so established as a self-sufficient biblical text.'^'

174. The assertion is based on Josh. 3:15 but is explicitly offered as a parallel to the
Nile.
175. One could perhaps suppose that these objects had been pillaged by Antiochus
Epiphanes, but the Letter contains no hint that would prepare for such an assumption.
176. Hadas {Aristeas, 64): "All references to that country in Aristeas envisage a remote
and ideahzed Biblical Palestine and seem purposely to ignore contemporary reality."
177. Tcherikover, "Ideology," 83. See also D. Schwartz, "Temple or City: What Did
Hellenistic Jews See in Jerusalem?" in M. Poorthuis and C. Safrai, eds.. The Centrality ofJeru-
salem: Historical Perspectives {Kampen: Kok Pharos, 1996) 114-27; J. A. Goldstein, "The
Message of Aristeas to Philocrates," in M. Mor, ed., Eretz Israel, Israel and the Jewish Dias-
pora: Mutual Relations (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1991) 1-23.
178. Jellicoe, The Septuagint and Modern Study, 59-63.
179. H. M. Orhnsky, "The Septuagint as Holy Writ and the Philosophy of the Transla-
tors," HUCA 46 (1975) 92 n. 4; D. W. Gooding, "Aristeas and Septuagint Origins: A Review of
Recent Studies," VT 13 (1963) 158-80.
180. Gooding, "Aristeas and Septuagint Origins," 165-74.
181. Orlinsky, "The Septuagint as Holy Writ," 94-103.
 RELIGION AND POLITICS: THE PTOLEMAIC ERA 103

Pseudo-Aristeas is not polemicizing against any other Greek translation,

but is proclaiming the adequacy of the Septuagint over against the He-
brewJ^^ (In fact, in at least one case, the table of pure gold in 57, Pseudo-
Aristeas follows the Septuagint against the Hebrew.) There is no reason for
Egyptian Jewry to rely on the Hebrew text or to correct their translations on
the basis of the Hebrew.'^*
Tcherikover has suggested that the disavowal of "a crude and uncouth
disposition" (122) is a polemic against the literaUsm (and Hebraism) especially
characteristic of Palestinian Jews.'^^ The Letter as a whole is not characterized
by any polemic against Judea, but it does not present a view of Judaism cen-
tered on Jerusalem either. It is rather a manifesto of the self-sufficiency of Di-
aspora Judaism, which respects Jerusalem as its source, but speaks of an ideal-
ized biblical Judea rather than of the actual state of the Hasmoneans. Its lack of
reference to Leontopolis is most easily explained by the character of that estab-
lishment. It never was a rival to Jerusalem, or intended as a center for all Egyp-
tian Jews, but only a chapel for the land of Onias. Pseudo-Aristeas would have
respected Onias insofar as he added to the glory of the Jews but was careful to
distance himself from his military policies.
The Judaism of Pseudo-Aristeas seeks a cautious political course. It re-
assures Gentiles of its loyalty to the Ptolemaic house. It seeks to confirm
Jews in that loyalty. As Gruen has noted, "the emphasis again and again is on
Ptolemaic patronage, the king bestowing favors that elicit friendship and de-
votion."'^^ Judaism is not defined in national terms. The law is the vehicle of
a philosophy which is potentially universal.'^'' Accordingly, we will defer
our main discussion of the view of Judaism in Pseudo-Aristeas to Part Two,
where we discuss philosophical Judaism.

Joseph and Aseneth

Some further light may be shed on political relations and attitudes in the
Ptolemaic era by the novella Joseph and Aseneth, a document that will oc-
cupy us further in Chapter 6 below. In this case, date and provenance are

182. So also Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 213.

183. Hadas, Ansf^fls, 122-23.
184. Hengel ("Anonymitat," 300-301) suggests a possible polemic against Palestinian
revisions of the LXX, such as the later ones of Aquila and Theodotion.
185. Tcherikover, "Ideology," 67-68. AlsoG. Howard, "The Letter of Aristeas and Dias-
pora Judaism," JTS 22 (1971) 337-48.
186. Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism. 214.
187. Tcherikover ("Ideology," 71): "Judaism is a combination of a universal philosophy
with the idea of monotheism."
104 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

quite uncertain, and the textual history is disputed. The current consensus fa-
vors the longer recension of the work reconstructed by Christoph Burchard
over the shorter one edited by Marc Philonenko.'^^ Plausible arguments have
recently been advanced for the priority of the shorter recension by Ross
Kraemer and Angela Standhartinger,'^^ but their case has not been worked
through for the whole text. We will follow Burchard's text here, while recog-
nizing that the issue has not been finally resolved.
The first editor, Pierre Batiffol, regarded the work as Christian,'^*' and he
was followed in this judgment by E. W. Brooks, who did the English transla-
tion, among others.'^' The Jewish origin of the work was defended already in
the review of Batiffol by L. Duchesne,'^^ and at length by P. Riessler in
^922.193 Since the articles of Kilpatrick, Jeremias, and Kuhn in the 1950s, the
Jewish provenance has been generally accepted.'^* The case for Christian au-
thorship has been taken up again recently by Ross Kraemer. '^^ The essential ar-
gument for Jewish authorship is twofold. First, the central episode involving
the marriage of Joseph to an Egyptian woman, Aseneth, concerns a quintes-
sentially Jewish problem. While it is apparent that the story was nonetheless
transmitted by Christians,'^^ this story still seems far more likely to have been
composed in a Jewish context. Second, there is no unambiguous indication of

188. For the textual witnesses, see C. Burchard, "Joseph and Aseneth," in OTP, 2:178-
80.1 assume here the priority of the long recension, championed by Burchard. See his prelimi-
nary edition, "Ein vorlaufiger griechischer Text von Joseph und Aseneth," Dielheimer Blatter
zum Alten Testament 14 (1979) 2-53. See also Burchard's treatment in Joseph und Aseneth
(JSHRZ 2.4; Gutersloh: Mohn, 1983). The edition of M. Philonenko, Joseph et Aseneth: Intro-
duction, Texte Critique et Notes (Studia Posl-Biblica 13; Leiden: Brill, 1968) is based on the
short recension.
189. R. S. Kraemer, When Aseneth Met Joseph: A Late Antique Tale of the Biblical Pa-
triarch and His Egyptian Wife, Reconsidered (New York: Oxford, 1998) 50-88; A. Stand-
hartinger, Das Frauenbild im Judentum der hellenistischen Zeit: Ein Beitrag anhand von 'Jo-
seph & Aj^rt^r/i'(Leiden: Brill, 1995) 219-55.
190. P. Battifol, "Le Livre de la Prifere d'Aseneth," Studia Patristica: Etudes d'ancietme
litterature chretienne (Paris: Leroux, 1889-90) 1-115.
191. E. W. Brooks, Joseph and Asenath: The Confession and Prayer of Asenath Daugh-
ter of Pentephres the Priest (London: SPCK, 1918). For a list of scholars espousing Christian
or Jewish authorship, see C. Burchard, Untersuchungen zu Joseph und Asenath (WUNT 8;
Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1965) 99.
192. Bulletin critique 10 (1989) 461-66.
193. P. Riessler, "Joseph und Aseneth: Eine altjiidische Erzahlung," Theologische
Quartalschrift 103 (1922) 1-22; 145-83.
194. G. D. Kilpatrick, "The Last Supper," ET 64 (1952/53) 4-8; K. G. Kuhn, "The
Lord's Supper and the Communal Meal at Qumran," in K. Stendahl, ed.. The Scrolls and the
New Testament (New York: Harper, 1957) 65-93; J. Jeremias, "The Last Supper," £r64 (1952/
53) 91-92. For a history of research, see R. Chesnutt, Frotn Death to Life: Conversion in Jo-
seph and Aseneth (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995) 20-64.
195. Kraemer, When Aseneth Met Joseph.
196. Kraemer, When Aseneth Met Joseph. 247. She admits that Christians may have
been interested in the story for secondary reasons.
 RELIGION AND POLITICS: THE PTOLEMAIC ERA 105

Christian authorship. While it is not impossible that a Christian author would

eoneeal his or her identity, the great bulk of Christian writings, including
pseudepigrapha, are not reticent about their faith. There are, to be sure, paral-
lels to Christian writings and motifs in Joseph and Aseneth. One of the most
puzzling features of the book is the formulaic reference to eating the bread of
life, drinking the cup of immortality, and anointing with the oil of incorruption
(8:5; 15:4; 16:16; cf. 19:5; 21:21). Moreover, an angel gives Aseneth a piece of
a honeycomb to eat and tells her that "this is a comb of life, and everyone who
eats of it will not die for ever (and) ever" (16:8). These passages inevitably
bring to mind the Christian Eucharist (cf. John 6:51), but the element of anoint-
ing is puzzling, and there is no overt reference to Christ. While it is possible
that some Christian language was introduced into the story in the course of its
long and complicated textual transmission (e.g., the statement about the comb
of life in 16:8),'^'' it is hard to believe that a Christian author would not have
given clearer indications of his or her faith.'^^
Linguistic dependence on the Septuagint, including the prophets, and
on some apocryphal writings, makes a date before the first century B.C.E. un-
l i k e l y . T h i s terminus a quo is also supported by the general linguistic char-
acter of the book, which has several words attested only in the New Testa-
ment and later.•^^'^ Most scholars accept Egypt as the place of composition, in
view of the Egyptian setting of the entire story, the polemic against specifi-
cally Egyptian idolatry, and the Egyptian coloring of some of the symbol-
i s m . W h i l e these considerations may not amount to proof, they do estab-
lish a considerable weight of probability. There is little to support any other
place of origin for Joseph and Aseneth?^^ If the work is a product of Egyp-
tian Judaism, then a date before the disastrous Diaspora revolt of 115-18 C.E.

197. T. Holtz, "Christiiche Interpolationen in 'Joseph und Aseneth,'" NTS 14 (1967/8)

482-97.
198. Chesnutt, From Death to Life, 74; cf. Philonenko, Joseph et Aseneth, 101;
Burchard, "Joseph and Aseneth," 187; Goodman, in Schiirer, The History of the Jewish People,
3.1:549; Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 92. For the possibihty of female authorship, see R. S.
Kraeiner, "Women's Authorship of Jewish and Christian Literature in the Greco-Roman," in
A.-J. Levine, ed., " 'Women Like This': New Perspectives on Jewish Women in the Greco-Ro-
man World (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1991) 234-36; Standhartinger, Das Frauenbild, 225-37.
199. Burchard, Untersuchungen zu Joseph und Aseneth, 144; Philonenko, Joseph et
Aseneth, 27-32; G. Delling, "Einwirkungen der Septuaginta in 'Joseph und Aseneth,'" JSJ 9
(1978) 29-56.
200. Philonenko, Joseph et Aseneth, 29.
201. Goodman, in Schurer, The History of the Jewish People, 3.1:548. Philonenko, Jo-
seph et Aseneth, 61-78, makes much of alleged points of contact between Aseneth and the god-
dess Neith, but see the critique of D. Sanger, "Bekehrung und Exodus: Zum jiidischen
Traditionshintergrund von 'Joseph und Aseneth,'" JSJ 10 (1979) 11-36.
202. See Chesnutt, From Death to Life, 78-79. Egyptian provenance is questioned by
Standhartinger, Das Frauenbild, 14-16 and Kraemer, When Aseneth Met Joseph, 286-93.
Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 93, says that the narrative setting "suggests but by no means
proves an Egyptian provenance."
106 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

is almost certain. Kraemer has argued strongly for a later (third or fourth cen-
tury C.E.) dating, mainly because of the lack of early attestation.Parallels
for numerous motifs can be found in either period. Jews used the Greek lan-
guage in many areas in late antiquity, and so it is not impossible that such a
work could be composed by a Jew in the third or fourth century. But in fact
there is scarcely any evidence of Jewish literature in Greek in that period,
and the great bulk of the Jewish writings taken over by Christianity were
composed no later than the early second century C.E. It is most likely, then,
that Joseph and Aseneth was composed some time between the end of the
second century B.C.E. and the beginning of the second century C.E., even if
the arguments do not amount to conclusive proof.
Within these limits, more specific indications of date and provenance
are hard to find. The lack of any reference to proselyte baptism is of no sig-
nificance, since there is no clear allusion to proselyte baptism anywhere in
Hellenistic Jewish literature. Claims that the practice was known before the
rise of Christianity are unsupported.^^* Parallels with the Gospel of John and
the letters of Ignatius are equally inconsequential.^*"^ Some of the parallels
may be due to secondary Christian alterations, and in any case parallels can
also be found in Philo for some of the same motifs. The development of the
Greek novel Is too uncertain to shed any light on the issue. Some scholars re-
ject all attempts to infer a date from the text, because of its novelistic
genre.^^^ Yet as Randall Chesnutt has pointed out, a network of social ten-
sions pervades the narrative, and we must reckon with the possibility that
these tensions reflect the author's context.^**^ These tensions do not necessar-
ily point to a specific date, but they are instructive for the political aspects of
Jewish identity in Joseph and Aseneth.

203. Kraemer, When Aseneth Met Joseph, 225-44.

204. G. Delling {Die Taufe iin Neuen Testament [Berlin: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt,
1963] 30-38), contra J. Jeremias {Die Kindertaufe in den ersten vier Jahrhunderten [Gottingen:
Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1958] 29-34). Jeremias takes T. Levi 14:6 as the earliest allusion to
proselyte baptism (Levi's sons will marry Gentile women and purify them with an unlawful pu-
rification), but it is far from evident that the "unlawful purification" is a polemical reference to
proselyte baptism. Sib. OK 4:165, which is frequently adduced as an example, must be distin-
guished from proselyte baptism because of its eschatological setting. Proselyte baptism is not
attested in Philo or Josephus, and there is no indication that it was current in the Diaspora be-
fore the end of the first century C , E ,
205. Philonenko, Joseph et Aseneth, 109, dates Joseph and Aseneth to the early second
century C . E . on the basis of these parallels,
206. Standhartinger, Das Frauenbild, 19; cf. Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 93-94. On
the novelistic genre, see S. West, "Joseph and Asenath: A Neglected Greek Novel," Classical
Quarterly 68 (1974) 70-81; R. Pervo, "Joseph and Aseneth and the Greek Novel," in
G. MacRae, ed., SBL 1976 Seminar Papers (Missoula, Mont.: Scholars Press, 1976) 171-81;
Wills, The Jewish Novel, 170-84.
207. R. Chesnutt, "The Setting and Purpose of Joseph and Aseneth," JSP 2 (1988) 22.
Chesnutt provides a good review of the various proposals on dating in From Death to Life, 80-
85
 RELIGION A N D POLITICS: THE PTOLEMAIC ERA 107

A highly specific date and provenance have recently been proposed by

Gideon Bohak.•^''^ He finds the key to the provenance in the enigmatic scene
where an angel appears to Aseneth and gives her to eat from a honeycomb
(chaps. 14-17). In 16:17-23 we read of a swarm of bees that come out of the
cells of the honeycomb. They are white as snow, with wings like purple, vio-
let, and scarlet, and like gold-woven linen garments; they have golden dia-
dems on their heads, and have sharp stings, although they harm no one. They
encircle Aseneth and make a honeycomb on her mouth, and they eat from the
comb. When the man tells them to go away to their place, they fly away to
heaven. The bees that want to injure Aseneth die, but the man tells them too
to rise and go to their place, and they rise and seek shelter on fruit-bearing
trees near Aseneth's house.
Bohak notes that the description of the bees mentions the same materi-
als that are used for priestly garments in the Pentateuch. So, for example, in
Exod. 28:4-5, Aaron and his sons wear gold, violet, purple, scarlet, and linen.
Bohak infers that the bees must represent Jewish priests, and the honeycomb
their temple. He then interprets the description of bees leaving one honey-
comb and building another as Jewish priests leaving their temple and build-
ing another. The identity of these priests is secured by the fact that Aseneth is
said to reside in Heliopolis, the very region where Onias built his temple.^"^^
The fact that Aseneth Is said to become a "city of refuge" in which many na-
tions take refuge (15:7) can then be taken as an allusion to Leontopolis, and
to the hope that it would be the fulfillment of Isaiah's prophecy, that there
would be an altar for the Lord in the land of Egypt, and that the Egyptians
would know the Lord (Isa. 19:18-22).^"* Further support for the hypothesis is
derived from the very positive portrayal of Levi in chapters 22-29. Bohak
even suggests that Levi was the author's alter ego.^^^ He accordingly dates
the composition of the narrative to the mid-second century B.C.E., sometime
between 160 and 145 B.C.E.
This ingenious proposal is intriguing in many respects, especially in
view of the undeniable association with Heliopolis and the prominence of
the priest Levi in an episode that has no biblical basis. It has the virtue of
making sense of an episode that has puzzled all previous commentators.
Nonetheless, the allegory of the bees is so subtle that we must wonder
whether the author intended it or whether anyone would have perceived it.
It is unsafe, then, to base an interpretation of Joseph and Aseneth on the

208. G. Bohak, Joseph and Aseneth and the Jewish Temple in Heliopolis (Atlanta:
Scholars Press, 1996).
209. Ibid., 13.
210. Ibid.. 79. Bohak also suggests that the burning of the first honeycomb reflects a
hope or expectation that the Jerusalem temple would be destroyed.
211. Ibid., 84.
108 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

proposed Oniad identification, but Bohak's proposal should be kept in

mind as an intriguing possibility.
Joseph and Aseneth consists of two distinct but related stories, the con-
version of Aseneth (chaps. 1-21) and the jealousy of pharaoh's son (chaps.
22-29). The first story, which is the greater part of the whole, tells the story
of the marriage of Joseph to the Egyptian Aseneth. We will discuss it in some
detail in Part Two below. The political dimension of Joseph and Aseneth is
found mainly in the second story.
The second story in chapters 22-29 concerns the jealousy of pharaoh's
son and his attempts against Joseph and Aseneth. By contrast with the pharaoh
and Pentephres, pharaoh's son has no sympathy for Joseph and is portrayed as
utterly ruthless. The opposition, however, is not simply between Israelite and
Egyptian. Pharaoh's son plots not only against Joseph but also against the pha-
raoh, his own father, because he is like a father to Joseph (24:13). The strategy
against Joseph is to recruit some of his brothers to betray him. Levi and Simeon
refuse, although they are threatened with death, but Gad and Dan agree. These
two (both sons of servant maids. Gen. 30:6, 11) are singled out as the black
sheep in the family of Jacob and are blamed exclusively for selling Joseph into
slavery (24:9; 25:6; 28:13). On the other hand, Levi assumes the leading role in
this story. His prophetic knowledge is repeatedly emphasized — he sees
Aseneth's resting place in heaven and foresees the danger of the ambush. More
importantly, he restrains the anger of Simeon against pharaoh's son, since "it
does not befit a pious man to return evil for evil" (23:9). This does not mean
that he is a pacifist. He boasts of the destruction of Shechem, which Is viewed
here as a fully justified act, and warns pharaoh's son that his sword is ready if
there is further plotting against Joseph (23:12). Levi is not an aggressor, but he
is willing and able to defend himself and his brethren. Again, when Benjamin
is about to strike down pharaoh's son with the sword, Levi intervenes, saying
that a pious man should not return evil for evil nor afflict his enemy unto death.
Instead, they should heal his wound and make him their friend. Even though
pharaoh's son dies from the wound, relations with pharaoh are not strained. In
the case of Dan and Gad, however, it is Aseneth who intervenes to save their
lives by invoking the principle of nometaliation. We are given, then, a nicely
complex picture, in which the proselyte Aseneth understands what is fitting
better than Simeon does, and even the pagan pharaoh comes off better than Dan
and Gad.212

212. Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora, 204-16, misses the positive por-
trayal of the Egyptian authorities. He notes the friendliness of Pentephres and Pharaoh towards
Joseph (p. 210) but attempts to dismiss it on the ground that it is "necessary for the narrative to
work at all." But the author did not have to construct the story in this way. He chose to tell a
story where the goodwill of some important Egyptians was the essence of the plot and one of
the points of the story.
 RELIGION AND POLITICS: THE PTOLEMAIC ERA 109

The story of chapters 22-29 is evidently paradigmatic of Jewish-Gen-

tile relations in the Egyptian Diaspora, although it is by no means a simple
historical allegory. The benevolence of the sovereign is assumed. The enemy
of the Jews is the enemy of the pharaoh too. This pattern is reminiscent of Es-
ther, and we will find It again in 3 Maccabees. Yet there are also powerful
forces, high at court, which are hostile to the Jews and which are represented
here by pharaoh's son. Those Jews who side with pharaoh's son against their
own people stand self-convicted, but the pious do not seek vengeance against
either them or the hostile Gentiles. Reconciliation is best. In all of this, the
pious, represented by Levi and Simeon, retain a self-sufficiency based on
their strength of arms and the help of God. Their conciliatory attitude comes
from strength, not from weakness.
Is this political background of the book of any help in dating it? Some
features seem especially appropriate for the Ptolemaic age. The treachery of
pharaoh's son towards his father recalls the internecine strife of the late Ptol-
emaic dynasty. The armed prowess of Levi and Simeon recalls the heyday of
Jewish mercenaries in Egypt, which virtually disappeared after the Roman
conquest. The rise of Joseph to supreme power recalls the days when Onias
and Dositheus were allegedly given power over the land of Egypt, without
suggesting that Joseph is a direct allegory for any historical individual. (The
prominence of Levi as priest and soldier is more suggestive in this regard.)
The offer of pharaoh's son to enlist his accomplices among his hetairoi is a
throwback to the old Macedonian terminology.^'^ There Is nothing in the
story which clearly reflects the presence of Rome.^'* In view of all these con-
siderations, I am inclined to date Joseph and Aseneth in the early first cen-
tury B.C.E. Yet it must be admitted that the story is compatible with a Roman
date.^'^ The details of the story do not have precise historical equivalents.
The atritudes towards the Genriles are not greaUy different from those of
3 M a c c a b e e s . S u c h conciliatory attitudes become less likely after 70 C.E.,
but prior to that they are typical of the Egyptian Diaspora.
The episode of Pharaoh's son in Joseph and Aseneth Is indicative of
tensions between Jews and their political rivals in Egypt. These tensions
were scarcely acknowledged in the Third Sibyl and the Letter of Aristeas. Yet

213. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 2:184n.63.

214. G. D. Kilpatrick, "The Last Supper," ET64 (1952/53) 4-8, and J. Jeremias, "The
Last Supper," £7" 64 (1952/53) 91-92, argue for a date between 100 and 30 B . C . E . for this rea-
son.
215. So D. Sanger, "Erwagungen zu Joseph und Aseneth," ZNW 76 (1985) 86-106.
Chesnutt, From Death to Life, 85, expresses a sliglit preference for a date before 30 B . C . E . , but
concludes that only a date between 100 B . C . E . and 115 C . E . can be affirmed with any confi-
dence.
216. Cf. Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 93, who expresses a slight preference for a
Ptolemaic setting.
110 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

there must have been some tensions throughout the Ptolemaic period. The
Oniads took sides in Egyptian civil conflicts, and their loyalty to Philometor
and his widow inevitably placed them in conflict with Ptolemy Physcon. It
does not appear that the Jewish community suffered any lasting repercus-
sions from these clashes, but they may have contributed to later resentment
against the Jews on the part of some elements in Alexandria.^''' In the first
century B.C.E. we hear of the first Greek pamphlet against the Jews, by
Apollonius Molon, and there is some obscure evidence of a persecution of
Jews in Alexandria about 88 B . C . E . T h e s e tensions would be magnified and
come into the open in the Roman period.

Greek Esther

Tension between Jew and Gentile in the Diaspora was not, of course, a new
phenomenon. Perhaps the most characteristic product of the eastern Diaspora
in the Hellenistic age was the so-called Diasporanovelle represented by Es-
ther and Daniel 1-6.^'^ These tales envisaged situations in which exiled Jews
were threatened with mortal danger, but in the end were dramatically deliv-
ered. Like many other Hebrew and Aramaic writings, these stories were
translated into Greek in the Ptolemaic period and so were available as mod-
els for Egyptian Judaism. The case of Esther is especially significant, since
the expanded Greek translation was already tailored in some respects for the
Egyptian milieu.•^^'^
According to the colophon appended to the Greek translation of Esther,
the book was brought to Egypt by one Dositheus "in the fourth year of Ptol-
emy and Cleopatra" and was the work of "Lysimachus son of Ptolemy, a
member of the Jerusalem community." Bickerman has shown decisively that

217. Barclay, Jews in tite Mediterranean Diaspora, 38-39. His statement that the inter-
vention of Onias on behalf of Philometor's widow was "disastrous" is clearly an exaggeration,
in view of his subsequent admission that there was not "any sudden deterioration in the for-
tunes of the Jews."
218. CPJ, 1:25. The evidence consists of an obscure reference in lordanis, Ro/nan His-
tory, 81. A few obscure passages in the papyri might also reflect hostility to the Jews in the
Ptolemaic period, but the evidence is far from clear. There was also conflict in Cyrene about
this time; see S. Applebaum, Jews and Greeks in Ancient Cyrene {SJLA 28; Leiden: Brill,
1979) 201-2.
219. See L. M. Wills, The Jew in the Court of the Foreign King: Ancient Jewish Court
Legends (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1990).
220. On the additions to Esther and Daniel, see C. A. Moore, Daniel, Esther and Jere-
miah: The Additions (AB 44; Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1977); G. Vermes and M. Good-
man, in Schiirer, The History of the Jewish People, 3.2:718-22; Wills, The Jewish Novel, 116-
28. At least some of the additions to Esther were composed in Greek. This does not seem to be
the case with Daniel. The additions to Daniel show no special links to Egyptian Judaism.
 RELIGION A N D POLITICS: THE PTOLEMAIC ERA 111

the date in question was the fourth year of Ptolemy XII Auletes and Cleopa-
tra V, that is, 78/77 B.C.E.^^' There is no good reason to doubt the reliability
of the colophon on the question of provenance.^'^^ It appears, then, that Greek
Esther is not a product of Egyptian Judaism, but like 2 Maccabees was sent
to Egypt from Jerusalem, and may have been modified in the light of its des-
tination.
The Greek version of Esther contains six extended additions to the text
now found in the Masoretic text: Mordecai's dream (Addition A) and its in-
terpretation (F); a royal letter commanding the extermination of the Jews (B)
and a second letter countermanding it (E); the prayers of Mordecai and Es-
ther (C); and a description of Esther's going before the king unsummoned
(D). In addition to these there are various scattered alterations of the Hebrew
text.^'^^ The expansions and changes serve two main purposes.^2'* They clar-
ify the Hebrew text — for example, by having Mordecai explain in his prayer
why he refused to bow to Haman. They also provide the explicit piety which
is strikingly lacking in the Hebrew. So Esther professes in her prayer that she
has not partaken of the king's table, although this is most implausible in the
context of the story. Two other modifications are more significant for our
present study. First, in the dream of Mordecai and again in its interpretation,
there is a simple antithesis between Israel and "every nation" which "got it-
self ready for battle that it might fight against the righteous nation" (A 6).
God "made two lots, one for the people of God and one for all the na-
tions."^^5 Second, Haman is said to be a Macedonian who was plotting to
gain control for the Macedonians over the Persians.
The rigid division between Israel and the nations and the exaggerated
emphasis on the separatist piety of Esther may be taken to reflect the Hasmo-

221. E. J. Bickerman, "The Colophon of the Greek Book of Esther," in Studies in Jewish
and Christian History, 1:225-45 (originally published in JBL 63 [1944]). The decisive points
are the use of the singular basileuontos for the reign of king and queen, and the fact that the
name of the king precedes that of the queen. This usage is incompatible with the reigns of Ptol-
emy IX (114/113) and XIII (49-48), since the queen was regent in the fourth year of each of
their reigns and her name therefore preceded the king's. Moore {The Additions, 250), following
B. Jacob ("Das Buch Esther bei dem LXX," ZAW 10 [1890] 241-98), regards 114/113 as the
more probable date. H. Bardtke {Zusdtze zu Esther [JSHRZ 1.1; Gutersloh: Mohn, 1973] 27)
dates the translation to the time of the Maccabean revolt but provides no objective evidence.
222. E. J. Bickerman ("Notes on the Greek Book of Esther," in Studies in Jewish and
Christian History, l:258n.41 [originally published in Proceedings of the Atnerican Academy
for Jewish Research 20 (1951)]) refutes tlie contention of Jacob and others that the translation
has an Egyptian flavor.
223. Bickerman, "Notes," 246-56; Moore, Additions, 153-68. Both provide discussion
of the complex textual transmission.
224. Bickerman, "Notes," 256-68.
225. Bickerman, "Notes," 268-74. The term lots is presumably used because of the asso-
ciation with Purim, but it recalls the deterministic language of the Qumran scrolls. The imagery
of the dream, though not its interpretation, is reminiscent of the apocalyptic literature, whieh
became popular in Palestine in the second century B . C . E .
112 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

nean milieu in whieh the translation was made. It is noteworthy that such an
exclusive and nationalist view of Judaism was quite compatible with the use
of the Greek language and mastery of Greek style,^^^ as we have found ear-
lier in the epic of Theodotus.
The identification of Haman as a Macedonian is especially apt for the
situation of Alexandrian J u d a i s m . T h e story of Esther was centered on the
rivalry between a Jewish and a pagan courtier. In Alexandria, the relevant
courtiers who were rivals to the Jews were the Macedonians. Greek Esther
goes beyond the Hebrew in accusing Haman of plotting against the state. The
issue between the courtiers is no longer simple ambition, but devotion to the
state. The accusations against the Jews in the first decree are parallel to those
against Haman in the second. In the first, the Jews are accused of obstructing
government by their peculiar customs. In the second, Haman is accused of
conspiring against the king, while the Jews are vindicated and recognized (in
the person of Mordecai) as benefactors. Even more clearly than in the He-
brew original, the triumph of the Jews takes place within the context of the
undisputed rule of the Gentile king. If the Jews slaughter their enemies, they
do so by the king's permission and are nonetheless his excellent servants.
The Greek translation of Esther may, in a sense, be regarded as
Hasmonean propaganda.•^^^ It urged the Jews of the Egyptian Diaspora to cel-
ebrate the feast of Purim like the rest of their brethren. It propagated separat-
ist attitudes towards the Gentiles in religious observance. Yet it did not inter-
fere with the political allegiance of Diaspora Jews. It provided them rather
with moral support in their efforts to rise within the service of the kingdom.
The antagonism of Jew and Gentile and the fantasy of vengeance with
which Greek Esther concludes are atypical of the literature of the Ptolemaic
period, but they anticipate ominously the events of the Roman era. The ad-
vent of Rome introduced a new factor which could only complicate the rela-
tionships of the Jews. The increasing dissonance of Diaspora life in the first
century C.E. is reflected in a Diasporanovelle of Egyptian Jewish origin in
3 Maccabees and would ultimately erupt in the great Diaspora revolt in the
time of Trajan.

226- On the elements of Greek style in Greek Esther, see Bickerman, "Notes," 256-65.
He comments on the (initially) unexplained dream as a Hellenistic device.
227. Addition E 10, 14. See CPJ. 1:24.
228. Bickerman ("The Colophon," 244): "The historical background of this literature is
the violent and implacable war between the Maccabees and the Greek cities in Palestine."
 CHAPTER 3

Religion and Politics:

The Roman Period

T h e Status of the J e w s in R o m a n E g y p t

The initial relations between Egyptian Jewry and the Romans were friendly.^
The Jews had supported the attempt of Gabinius to reestablish Ptolemy XII
Auletes in 55 B.C.E. and Julius Caesar's intervention on behalf of Cleopatra
in 47 B.C.E.2 Josephus refers to a "slab which stands in Alexandria recording
the rights bestowed upon the Jews by Caesar the Great" (Ag. Ap. 2.37) and
asserts that he declared them citizens of Alexandria (Ant. 14.10.1 § 188). This
report is certainly incorrect. Julius Caesar may have granted citizenship to in-
dividual Jews in recognition of their services,^ but it is quite clear from the
subsequent history that the Jews as a class were never full citizens of Alexan-
dria.'* The documents cited by Josephus relating to Jewish communities in

1. On the relations between Jews and Romans, see, in general, J. Juster, Les Juifs dans
{'empire Remain {2 vols.; Paris: Geuthner, 1914); E. M. Smallwood, The Jem under Roman
Rule (SJLA 20; Leiden: Brill, 1976). See also J. J. Collins, Jewish Wisdom in the Hellenistic
Age (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1997) 135-57 ("The Diaspora Setting").
2. H. I. Bell, Juden and Griechen im Romischen Alexandreia (Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1926)
9; V. Tcherikover and A. Fuks, eds.. Corpus Papyrorum Iudaicarum (Cambridge, Mass.: Har-
vard University Press, 1957) 1:55 (hereafter CPJ); A. Kasher, The Jews in Hellenistic and Ro-
man Egypt (Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1985) 12-18.
3. Smallwood (The Jews, 227): "It is beyond dispute that some individual Jews in Alex-
andria obtained Greek citizenship." She mentions two specific cases: Philo's brother Alexan-
der, who was alabarch (customs official) in the thirties, and another Jew, Demetrius, who held
the same position under Claudius. See A H A 18.6.3 §159; 20.5.2 §100; 20.7.3 §147.
4. Smallwood, The Jews. 224-30. Tcherikover, CPJ. l:56n.20, objects that Caesar was
never official ruler of Alexandria and suggests that the privileges were granted by Augustus.
Kasher, The Jews in Hellenistic and Roman Egypt, 17, argues that they were granted by Julius
Caesar in the context of political arrangements imposed on Egypt. Josephus cites several docu-

113
114 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

Asia Minor show that it was Roman policy to allow the Jews to live in accor-
dance with their ancestral laws. In this matter the Romans continued the pol-
icy of the Ptolemies and Seleucids.^ There does not appear to have been any
formal charter or bill of Jewish rights, either in Alexandria or elsewhere.^
At the beginning of the Roman era, the Jews made up a significant part
of the population of Alexandria. Philo claims that they occupied two of the
five districts of Alexandria and that "there were no less than a million Jews
resident in Alexandria and the country from the slope into Libya to the
boundaries of Ethiopia" (In Flaccum 43). Philo's numbers are not reliable,
but even a modern estimate that puts the Jewish population of Alexandria at
180,000 still allows that they may have made up as much as one third of the
city.'' The community had its own organization and enjoyed a limited mea-
sure of autonomy. Josephus cites Strabo for the claim that "in Egypt territory
has been set apart for a Jewish settlement, and in Alexandria a great part of
the city has been allocated to this nation. And an ethnarch of their own has
been installed, who governs the people and adjudicates suits and supervises
contracts and ordinances, just as if he were the head of a sovereign state."^
The office of ethnarch was apparently discontinued by Augustus in 11-12
C.E. and replaced by a gerousia, or council of elders.^ The organization of the
Jewish community was not seriously altered.
Other ethnic groups In Egypt also had their own communal organiza-
tions. The Idumaeans of Memphis were organized as a politeuma, held meet-
ings (synagogai) in the temple of their god, Qos, and issued decrees. The
core community was composed of mercenaries, but there were also support-
ing members from the broader Idumaean community, called sympoliteu-
omenoO^ The Jewish community of Alexandria is called a politeuma in the

meiits relating to the privileges of Jews in other places, but he conspicuously fails to quote from
the alleged stele in Alexandria.
5. The prototypical charter of Jewish rights in the Jlellenistic world was issued by
Antiochus III of Syria when he captured Jerusalem in 198 B . C . E . (Anf. 12.3.3 §§138-44). See
E. J. Bickerman. "La Charte seleucide de Jerusalem," in idem. Studies in Jewish and Christian
History (3 vols.; AGJU 9; Leiden: Brill, 1976-86) 2:44-85.
6. T. Rajak, "Was There a Roman Charter for the Jews?" Journal of Roman Studies 74
(1984) 107-203.
7. J. M. Modrzejewski, The Jews of Egypt: From Rameses U to Emperor Hadrian
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995) 73, following D. Delia, Alexandrian Citizenship
during the Roman Principate (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1991). On the absence of registers of
Jews before 70 C . E . , see S. J. D. Cohen, "Those Who Say They Are Jews and Are Not," in
S. J, D. Cohen and E. Frerichs, eds., Diasporas in Antiquity (Atlanta: Scholars Press. 1993) 22-
25.
8. Ant. XA.l.l §§114-18; M. Stern, Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism (3
vols.; Jerusalem: Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1974-84) 1:277-82.
9. Philo, /;( Flaccum 74. Josephus claims that Augustus "did not prevent the continued
appointment of ethnarchs" (Ant. 19.5.2 §283), but Philo's account is more credible.
10. D. J. Thompson, Memphis under the Ptolemies (Princeton: Princeton University
Press, 1988) 101-2. See also her essay, D. J. Thompson-Crawford, "The Idumaeans of Mem-
 RELIGION AND POLITICS: THE ROMAN PERIOD 115

Letter of Aristeas 310, where the translation of the Torah into Greek is ac-
claimed by "the priests and the elders from among the translators and from
among the people of the politeuma and the leaders of the congregation (tou
plethous)." It is usually assumed that the politeuma and the plethos are one
and the same, although the point is disputed.^' The term politeuma is also
found in inscriptions, referring to the Jewish community of Berenice in
Cyrenaica,^^ and, reportedly, in the archive of a Jewish community in
Heracleopolis.^^ Jewish communities in the Hellenistic Diaspora are also
variously referred to as loudaioi, laos, katoikia, ethnos, synodos, and
synagoge.^'* The precise connotation of these terms may vary. The term
politeuma could refer to "festival associations of women, a cult society, a
club of soldiers, associations of citizens from the same city living abroad,
and ethnic communities."'^ The larger Alexandrian Jewish community en-
compassed many synagogai}^ Despite the strong tradition that Jews could
live in accordance with their own laws, the papyri record only Jewish litiga-
tion before Gentile courts. Jewish law could serve as civil law in disputes be-
tween Jews, but it was never the highest court of appeal. Ultimate authority
lay with the Ptolemaic king or the Roman prefect.'^
While the Romans honored Ptolemaic precedent regarding the rights
of the Jews, their conquest of Egypt made the status of the Jews more prob-
lematic than it had previously been. The line between citizens and non-
citizens was now more sharply d r a w n . I n 24/23 B.C.E., Augustus imposed
a poll tax, known as the laographia, on the Egyptians. The Greek citizens
of Alexandria, and probably those of Ptolemals and Naucratis, were ex-
empted. In 4/5 C.E. a third class was created, to take account of Greeks out-

phis and the Ptolemaic Politeumata," in M. Gigante, ed., Atti del XVII Congresso Inter-
nazionale di Papirologia (Naples: Centro Internazionale per lo Studio dei Papiri Ercolanesi,
1984) 3:1069-75.
11. G. Liideritz, "What Is the Politeuma?" in J. W. van Henten and P. W. van der Horst,
eds.. Studies in Early Jewish Epigraphy (Leiden: Brill, 1994) 183-225, suggests that the
politeuma here is a body representing Alexandria. C. Zuckerman, "Hellenistic Politeumata and
the Jews: A Reconsideration," Scripta Classica Israelica 8-10 (1985-88) 171-85, argues that it
represents Jerusalem.
12. E Millar, in E. Schiirer, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ
(175 B.C.-A.D. 135) (rev. and ed. G. Vermes, F. Millar, and M. Goodman; 3 vols.; Edinburgh:
Clark, 1973-87) 3.1:88.
13. J. Cowey, "Zwei Archive aus dem zweite Jahrhundert vor Christus" (paper pre-
sented at the Twenty-first International Congress of Papyrology, Berlin, August 1995).
14. F. Millar, in Schurer, The History of the Jewish People. 3.1:87-107.
15. LUderitz, "What Is the Politeuma?" 89.
16. S. Applebaum, "The Organization of Jewish Communities in the Diaspora," in
S. Safrai and M. Stern, eds.. The Jewish People in the First Century (CRINT 1.1; Assen: Van
Gorcum; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1974) 475.
17. See Modrzejewski, The Jews of Egypt, 99-119.
18. Smallwood, The Jews, 231-32; CPJ 1:60-62; Modrzejewski, Tiie Jews of Egypt.
161-63.
116 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

side the cities.'^ This class included descendants of military settlers, gradu-
ates of the gymnasia, and residents of Egyptian metropoleis. This inter-
mediate class paid the laographia tax, but at a reduced rate. The Jews did
not constitute a special class. Jews who were citizens of Alexandria were
exempt, but they were presumably few. Some Jews might, in principle,
qualify for the reduced rate.^^ Yet no Jewish names are found in the numer-
ous documents dealing with applications for this s t a t u s . •
Aryeh Kasher has claimed that "there is good reason to think that the
members of the Jewish politeuma in Alexandria enjoyed isoteleia (tax equal-
ity) with the citizens of the polls, a privilege apparently extended to anyone
entitled to be called an 'Alexandrian.'"^^ The supposed evidence is found in
Josephus, who Is not, unfortunately, a reliable guide to the official under-
standing of technical terms by the Roman authority. Josephus claims that the
Jews in Alexandria were called "Alexandrians,"^^ and he even puts a state-
ment to that effect in an edict attributed to Claudius.^^ As we shall see below,
that edict is discredited by the indisputably authentic Letter of Claudius pre-
served on papyrus {CPJ 153). Another fragmentary papyrus throws merci-
less light on the usage of the Roman tax collectors. This papyrus {CPJ 151)
records the petition of one Helenos, the son of Tryphon, who began by call-
ing himself an Alexandrian, but had to correct this to "a Jew from Alexan-
dria." Helenos appealed for exemption from the laographia on the grounds
that his father was "an Alexandrian" and that he himself had received "the
appropriate education as far as my father's means allowed." The correction
of his claim to be an Alexandrian, however, undermines his petition. We do
not know whether his father actually was an Alexandrian citizen. The preci-
sion of the terminology was more important in the case of the son.^^ Josephus
also claims that the Jews of Cyrene and Asia appealed to Augustus and that
he granted them "the same equality of taxation (isoteleian) as before."^'^ But
the documents cited in the following passages show that the issue was the
confiscation of money sent by Jews to Jerusalem.•^^ The incident has no bear-
ing on taxation in Alexandria.
It is usually assumed that the new tax, with its clear-cut distinction be-

19. CPJ, 1:59; Modrzejewski, The Jews of Egypt, 163; Kasher, The Jews in Hellenistic
and Roman Egypt, 76.
20. See especially Kasher, The Jews in Hellenistic and Roman Egypt. 74-105.
21. Modrzejewski, The Jews of Egypt, 163.
22. Kasher, The Jews in Hellenistic and Roman Egypt, 19.
23. Ag. Ap. 2.38.
24. Ant. 19.5.2 §281.
25. See Modrzejewski, The Jews of Egypt, 164; V. Tcherikover, Hellenistic Civilization
and the Jews {New York: Atheneum, 1970) 312.
26. Ant. 16.6.2 §§160-61.
27. A similar incident had arisen in 59 B . C . E . , involving the proconsul L. Valerius
Flaccus, who was defended by Cicero.
 RELIGION AND POLITICS: THE ROMAN PERIOD 117

tween Alexandrian citizens at one end of the spectrum and common Egyp-
tians at the other, entailed a degrading reduction of status for most Jews.
Tcherilcover tells us that for Alexandrian Jews "the payment of laographia
was not merely an additional expense but also a mark of extreme political
and cultural degradation, putting them on the same level with the Egyptian
fellahin."^^ Modrzejewski refers to "a sudden and deplorable deterioration of
their status."^^ Recently, however, Gruen has claimed that "there is no direct
testimony that the Augustan census and imposition of a poll-tax reduced
Jews to a station equivalent to that of the Egyptians."^" Jewish literature,
with the arguable exception of 3 Maccabees, is silent on the issue, but then
we should hardly expect Philo or Josephus to raise it if it were a matter of
embarrassment. There were, to be sure, attempts to escape the tax, and these
inevitably make status the Issue rather than money. Helenos bases his peti-
tion partly on his education. The so-called Boule papyrus from 19-21 C.E.
(CPJ 150) preserves an appeal to Rome for the restoration of the Alexandrian
city council or boule. The Alexandrians promised to "take care that the citi-
zen-body of Alexandria is not corrupted by men who are uncultured and un-
educated." The reference is very probably to the Jews.^^ The only text that
makes a comparison between the status of the Jews and that of the Egyptians
is found in the Acts of the Alexandrian Martyrs, which views the conflicts in
Alexandria from the viewpoint of the Greek leaders of the city, who were
both anti-Jewish and a n t i - R o m a n . O n e fragment (CPJ 156) reports an anti-
Jewish diatribe by Isidorus, one of the Alexandrian leaders. "Are they not of
the same nature as the Alexandrians but live rather after the fashion of the
Egyptians. Are they not on a level with those who pay the tax?" Gruen at-
tempts to dismiss this text on the grounds that it is "propaganda," but what it
shows is precisely that the laographia was an issue in the inter-community
polemics in Alexandria.^^ The issue is not whether the Jews were objectively
equal to the Egyptians, but whether the laographia created the perception

28. CPJ, 1:6L His most complete discussion of ttie laographia is found in "Syntaxis and
Laographia," Journal of Juristic Papyrology 4 (1950) 179-207.
29. Modrzejewski, The Jews of Egypt, 163. S. L. Wallace, "Census and Poll-tax in Ptole-
maic Egypt," American Journal of Philology 59 (1938)418-42, argued that Augustus took over
the Ptolemaic system of taxation, but his evidence is weak. There are no receipts for such a tax
from the Ptolemaic period.
30. E. Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism: The Reinvention of Jewish Tradition (Berkeley:
University of Califomia Press, 1998) 226.
31. Tchtnkover, Hellenistic Civilization, 313.
32. H. Musurillo, The Acts of the Pagan Martyrs: Acta Alexandrinorum (Oxford: Clar-
endon, 1954).
33. In the papyrus. King Agrippa replies to Isidorus that the tax was imposed on Egyp-
tians, not on the Jews. This does not mean that the Jews did not pay the tax, but that it was not
imposed with them primarily in mind. Kasher, The Jews in Helletustic and Roman Egypt, 343-
44, also tries to downplay the significance of this text.
118 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

that they were. The Acts, of course, does not tell us how the Jews felt about
the tax, but the inference that it was a source of embarrassment and aggrava-
tion is not unreasonable.
We know of no disturbances involving the Egyptian Jews under Augus-
tus and Tiberius, but matters came to a head under Gains (Caligula). The Ro-
man prefect Flaccus had been a protege of Tiberius and felt his position and
life were in jeopardy under the new emperor. Accordingly, his authority dete-
riorated and he became subject to the influence of the Alexandrian national-
ists, Lampo and Isidorus. These inclined him against the Jews, and the situa-
tion was exacerbated by the untimely visit of King Agrippa, which provoked
the mockery of the Greeks and was perceived as a threat to the authority of
Flaccus. The ensuing riots and the subsequent delegations to Gains are de-
scribed in Philo's treatises In Flaccum and Legatio ad Gaium. They have of-
ten been discussed in modern scholarship and need not be dealt with in detail
here.^* At the heart of the crisis was Flaccus's attack on the rights of the Jew-
ish politeuma by a proclamation in which he declared that the Jews were
"aUens and foreigners" in Alexandria. The Jews would now be confined to
only one of the five sections of Alexandria and so, in effect, to a ghetto.^^ A
virtual pogrom ensued. Jewish property, including synagogues, was seized.
One incident, highlighted by Philo, shows that the status of the Jews was at
the heart of the conflict:

There are differences between the scourges used in the city, and these
differences are regulated by the social standing of the persons to be
beaten. The Egyptians actually are scourged with a different kind of
lash and by a different set of people, the Alexandrians with a flat
blade, and the persons who wield them also are Alexandrians. This
custom was also observed in the case of our people by the predeces-
sors of Flaccus and by Flaccus himself in his first years of office. . ..
Surely then it was the height of harshness that when commoners
among the Alexandrian Jews, if they appeared to have done things
worthy of stripes, were beaten with whips more suggestive of free-
men and citizens, the magistrates, the gerousia, whose very name
implies age and honor, in this respect fared worse than their inferiors
and were treated like Egyptians of the meanest rank and guilty of the
greatest iniquities. {In Flaccum 78-80)

According to Philo, Flaccus had Jewish magistrates flogged and tortured in

the theatre and executed. The attack on the gerousia would seem to undo

34. See H. Box, Philonis Alexandrini m Flaccum (Oxford: Oxford University, 1939);
E. M. Smallwood, Philonis Alexandrini Legatio ad Gaium (2d ed.; Leiden: Brill, 1970);
Smallwood, The Jews, 235-50; CPJ, 1:65-74.
35. Philo, //( Flaccum, 53-54. See Smallwood, Legatio, 20-21.
 RELIGION A N D POLITICS: THE ROMAN PERIOD 119

whatever privileges and status the Jewish politeuma had enjoyed. The promi-
nence that Philo gives to the kind of scourge used shows that for him a cen-
tral issue was whether the Jews were to be treated like Alexandrians or like
"Egyptians of the meanest rank."
Flaccus proceeded to have the soldiers search the Jewish houses for
arms. Philo, of course, only views the events from the Jewish side and sees
only naked, unprovoked aggression by the Alexandrians and Flaccus. It is
apparent, however, that Flaccus still ran afoul of the Alexandrians, and so he
cannot have sided with them as completely as Philo suggests.Moreover,
the Jewish community evidently had arms and used them in 41 C.E. after the
death of Caligula.^''
Both the Jews and the Alexandrians sent embassies to Caligula, headed
by Philo and Apion respectively. The Jews had to wait months for an audi-
ence and then were met with contempt and ridicule. At the same time,
Caligula provoked a crisis in Judea by ordering that his statue be installed in
the Jerusalem temple. That crisis was resolved when he was assassinated in
41 C.E. The Jews in Alexandria seized the occasion to take vengeance on the
Greeks, and the Roman army had to intervene. The new emperor, Claudius,
then issued an edict to settle the dispute in Alexandria.
The Letter of Claudius is preserved on papyrus (CPJ 153), first published
in 1924. He refused to assign responsibility for the disturbances "or rather, to
speak the truth, the war against the Jews," but urged both sides to desist. The
Alexandrians should "behave gently and kindly towards the Jews who have in-
habited the same city for many years, and not dishonor any of their customs in
their worship of their god, but allow them to keep their own ways, as they did in
the time of the god Augustus and as I too having heard both sides have con-
firmed." The Jews, conversely, were ordered

not to aim at more than they have previously had, not in future to
send two embassies as if they lived in two cities, a thing which has
never been done before, and not to intrude themselves into the games
presided over by the gymnasiarchoi and the kosmetai, since they en-
joy what is their own, and in a city which is not their own they pos-
sess an abundance of good things. Nor are they to bring in or invite
Jews coming from Syria or Egypt If they disobey, I shall proceed
against them in every way as fomenting a common plague for the
whole world.

36. Flaccus was arrested and put on trial in Rome, where he was accused by Lampo and
Isidorus. His property was confiscated and he was sentenced to deportation.
37. Ant. 19.5.2 §278. Tcherikover {CPJ, 1:68) notes that the Jews were unable to defend
themselves in 38 c.E. but took the initiative in 41. He infers that arms and reinforcements were
smuggled in from outside Alexandria.
120 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

The reference to two embassies is usually taken to reflect some division

in the Jewish community, on the assumption that the reference is to two Jewish
delegations.^^ It is more likely, however, that Claudius meant that there should
not be two delegations from Alexandria, as if the Jews inhabited a separate city.
The position taken by Claudius is quite clear. He confirms the traditional Jew-
ish right to live according to their ancestral laws, but he states unequivocally
that they live in a city not their own. The Jews, in short, are not citizens, and are
not Alexandrians. The evidence of the papyrus on this issue is incompatible
with the edict of Claudius preserved by Josephus in Ant. 19.5.2 §280-85, which
says that the Jews in Alexandria are called Alexandrians and had received
equal civic rights (isepoliteia) from the beginning.^^ Claudius strove for impar-
tiality. He had Isidorus and Lampon executed for slander when they brought
accusations against King Agrippa, who was the emperor's friend.^'* But he was
not nearly so favorable to the Jews as Josephus would have us believe.
Claudius ordered the Jews "not to aim at more than they have previ-
ously had," thereby acknowledging that Jewish agitation was a contributing
cause of the conflict. The goal of that agitation has been a matter of dispute
in modern scholarship. Tcherikover argued that the Jews aspired to full citi-
zenship.^' Kasher, in contrast, argues that Jews could not aspire to full citi-
zenship, for religious reasons, and that "their true aim was a separate, inde-
pendent life."^^ His argument depends heavily on his understanding of the
politeuma as a quasi-independent political entity, whose members could en-
joy a status equal to that of citizens (isepoliteia). But this understanding has
been universally rejected.Isepoliteia in the strict sense was a reciprocal ar-
rangement between Greek cities, and no such agreements are known between
a polls and a politeuma.^^ A further issue concerns access to the gymnasium.

38. Tcherikover suggests that the second delegation represented a more radical stratum
of Jewish society. For a summary of the discussion, see R. Barraclough, "Philo's Politics, Ro-
man Rule and Hellenistic Judaism," ANRW, 11.21.1 (1984) 435-36.
39. See the discussion in CPJ, 1:70-71. Tcherikover allows that an authentic edict may
have been altered. For an attempt to defend the authenticity of the edict, see Kasher, The Jews
in Hellenistic and Roman Egypt, 262-89.
40. See Modrzejewski, The Jews of Egypt, 173-83. The fate of Isidorus and Lampo is
described in the imaginative Acts of the Alexandrian Martyrs. The relevant texts can be found
in CPJ, 2:55-81 and Tcherikover's comments in CPJ, 1:72. See also Musurillo, The Acts of the
Pagan Martyrs: and Smallwood, The Jews, 250-55. The Agrippa in question was Agrippa I,
and the trial should be dated about 41 C . E .
41. See, e.g., CPJ, 1:63,
42. Kasher, The Jews in Hellenistic and Roman Egypt, 230. See also Kasher, "The Civic
Status of Jews in Ptolemaic Egypt," in P. Bilde et al., eds.. Ethnicity in Hellenistic Egypt
(Aarhus: Aarhus University Press, 1992) 100-21.
43. Luderitz, "What Is the Politeuma?"; Zuckerman, "Hellenistic Politeumata and the
Jews"; Modrzejewski, The Jews of Egypt, 163-64.
44. S. Applebaum, 'The Legal Status of the Jewish Communities in the Diaspora," in
S. Safrai and M. Stem, eds., The Jewish People in the First Century (CRINT 1.1; Assen: Van
Gorcum; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1974) 436, 438.
 RELIGION A N D POLITICS: THE ROMAN PERIOD 121

Tcherikover understands the Letter of Claudius to mean that Jews were try-
ing to infiltrate the gymnasium and thereby pass themselves off as citizens or
enjoy some of the benefits of citizenship. Kasher, in contrast, takes the Letter
to say that the Jews should not harass the games, reading the verb epi-
spairein (the original editor's reading) instead of Tcherikover's epispaiein.^^
In Kasher's view, gymnasia in Alexandria were hotbeds of anti-Jewish activ-
ity and consequently the scene of conflict. The reading is admittedly diffi-
cult, but Tcherikover's interpretation coheres well with the warning to the
Jews not to seek more than they already had, and also with the concern ex-
pressed in the Boule papyrus about the corruption of the citizen body. If
Tcherikover is right, conflict would have developed because of the opposi-
tion of the Alexandrians to the presence of Jews in the gymnasium. Isidorus
and Lampon were gymnasiarchs, but their involvement can be explained on
either interpretation.
Kasher's insistence that Jews "rejected Alexandrian citizenship with all
its material benefits"*^ is based on 3 Maccabees, which is not necessarily
representative of all Egyptian Jews. There is no doubt that some Jews en-
joyed Alexandrian citizenship. Some of those forsook their ancestral reli-
gion, as Dositheus, son of Drimylus, had in the early Ptolemaic period and as
Philo's nephew, Tiberius Julius Alexander, did in the Roman period.*^ Others
may have managed to finesse the religious demands of the civic institu-
tions.*^ Philo's whole family may have enjoyed Roman citizenship, since his
brother Alexander held the position of alabarch in Alexandria, and several
members of the family had the middle name Julius. Philo seems to have had
firsthand knowledge of the gymnasium*^ and yet to have remained an obser-
vant Jew. Apion's question, "Why then, if they are citizens, do they not wor-
ship the same gods as the Alexandrians?" {Ag. Ap. 2.65), presupposes that
some Jews claimed to be citizens and yet refused to participate in the civic
worship. Some of their claims may have lacked any legal basis. The words
"citizen" and "Alexandrian" admit of an imprecise nontechnical sense, and
both Philo and Josephus exploit the ambiguity.^^ Kasher may well be right
that what most Alexandrian Jews wanted was parity with the Alexandrians in

45. Kasher, Tiie Jews in Hellenistic and Roman Egypt, 314-2L Tcherikover rejects this
reading in CPJ, 2:53. See also J. M. G. Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora from Al-
exander to Trajan (323 BCE-II? CE) (Edinburgh: Clark, 1996) 58-59.
46. Kasher, The Jews in Hellenistic and Roman Egypt, 230.
47. Modrzejewski, The Jews of Egypt, 185-90.
48. Cf. Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora, 66-70.
49. L. H. Feldinan, Jew and Gentile in the Ancient World (Princeton: Princeton Univer-
sity Press, 1993) 57-63; A. Mendelson, Secular Education in Philo of Alexandria (Cincinnati:
Hebrew Union College, 1982) 25-26.
50. See further Collins, Jewish Wisdom, 142-43. See also W. Horbury and D. Noy, Jew-
ish Inscriptions of Graeco-Roman Egypt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992) 193-
96 for the nontechnical use of "citizens" (politai) in epitaphs.
122 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

esteem and privilege rather than citizenship in itself. But such parity was not
guaranteed by the status of the politeuma, at least in the Roman era, when
lines were clearly drawn for purposes of taxation. There was clearly a dis-
crepancy between the rights to which the Jews laid claim and those which ei-
ther the Romans or the Alexandrians were prepared to grant. This discrep-
ancy was a major source of the conflicts that erupted in the first and early
second century C.E.

The Third Book of M a c c a b e e s

The turmoil of the early Roman period may be reflected indirectly in the
"Diaspora novel" known as 3 Maccabees.^' This is a historical novel in the
tradition of Esther,^'^ which evidently combines material from various
s o u r c e s . I t Is neither a reliable historical source^* nor an allegory of a spe-
cific situation. The view of the relationships between the various groups in
the novel may reflect more than one period in the history of the Diaspora,
but it is at least illuminating to read it against the background of the early
Roman period.
3 Maccabees Is a melodramatic account of two alleged episodes in the
career of Ptolemy IV Philopator (222-203 B.C.E.). The first concerns an at-
tempt by the Ptolemy to enter the temple of Jerusalem, and his miraculous
prevention. The second concerns the persecution of the Egyptian Jews by re-
ducing them "to the popular census and slave condition" (eis laographian kai
oiketiken diathesin, 2:28) and branding them with the emblem of Dionysus.
When the majority of the Jews resisted, the king is said to have rounded them
up and ordered them to be trampled by elephants. The execution of this order
is thwarted first by lapses of the king's memory, then by the miraculous inter-
vention of two angels. Finally, the king is brought to repentance and becomes
benevolent to the Jews.
These stories are stereotypical and adapt traditional materials. There

51. For text and translation, see M. Hadas, The Third and Fourth Books of Maccabees
(Dropsie College Edition; New York: Harper, 1953). Annotated translations in C. W. Emmet,
"The Third Book of Maccabees," in APOT, 1:156-73; H. Anderson, "3 Maccabees," in OTP,
2:509-29, A commentary on the text can be found in A. Paul, "Le Troisifeme Livre des
Macchabees,"^/^^ 11.20.1 (1987) 298-336.
52. L. M. Wills, The Jewish Novel in the Ancient World (Ithaca. N.Y.: Cornell University
Press, 1995) 201-6; R. I. Pervo, Profit with Delight: The Literary Genre of the Acts of the Apos-
tles (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1987) 120. See also M. Hadas, "III Maccabees and the Tradition of
Patriotic Romance," Chronique d'Egypte 47 (1949) 97-104,
53. J. Tromp, "The Formation of the Third Book of Maccabees," Henoch 17(1995) 311-
28.
54. Pace Kasher, The Jews in Hellenistic and Roman Egypt, 211-32.
 RELIGION AND POLITICS: THE ROMAN PERIOD 123

are numerous points of eontact with 2 M a c c a b e e s . T h e attempt of Philo-

pator to enter the temple is clearly based on the incident involving Helio-
dorus in 2 Maccabees. The general situation in the persecution story is
reminiscent of Esther, especially in its conclusion, when the Jews are per-
mitted to take revenge on their enemies and institute an annual festival.
There are verbal parallels between 3 Maccabees and Greek Esther, which
are so close as to require us to assume literary influence.^'' Moreover, the
style of the work shows many similarities to the Greek r o m a n c e s . Y e t
there is general agreement that the book reflects some historical episodes,
however obliquely. The opening account of the battle of Raphia resembles
that given by Polybius in several details; Dositheus, son of Drimylus, is in-
dependently attested (but not his role in saving the king), and the refer-
ences to the cult of Dionysus (2:29-30) may draw on traditions from the
time of Philopator.59 Aryeh Kasher, following Y. Gutman, has even claimed
"that its contents can be corroborated as genuinely historical without de-
parting from its own chronological framework,"^'* but at most we can speak
of historical reminiscences.^^ The fantastic genre of the story should warn
against any attempt to treat it as "genuinely historical." The account of the
persecution of the Jews has also been thought to reflect an historical event.
Josephus preserves a variant of this story in Ag. Ap. 2.53-55 but sets it in
the reign of Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II ( P h y s c o n ) . I n view of Physcon's
notorious cruelty and the opposition of the Jews in his civil war with Cleo-
patra II (the widow of Philometor),^^ Tcherikover and others have argued
that the story is a melodramatic dramatization of the real threat to the Jews

55. Emmet, "The Third Boolt of Maccabees," in APOT, L156; Hadas, The Third and
Fourth Books of Maccabees, 11-12. V. Tcherikover, "The Third Book of Maccabees as a His-
torical Source," Scripta Hierosolymitana 7 (1961) 5-6; Tromp, "The Formation," 318-24.
56. Hadas, The Third and Fourth Books, 6-7.
57. Ibid., 7-8; C. A. Moore, Daniel. Esther, and Jeremiah: The Additions (AB 44; Gar-
den City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1977) 195-99. The direction of the influence is disputed, but in
view of the independent evidence for dating both works, the priority of Greek Esther must be
assumed. It is significant that the parallels are not confined to the Greek additions to Esther, as
we might expect if 3 Maccabees were prior.
58. Hadas, "III Maccabees and the Tradition of the Patriotic Romance."
59. Tcherikover, "The Third Book," 2-5. On Philopator's promotion of the cult of Dio-
nysus, see the discussion of Artapanus in Chapter 1 above.
60. A. Kasher, "Anti-Jewish Persecutions in Alexandria in the Reign of Ptolemy
Philopator according to III Maccabees," in Studies in the History of the Jewish People and the
Land of Israel (vol. 4; ed. U. Rappaport; Haifa: Haifa University, 1978) 59-76 (Hebrew with
English summary).
61. See the critique of Kasher by F. Parente, "The Third Book of Maccabees as Ideologi-
cal Document and Historical Source," Henoch 10 (1988) 161-66.
62. Since Josephus says that Physcon's concubine, who interceded for the Jews, was
variously called Ithaca or Irene, it would .seem that he knew more than one version of the story.
63. See R M. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria (2 vols.; Oxford: Clarendon, 1972) 1:119-
23.
124 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

in his r e i g n . S i n c e Physcon gave an amnesty to his enemies when he was

reconciled with Cleopatra, the miraculous deliverance of the story may re-
flect the unexpected reprieve of the Jews. Here again we can only speak of
partially historical reminiscences which are used as building blocks in a
fictional composition.^^
In its present form, 3 Maccabees must be dated to Roman times.
Bickerman showed that the opening formulae in the letters at 3:12 and 7:1
can be no earlier than the first century B.C.E.^'' Moreover, there is an allusion
in 3 Mace. 6:6 to the Song of the Three Young Men in the Additions to Dan-
iel in the Septuagint.^^ This allusion can hardly be earlier than 100 B.C.E.,
certainly not as early as the reign of Philopator. A more specific indication of
date may be provided by the statement in 2:28 that the Jews should be re-
duced to the popular census (laographia) and slave condition. While the
word laographia simply means "census," and censuses had been taken in
Ptolemaic times, the word took on a special connotation in Roman times. It
referred to the poll tax introduced by Augustus in 24/23 B.C.E. This was the
only laographia which could be said to involve a reduction of status for the
Jews, because of the clear distinction between citizens and non-citizens as
discussed a b o v e . S o Tcherikover and Hadas conclude that 3 Maccabees

64. Tcherikover, "The Third Book," 6-9; Hadas, The Third and Fourth Books, IL
65. Tromp, "The Formation," 317, rightly concludes that neither Josephus nor 3 Mac-
cabees is dependent on the other, but (hat both drew on a common tradition, probably a festival
legend. The historical setting of the legend must have been obscure.
66. Parente, "The Third Book of Maccabees," 148-67, gives a good summary of re-
search. See also M. Goodman, in Schiirer, The History of the Jewish People, 3.1:537-41.
Emmet {"The Third Book of Maccabees," 158) argues for a date at the end of the second cen-
tury B . C . E . because of general similarities with 2 Maccabees and Pseudo-Aristeas. B. Motzo
("11 Rifacimento Greco di Ester e il 111 Mac," Saggi di Storia e Letteratura Giudeo-Ellenistica
[Firenze: Le Monnier, 1924] 272-90) argued that it must antedate Greek Esther, and this argu-
ment was accepted by G. W. E. Nickelsburg, Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life in
Intertestamental Judaism (HTS 26; Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University, 1972) 90-91. De-
spite these positions, the arguments of Bickerman and Tcherikover noted below seem decisive.
Parente argues that the original core dates from the early second century B . C . E . and the final
edition from the early Roman era. So also G. W. E. Nickelsburg, "Stories of Biblical and Early
Post-Biblical Times," in M. E. Stone, ed., Jewish Writings of the Second Temple Period
(CRINT 2.2; Assen: Van Gorcum; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984) 83.
67. E. J. Bickerman, "Makkabaerbiicher (111)," PWRE 27 (1928) 797-800.
68. M. Delcor, "The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Hellenistic Period," in W. D.
Davies and L. Finkelstein, eds.. The Cambridge History of Judaism. Volume Two: The Helle-
nistic Age (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989) 496; Goodman, in Schiirer, The
Histoiy of the Jewish People, 3.1:539.
69. This is disputed by Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 226, but his argument that "it is
equally possible, for all we know, that Ptolemy levied a tax which encompassed Jews and
which could have been regarded as a compromise of their privileges" is merely an appeal to the
unknown. The argument of Wallace, "Census and Poll-Tax," that the system taken over by the
Romans had been introduced by Philopator, assumes the historicity of 3 Maccabees (p. 437).
The arguments of Anderson, "3 Maccabees," 511, that Jews could have suffered under "a caste-
system of taxation" in the Ptolemaic period, are similarly hypothetical.
 RELIGION A N D POLITICS: THE ROMAN PERIOD 125

was written shortly after the introduction of this laographiaJ^ The fact that
"political parity with the Alexandrians" is an issue in 3 Maccabees (2:30)
further fits a setting in the Roman eraJ^ We should also note that the price of
this parity is religious apostasy, as was also true for Jews who became full
citizens in the Roman era. We should emphasize that the story was not all
composed de novo in the Roman period. Rather, as Barclay has observed,
"one has the impression of an author stitching together legends of varied ori-
gin, creating a patchwork of events which make no historical sense in this
strange amalgam."^^ But the association of the laographia with a reduction
in status betrays the hand of the editor who patched the story together.
The reference to the laographia provides a terminus a quo for 3 Macca-
bees. As we have seen, the status of the Jewish community relative to the
Greek citizens of Alexandria remained an issue, at least until the time of
Claudius, and was at the heart of the disturbances in the reign of Caligula.
The similarities between the situation envisaged In 3 Maccabees and that
which existed in the time of Caligula are obvious and did not escape the older
generation of scholars, although they have been overlooked in more recent
w o r k s . F i r s t is the juxtaposition of an attempt to violate the Jerusalem tem-
ple and the threat to Egyptian Jewry. The only time when Judaism endured
this particular combination of dangers was under Caligula. Since the appar-
ent models for these two sections of 3 Maccabees — the episode of
Heliodorus and the legend associated with Ptolemy Physcon in Josephus —
were unrelated to each other, their combination is a significant clue to the set-
ting of the final composition. It is true that 3 Maccabees inverts the order in
which Philo treats the persecution and the temple episode,''^ but this may be
explained by the dramatic conception of 3 Maccabees. The climax of the
story is the attempt to annihilate Egyptian Jewry, and this is what leads to the
definitive deliverance. Accordingly, it must conclude the book. Some details
of the story seem applicable to Caligula, especially the hubris of the king and
his periodic loss of rational control.''^ These details are not found in Jose-

70. So also Goodman, in Schiirer, The History of the Jewish People, 3.1:540; Paul, "Le
Troisieme Livre des Macchabees," 332; Parente, "The Third Book of Maccabees," 171;
Barclay, Jews in tiie Mediterranean Diaspora, 448 among others.
71. Tcherikover, "The Third Book," 11-18; Hadas, The Third and Fourth Books, 19-21.
72. Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora, 195.
73. A setting under Caligula was proposed by H. Ewald, The Histoiy of Israel (8 vols.;
trans. R. Martineau; London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1869-86) 5:468-73. So also H. Willrich,
"Der historische Kern des III. Makkabaerbuches," Hermes 39 (1904) 244-58.
74. Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora, 203, regards 3 Maccabees as pro-
phetic: "the parallels between 3 Maccabees and the traumatic events of 38-41 C E indicate how
nearly our author's nightmare became a reality."
75. Emmet, "The Third Book of Maccabees," 158.
76. Josephus, Ant. 19.1.1 §1 discusses the hybris and mania of Caligula. Cf. Philo,
Legalio ad Gaium 162: "Gains grew beside himself with vanity, not only saying but thinking
126 NATIONAL A N D POLITICAL IDENTITY

phus's version of the story. This is not to say that 3 Maccabees is an allegory
or coded history of the events of 38-41 C.E.'''' As we have seen, the stories are
woven from traditional material and shaped by their own generic conven-
tions. The suggestion is only that the crises in the time of Caligula may have
provided the stimulus for putting the story together. Gruen asserts that no
stimulus, either historical event or set of circumstances, was needed.''^ But
the issues and pattern of relations depicted in the story seem to me to be more
specific than this. This is not a timeless meditation on universal problems,
such as we find in other Diaspora compositions like the Testament of Job or
the Testament of Abraham. Even if we refrain from suggesting a more spe-
cific dating, we should at least recognize that the story fits the circumstances
of the early Roman period (from the imposition of the laographia to the reign
of Claudius) better than any other.^^
Only one aspect of 3 Maccabees may seem at first anomalous in relation
to the situation in the early Roman period that came to a head in 38-41 C.E. The
author Is at pains to exculpate "the Greeks": "The Greeks in the city, who were
in no way injured, when they saw the unforeseen tumult. . . were not strong
enough indeed to help them, for they lived under a tyranny, but they did try to
comfort them and were distressed for them" (3:8-10). In fact, the Alexandrian
Greeks were the most immediate and bitter enemies of the Jews. This was so
not only in the time of CaUguIa but throughout the Roman period, and is prob-
lematic on any dating. It is unlikely that the author was unaware of the enmity
of the Greeks. Rather, it would seem that he deliberately chose to portray them
in the most positive light possible, choosing to refer the name Greeks to the
"friends and business associates" who were well disposed to the Jews, rather
than to the hostile mass. 3 Maccabees does not pretend that all the Gentiles
were well disposed to the Jews. It refers to "the hatred which had long grown
inveterate in their hearts" and was now given free expression. The author does
not, however, specify just who those Gentiles were who hated the Jews.
The usage of 3 Maccabees, which distinguishes between "the Greeks"
and the Alexandrian enemies of the Jews, is in accordance with that of Philo

that he was God." Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 225, objects that Philo did not hold Caligula
responsible for the problems in Alexandria in In Flaccum, but Egyptian Jews can hardly have
been unaware of the emperor's character.
77. Most of the objections to a date in the time of Caligula or shortly thereafter are based
on the lack of detailed correspondences, which is readily admitted. See, e.g., Barclay, Jews in
the Mediterranean Diaspora, 203; Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 225.
78. Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 225.
79. Many scholars see the imposition of the laographia as the stimulus for the composi-
tion of 3 Maccabees. See Parente, The Third Book of Maccabees, 175-77. The portrayal of Au-
gustus, however, is uniformly positive in Jewish sources. See, e.g., Philo, Legatio ad Gaium,
144-49, 157, and especially 159, where Philo claims that in Augustus's reign "the whole popu-
lation of the empire, even if not instinctively well-disposed towards the Jews, was afraid to
tamper with any Jewish practice in the hope of destroying it." See also Josephus. A^. Ap. 2.61.
 RELIGION AND POLITICS: THE ROMAN PERIOD 127

and Josephus. Philo refers seathingly to the "promiscuous and unruly Alex-
andrian mob" {Legatio 120), but he does not call them "Greeks."^'^ On the
contrary, he attributes their malice exphcitly to the Egyptian character {In
Flaccum 29; cf. In Flaccum 17) and ridicules them for the Egyptian animal
cults, which he regards simply as their religion {Legatio 139, 162, 165).
Caligula's friend and adviser Helicon, who is said to be "from the most gar-
rulous section of the Alexandrian population," is also leader of a band of
"Egyptians, a worthless breed, whose souls were infected with the poison
and bad temper alike of the crocodiles and asps of their country" {Legatio
166-70). The Jewish position on the conflict of the races in Alexandria is
most clearly stated by Josephus {Ag. Ap. 2.68-70):

The real promoters of sedition, as anyone can discover, have been the
citizens of Alexandria of the type of Apion. The Greeks and Macedo-
nians, so long as the citizenship was confined to them, never rose
against us, but left us free to enjoy our ancient worship. But when,
owing to the prevaihng disorders, their numbers were swelled by a
host of Egyptians, sedition became chronic. Our race, on the con-
trary, remained unadulterated. It is they, then, who originated these
disturbances, because the populace, possessing neither the Macedo-
nians' strength of character nor the Greeks' sagacity, universally
adopted the evil habits of the Egyptians and indulged their long-
standing hatred of us.

Accordingly, Josephus is at pains to establish that Apion and his ilk should
be regarded as Egyptians rather than Greeks {Ag. Ap. 2.29-32, 34, 41, 66).
The distinction of 3 Maccabees between "the Greeks" and those who hate the
Jews is part of the standard Jewish apologetic. While this is primarily a mat-
ter of rhetoric, we need not assume that all Alexandrian Greeks were of
Apion's ilk, and it is probable that at least upper-class Jews had friends and
associates whom they did not wish to alienate.
The attempt to exculpate "the Greeks" is highly significant for our un-
derstanding of the ideology of the work, as it shows that the author perceives
no intrinsic enmity between the Jews and the Gentiles as such.^^ It is true that
the prayers of Eleazar make a simple antithesis between Jews and Gentiles
and speak of "the abominable and lawless nations" (6:9). Yet, it is not as-

80. Smallwood's translation of the Legatio is seriously misleading, as it often introduces

the word Greeks where Philo does not supply the subject.
81. Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora, 197, attempts to dismiss this excep-
tion to the "social antagonism" of 3 Maccabees by saying that it "is primarily a rhetorical ploy,
and one which the author cannot weave convincingly into the pattern of the plot." Rhetorical
ploy it may be, but it is integral to the picture of social relations painted by 3 Maccabees, and it
is gratuitous to dismiss it.
128 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

sumed that all nations are lawless, only those who attack the Jews. Tcher-
ikover, while recognizing the lack of hostility towards the Greeks, still refers
to it as "hating the gentiles in general" and takes the book as a particular ex-
ample of Jewish hatred against Rome, mainly because of the portrayal of the
king.^^ This view is ill founded. Far from hating the Roman government and
supporting a nationalist cause, 3 Maccabees insists that "the Jews continued
to preserve their good will toward the royal house and their unswerving fi-
delity" (3:3), and in the end the king admits that he has no complaint against
the Jews, "who have shown me and my ancestors full and firm loyalty in ex-
traordinary measure" (5:31). The king's final change of heart and patronage
of the Jews cannot simply be dismissed as a traditional ending which the au-
thor could not change.^' The traditional motif was retained because it ex-
pressed the Jews' enduring hope for good relations with their rulers, as they
had enjoyed in the past. The reaffirmation of Jewish rights by Claudius gave
substantial confirmation to this hope and provides a plausible background for
the ideology of 3 Maccabees. The extremely negative portrayal of the king
which predominates in 3 Maccabees does not reflect Jewish attitudes to all
Gentile rulers but only to an exceptional case. By portraying the king as the
instigator and prime cause of the Jewish troubles, 3 Maccabees is in fact iso-
lating and restricting the enmity between Jews and Gentiles. Despite the in-
veterate hatred of some Gentiles for the Jews (4:1), they are not held respon-
sible for the persecution, and the Jews express no desire for vengeance on
them, in marked contrast to the earlier story of Esther. The crisis is ascribed
to the mad insolence of an individual ruler and can be resolved when he
passes away or comes to his senses.^*
This construction of the situation would not have been an accurate
analysis of the crisis in Alexandria in 38-41 C.E., but it is remarkably similar
to that offered by Philo in his Legatio ad Gaium. There (in contrast to his In
Flaccum), Philo attributes the disturbances to Caligula's self-deification. His
religious demands lead to a confrontation with the Jews, and this provides an
occasion for the hosdiity of the Alexandrians.^^ 3 Maccabees does not accuse
Philopator of self-deification^^ but nonetheless traces the disturbance to his

82. Tcherikover, "The Third Book," 21; CPJ, 1:68.

83. So Tcherikover, "The Third Book," 21.
84. Cf. Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 232: "The lesson of 111 Maccabees taught that
the most trying circumstances, including even the malevolent lunacy of a ruler, should be reck-
oned as merely transient and ephemeral."
85. Smallwood, Legatio, 3.
86. Emmet ("The Third Book of Maccabees," 158) sees this as an objection to a date un-
der Caligula, since the Ptolemies were theoi and so the issue of seJf-deification could have been
worked in. However, self-deification was not the issue in the traditional source adapted by
3 Maccabees, but the cult of Dionysus. The author was not obliged to provide an exact corre-
spondence to Caligula.
 RELIGION AND POLITICS: THE ROMAN PERIOD 129

hubris. Again, religious demands are at the heart of the confrontation. 3 Mac-
cabees, however, allows for final recovery on the part of the ruler. Caligula
had no such happy ending.
Not all the hostility of 3 Maccabees is directed toward the monarch.
The Jews who voluntarily abandon the law are singled out for contempt
(2:33) and eventual vengeance (7:10-16). Where the Jews in the story of Es-
ther slaughter their Gentile enemies, in 3 Maccabees they kill more than
three hundred apostates "with ignominy." There is no doubt that 3 Macca-
bees supports the strict observance of the Jewish law. No apology is made for
the distinctive dietary observances, even if they appear odious to some. If
Greek citizenship is offered in return for the worship of pagan gods, the
choice is clear-cut. Those who accept are despised. The strict allegiance to
the law is not based on any philosophical or strictly religious reasoning, but
is rather a matter of ethnic solidarity, as is also the case in Esther: "they de-
spised those who separated themselves from them, accounting them as ene-
mies of their people and excluding them from social intercourse and the ren-
dering of any service" (3:33). Yet this fidelity to the law and to distinctive
Jewish identity is not seen as being in conflict with loyalty to the pagan rul-
ers, even though it was so represented by their enemies (3:3-7). On the con-
trary, the king agrees that "those who had transgressed the divine command-
ments for their belly's sake would never be well disposed to the king's estate
either" (7:11-12). Consequently we cannot accept Tcherikover's view that
3 Maccabees opposed "the official representatives of Alexandrian Judaism"
by rejecting the aspiration to Greek citizenship as an avenue to apostasy.*''
The official representatives may not have sought citizenship but parity of
privileges with the Greeks. What is rejected is citizenship at the price of
apostasy. The author contends throughout that full observance of Jewish law
is not only compatible with loyal service to Gentile rulers but, in the end, will
win more respect than a compromising attitude. There is nothing to indicate
that the position of 3 Maccabees was any different from that of Philo on this
matter, although 3 Maccabees is more abrasive in its insistence on the dis-
tinctive aspects of Judaism and in its violence towards renegades. We may
recognize here the attitude which provoked Apion's frustration: "Why then,
if they are citizens, do they not worship the same gods as the Alexandrians?"
(Ag. Ap. 2.65).

It is also apparent that 3 Maccabees finds no incompatibility between

loyalty to a Gentile ruler and its links with J e r u s a l e m . I n the Roman era, as

87. Tcherikover, "The Third Book," 23.

88. D. S. WiUiams, "3 Maccabees: A Defense of Diaspora Judaism," JSP 13 (1995) 17-
29, argues that 3 Maccabees was written "to defend Diaspora Jewry before Palestinian Jews."
But there is httle to indicate Palestinian Jews as the primary audience, or indeed that such a de-
fense would have been necessary.
130 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

in the time of Philopator, Egyptian and Palestinian Jews were subject to the
same sovereign. The political scene was admittedly more complex in the Ro-
man period, since an Alexandrian Jew had potentially three claims on his
loyalty — Rome, Jerusalem, and Alexandria itself. 3 Maccabees, like the
other Jewish writings of the period, has no place for Alexandrian national-
ism. In this sense, Tcherikover is right to suggest that 3 Maccabees is not
deeply rooted in its Egyptian setting.Loyalty to the sovereign is affirmed,
but it is subordinated to the religious demands of the Jewish law. How far
Jewish identity involves a link with Jerusalem is less clear. The prayer of
Eleazar repeatedly refers to the present residence as a place of exile and says
that the Jews are "strangers in a strange land" (6:3).^° He does not, however,
pray for an end to his exile but asks God to remember them "in the land of
their enemies" (6:15). The emphasis on the situation of exile reflects the real-
ization that it was indeed the land of their enemies or, as Claudius put it in his
letter, "a city which is not their own," but it does not express either a desire or
an obhgation to return to Jerusalem. Rather, what is needed is effective pro-
tection from the Ptolemy or emperor. Again, there is no doubt that the author
holds the Jerusalem temple in high esteem. The threat to the temple is a
threat to Judaism itself because it symbolizes the special bond between God
and Israel. The horror of 3 Maccabees at the prospect of profanation is paral-
leled by Philo's reacdon in the Legatio ad Gaium. The book does not, how-
ever, give any indication of the actual relations of Egyptian Jews to the tem-
ple. Inevitably, the temple could not play a great role in the practical religion
of the Diaspora, despite the sending of offerings and the pilgrimages, which
were undoubtedly common, although they are not noted here.^^ The practical
allegiance of the Jews of Alexandria was to the law, which regulated their
daily lives. Jerusalem and its temple had a less immediate role which was
largely symbolic. The deliverance of the temple does not save Egypdan
Jewry and, important though it is, it is not the climax of the story.

Despite its greater emphasis on literal observance of the distinctive

laws, the attitudes of 3 Maccabees are not very different from the so-called
"apologetic" writings of Egyptian Judaism.^^ The main differences are due to

89. Tcherikover, "The Third Book," 25.

90. Ibid. Tcherikover also takes the v/ord paroikia in 7:19 as "exile" ("they determined
to celebrate these days also as festive for the duration of their paroikia"). Hadas translates
"community."
91. S. Safrai, "Relations between the Diaspora and the Land of Israel," in Safrai and
Stem, eds.. The Jewish People in the First Century, 1:184-215; idem. "Pilgrimage to Jerusalem
at the End of the Second Temple Period," in Studies on the Jewish Background of the New Tes-
tament (Assen: Van Gorcum, 1969) 12-21; idem, Wallfahrt in Zeitalter des Zweiten Tempels
(Neukirchen-VIuyn: Neukirchener Verlag. 1981).
92. The parallels with the Letter of Aristeas have often been noted. See M. Hadas,
"Aristeas and III Maccabees," HTR 42 (1949) 175-84. Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean Di-
aspora, 201-2, emphasizes the contrasts.
 RELIGION A N D POLITICS: THE ROMAN PERIOD 131

the crisis situation reflected in this book, but the manner in which the crisis is
handled is designed to keep open a door to good relations with the Gentile
w o r l d . 3 Maccabees also lacks the philosophical interests of Philo or even
Pseudo-Aristeas, but on the other hand it is not so crude in its conceptions as
Artapanus. In its own genre, it is well informed in Greek style and linguistic
usage.^* It is not so obvious that the author must have come from the "com-
mon people," as Tcherikover held. Not all educated Alexandrian Jews were
necessarily inclined to philosophy. The most striking features of the book are
ultimately the willingness to excuse "the Greeks" and the merciless ven-
geance on the Jews who betrayed the solidarity with their people. The latter
point was undoubtedly more conspicuous in the crises of the Roman era than
it had ever been before in Egyptian Judaism.

Philo's Pontics

Much of our knowledge of Egyptian Judaism in the early Roman period

comes from Philo of Alexandria. Philo's view of Judaism lies outside the
scope of the present study,^^ but we must briefly consider the light he throws
on the political/ethnic understanding of Judaism in the Hellenistic Diaspora.
There is no doubt that his own approach to Judaism was primarily philosoph-
ical and mystical. Political considerations have a subordinate place. Yet, they
too are important and may be significant indicators of the common opinions
of Alexandrian Jews who were less rarified in their philosophy.^^
Philo's interest in political affairs is evident from his participation in
the embassy to Caligula.^'' Moreover, his brother, Alexander, and his
nephew, Tiberius Julius Alexander, played leading roles in the political life
of Alexandria.^^ His political interests were not unrelated to his philosophy.
In the famous passage in De Migratione Abrahami 89-90 where he addresses
the relation between allegorical and literal meaning, he criticizes those who
overlook "all that the mass of men regard," and concern themselves only

93. Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 233: "III Maccabees, in short, places its stress on
concord, not antagonism,"
94. Tcherikover, "The Third Book," 18-20.
95. See A. Mendelson, Pliilo's Jewish Identity (BJS 161; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988);
E, Bimbaum, The Place of Judaism in Philo's Thought: Israel, Jews, and Proselytes {Atlanta:
Scholars Press, 1996).
96. For a comprehensive survey, see Barraclough, "Philo's Politics."
97. Josephus, Anr. 18.8.1 §§257-60. Smallwood, Legatio, 24-27.
98. On his brother, see Am. 20.5.2 §100; 18.6,3 §§159-60; 19.5,1 §276. Philo's nephew,
Tiberius Julius Alexander, was Roman prefect in Egypt at the time of the Jewish revolt in 66
c . E . See CPJ, 1:78-79; and V. Burr, Tiberius Julius Alexander (Bonn: Habelt, 1955).
132 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

with allegorical meaning "as if they were disembodied souls." Instead, he in-
sists that

we should look on all these outward observances as resembling the

body, and their inner meaning as resembling the soul. It follows that,
exacUy as we have to take thought for the body, because it is the
abode of the soul, so we must pay heed to the letter of the laws. If we
keep and observe these, we shall gain a clearer conception of those
things of which these are the symbols; and besides that we shall not
incur the censure of the many and the charges they are sure to bring
against us. (De Migratione Abrahami 93)

The "letter of the laws" includes the distinctive Jewish rituals, but also the
sanctity of the temple (which is mentioned explicitly in 92) and the eschato-
logical promises of the scriptures. Philo's respect for the letter of the law is
obviously not a result of his philosophy as such. Philo was an apologist for
Judaism more profoundly than he was a philosopher. The entire structure of
his writings is designed as an explanation of the Jewish scriptures, not as an
independent philosophical quest. His loyalty to the letter of the law is partly
due to an instinctive respect for tradition, partly to an appreciation of the
need for concrete symbols on the part of the mass of humanity. It is, however,
integrated into his philosophy as part of a sacramental thought structure
whereby spiritual truths are mediated by visible endtles and practices.
Philo's application of his philosophical principles to the polidcal realm
is clearly evident in the Legatio ad Gaium. The survival of Judaism through
the crises in Alexandria and Jerusalem is taken as proof of God's providen-
tial care for all humankind, but especially for "the race of suppliants" which
is his particular concern. Israel Is, symbolically, the race of those "who see
God." Its fate then symbolizes, and illustrates for the mass of humanity,
God's care for those who lead spiritual lives. Philo's indignation at the at-
tacks on the Jewish people and on its temple is no less than that of 3 Mac-
cabees, but the motivation is quite different. For 3 Maccabees, as for the
great majority of Jewish writers, the survival of the people and the glory of
its temple are in themselves adequate goals of providendal design. For Philo
they are symbols of a deeper spiritual concern which is the real focus of at-
tention.
The main question which arises In connection with Philo's politics, then,

99. Cf. P. Borgen, "There Shall Come Forth a Man: Reflections on Messianic Ideas in
Philo," in J. H. Charlesworth, ed.. The Messiah: Developments in Early Judaism and Chris-
tianity (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992) 341-61: "Thus the literal and allegorical interpretations
are interwoven, and the concrete national and 'messianic' eschatology and the general cosmic
principles belong together" (p. 360). See also Borgen, "Philo of Alexandria," in Stone, ed.,
Jewish Writings of the Second Temple Period, 233-80.
 RELIGION AND POLITICS: THE ROMAN PERIOD 133

is how far his symbolism requires an exclusive exaltation of Judaism and its ac-
tual triumph over the Gentiles. The majority of scholars have tended to dis-
count his interest in practical nationalism."^'^ While there is no doubt that he
was concerned to ensure the survival of Judaism and its visible symbols, he did
not necessarily share the aspirations to dominion, or even political indepen-
dence, typical of Palestinian Judaism of the time. Yet, both Goodenough and
Wolfson, the most influential students of Philo in this century, have argued,
from different perspectives, that he fully shared the nationalistic hopes of Juda-
ism, whatever significance he may have attached to them.'^'
Goodenough's interpretation of Philo's politics is based on his interpre-
tation of the portrayal of Joseph in De Somniis, which he reads as a veiled at-
tack on Roman rule. Since Philo presents a positive assessment of Joseph in
the De losepho, the negative critique in De Somniis is not simply the product
of exegesis. It is indeed likely that Philo's portrayal is motivated by the ex-
cesses of Roman rule. In the Legatio ad Gaium and In Flaccum he is outspo-
ken in condemning the "measureless excesses" of Rome's "lawless iniqui-
ties." Goodenough, however, claims more: that Philo passionately hated
Roman rule as such and hoped for a militant messiah who would put an end
to it. The key passage is De Somniis 2.63-64:

And therefore the Holy Word did well in giving the name of Addition
to one who was the enemy of simplicity and the friend of vanity. For
just as we find on trees, to the great damage of the genuine growth,
superfluities which the husbandmen purge and cut away to provide
for their necessities, so the true and simple life has for its parasite the
life of falsity and vanity, for which no husbandman has hitherto been
found to excise the mischievous growth root and all.

If this is an expression of messianic hope, it is indeed an indirect one, but

Goodenough finds a clue to the indirectness of Philo's allegory in De
Somniis 2.91-92:

Do not we too, when we are spending time in the market-place, make

a practice of standing out of the path of our rulers, and also of beasts

100. Barraclough, "Philo's Politics," 476-86; R. D. Hecht, "Philo and Messiah," in

J. Neusner, W. S. Green, and E. Frerichs, eds., Judaisms and Their Messiahs at the Turn of the
Christian Era (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987) 139-68, speaks of Philo's
spiritualization and dehistoricization of the Messianic Era" (p. 161).
101. E. R. Goodenough, The Politics of Philo Judaeus (New Haven: Yale University
Press, 1938); idem, Introduction to Philo Judaeus (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1940)
52-74; H. A. Wolfson, Philo: Foundations of Religious Pliilosophy in Judaism, Christianity,
and Islam (2 vols.; Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1947) 2:322-438. Cf. also
J. M. Scott, "Philo and the Restoration of Israel," in E. Lovering, ed., SBL 1995 Seminar Pa-
pers (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995) 553-75.
134 NATIONAL A N D POLITICAL IDENTITY

of carriage, though our motive in the two cases is entirely different?

With the rulers it is done to show them honor, with the animals from
fear and to save us from suffering serious injury from them. And if
ever occasions permit it is good to subdue the violence of enemies by
attack, but if they do not permit, the safe course is to keep quiet, and
if we wish to gain any help from them the fitting course is to soften
and tame them.

Goodenough concludes that Philo "was no fanatic, and knew that so long as
the Messiah had not yet come one must get on with the Romans in the most
conciliating spirit possible. So Philo kept his messlanism to himself. But one
could secretly think, hope, and hate. And Philo seems to me to be assuring
his Jewish friends that he was passionately doing all three."•''^
Despite Philo's animated opposition to Roman oppression, the evi-
dence does not indicate that he was opposed to Roman rule as such, or im-
bued with any hatred of Rome.^'*^ Even in his most polemical treatises, the
Legatio ad Gaium and In Flaccum, Philo contrasts the abuses of power with
the excellent administration of the past. Augustus is described as a virtual
savior of the human race {Legatio 143-47) and the beginning of Caligula's
reign as an "age of Cronos" {Legatio 13). Admittedly the quotation from De
Somniis 2.91-92 may make any positive statements suspect as an attempt to
"soften and tame" the Romans, but the fact that these praises are found in
works which are so outspoken in criticism of Roman rulers tells against such
a view. In a manner somewhat similar to 3 Maccabees, Philo seeks to contain
the criticism of Roman rule by presendng the abuses as aberrations due to
particular individuals.
The reference in De Somniis 2.64 to a husbandman who will destroy
the corrupdon "root and all" has often been taken as a reference to the mes-
siah.^*"^ The passage is brief and ambiguous. Philo says only that "no hus-
bandman has hitherto been found." We may infer that he expects one, but he
does not actually say so. Such a "husbandman" could be a messianic figure
who would put an end to Roman rule, or he might be a reformer who would
put an end to corruption. In view of the unclarity of this passage, we must
turn to the treatise De Praemiis et Poenis, where Philo addresses the subject
of the future in far greater detail.
In De Praemiis et Poenis 79-172 Philo presents an elaborate eschato-
logical tableau which reaches its climax in 165-72. The eschatological bless-

102. Goodenough, Politics, 25.

103. So also Barraclough, "Philo's Politics," 449-75.
104. Goodenough, Politics, 25, calls attention to parallels in the Gospels: the announce-
ment by John the Baptist that the axe is laid to the root of the tree (Matt, 3:10; Luke 3:9) and the
analogy of the vine in John 15.
 RELIGION AND POLITICS: THE ROMAN PERIOD 135

ings will include the reunion of the exiles, the prosperity of the land, the es-
tablishment of peace not only among men but also between men and beasts,
and a sudden reversal of fortunes which will bring about the ruin of the ene-
mies of the Jews. Wolfson concluded from this passage that "the solution
found by Philo for the Jewish problem of his time was the revival of the old
prophetic promises of the ultimate disappearance of the Diaspora."'^^ The
"ideal polity" was to exist only in Palestine, because of the Deuteronomic in-
sistence on a single temple.^'^^ While Philo envisaged the conversion of the
G e n t i l e s , t h e eschatological Utopia is definitely Jewish. More clearly than
in De Somniis, Philo here assigns a role to a messianic figure. "For 'there
shall come forth a man' says the oracle, and leading his host to war he will
subdue great and populous nations, because God has sent to his aid the rein-
forcement which befits the godly" (Praemiis et Poenis 95).''^^
Wolfson's interpretation, which seeks to assimilate Philo to what he re-
gards as "native Judaism,"^''^ must be modified at several points. First, the
dramatic reversal is contingent upon the repentance of the Jews and their
"conversion in a body to virtue," which will "strike awe into their masters,
who will set them free, ashamed to rule over men better than themselves"
{Praemiis et Poenis 164). Philo is interested in the spiritual triumph of virtue
rather than in the physical victory of a messianic king. Second, in most of the
treatise Philo does not contrast Jews and Gentiles but the virtuous and the
wicked. So the messianic "man" does battle not with the Gentiles but with
"some fanatics whose lust for war defies restraint or remonstrance" {Prae-
miis et Poenis 94). Third, the distinction between the virtuous and the wicked
does not fall exactly along ethnic lines. In Praemiis et Poenis 152 Philo con-
trasts the proselyte who "came over to the camp of God" with "the nobly

105. Wolfson, Philo. 2:407.

106. Ibid, 2:395.
107. De Vita Mosis 2.44: "But if a fresh start should be made to brighter prospects, how
great a change for the better might we expect to see! 1 beheve that each nation would abandon
its peculiar ways, and throwing overboard their ancestral customs, turn to honoring our laws
alone."
108. See Wolfson. Philo 2:414-15. The scriptural quotation, from Num. 24:7 (the proph-
ecy of Balaam), follows the LXX, which is quite different from the Hebrew. The only doubt as
to whether Philo has a messianic "inan" in mind arises from the parallel passage in De Praemiis
et Poenis 165 which says that the gathering of the exiles will be guided "by a vision divine and
superhuman, unseen by others but manifest to them as they pass from exile to their home." If
this passage refers to the Logos, as seems probable, then Philo may have identified the messiah
with the Logos, and this identification may also be implicit in De Praemiis el Poenis 95. See
J. de Savignac, "Le Messianisme de Philon d'Alexandrie," NovT4 (1960) 319-24; U. Fischer,
Eschatologie und Jenseilserwartung im Hellenistischen Diasporajudentum (BZNW 44; Berhn:
de Gruyter, 1978) 184-213. R Gregoire ("Le Messie chez Philon d'Alexandrie," ETL 12 [1935]
28-50) emphasizes that such interest in the messiah as we find in De Praemiis et Poenis is ex-
ceptional in Philo's works.
109. Wolfson, Philo, 2:415.
136 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

born who has falsified the sterling of his high lineage." God "welcomes the
virtue which springs from ignoble birth" and "takes no account of the roots
but accepts the full-grown stem." Finally, the physical rewards and punish-
ments are only symbols of the spiritual. The "wild beasts in the soul" must be
tamed before those of the forest (Praemiis et Poenis 88). Those who "possess
stored up in heaven the true wealth whose adornment is wisdom and godli-
ness have also wealth of earthly riches in abundance" {Praemiis et Poenis
104). For Philo the "matter" of earthly kingdoms is "nothing," only "a
shadow or a breath which flits past."^^*' Its importance lies in its symbolic
power to indicate another realm.^^'
In short, Philo's eschatological tableau is viewed from a very different
perspecdve from the concrete nationalism of Wolfson's "native Judaism."
Yet he does speak of a gathering in of the exiles and overthrow of the ene-
mies of Judaism; and the virtuous, while not simply the Jews by birth, are at
least the Jews by practice of the law. In view of Philo's insistence on the
value of concrete entities and the letter of the law as a basis for symbolism,
we may ask whether he did not, after all, expect a visible triumph of Judaism.
The political dimension in Philo's eschatology cannot be completely
dismissed. He does, in fact, read the blessings and curses of Deuteronomy
and Leviticus as predictions of a definitive eschatological upheaval, when
they could have been taken in a less final sense. This fact at least indicates
that he was familiar with political eschatology and assumed that some scrip-
tural passages should be read that way. In his desire to be faithful to the letter
of the law, he did in fact maintain the belief in the eventual disappearance of
the Diaspora.
Where Philo's eschatology differs from that of many apocalyptic writ-
ers and from that of most of the sibylline books is not so much in the actual
concepts as in the degree of urgency. The paucity of references to national es-
chatology shows that it was not at the heart of his thought. Philo speaks of Je-
rusalem as the metropohs of the Jews, but he admits that "they severally hold
that land as their fatherland . . . in which they were born and reared" (In
Flaccum 46).^^'^ Philo is eager to establish the rights of the Jews in the lands

110. Quod Deus Immutabilis Sit, 172-77. This passage is remarkable for its review of
world kingdoms, reminiscent of apocalyptic literature and the Sibylline Oracles. A similar pas-
sage is found in De losepho 131-37.
111. Fischer, Eschatologie, 187-210, notes the limitations of Philo's interest in national
and poHtical eschatology and stresses the persistent emphasis on individual virtue, which he
says is closer to Stoic than to Hebraic ethics. By stressing the individualized eschatology of De
Praetniis et Poenis 152 as a focal point of the treatise, Fischer questions whether Philo is inter-
ested in national eschatology except as an allegory for individual psychology. While many of
Fischer's observations are valid, he underestimates Philo's respect for the letter of the law.
112. See further I. M. Gafni, Land, Center, and Diaspora: Jewish Constructs in Late An-
tiquity (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997) 41-49 ("At Home While Abroad: Expres-
sions of Local Patriotism in the Jewish Diaspora of Late Antiquity").
 RELIGION AND POLITICS: THE ROMAN PERIOD 137

in which they are "settlers and friends, eagerly seeking equality of privilege
with burgesses and already being near in status to citizens, differing but little
from natives" (De Vita Mosis 1.35). Attainment of rights in Alexandria is far
higher on Philo's agenda than return to Jerusalem. Again, the temple is of vi-
tal importance, and any threat to it is a threat to Judaism itself. There is some
evidence that Philo may have made the pilgrimage to Jerusalem."^ Yet the
real significance of the temple is allegorical, in its symbolism of cosmic wor-
ship. It is necessary that there be a temple as a visible sign, to convey the
symbolism to the masses, but it is not necessary that Philo, or other spiritu-
ally minded Jews, live in proximity to it or go there frequently. The urgent
needs of the religion lie elsewhere. Jerusalem and the homeland remain very
much in the background of Philo's thought. They are essential to Jewish
identity, but they do not normally interfere with the life of the Diaspora Jew
in his own environment.^'^
The fact that Philo still finds some place for national eschatology indi-
cates that messianic beliefs must have been widespread in his time, even in
Egyptian Judaism.''^ In the case of Num. 24:7, the oracle of Balaam used by
Philo in De Praemiis, the messianic note had already been introduced by the
Septuagint translators.'*'' To say that messianic ideas were widespread is not,
however, to suggest that they were held with intensity or that there was sig-
nificant messianic agitation. While one of the messianic pretenders men-
tioned by Josephus was from Egypt,'^^ we hear of no messianic movement in
Egypt until the Diaspora revolt under Trajan.
One of the factors which led to the riots of 38 C.E. was the visit of King
Agrippa to Alexandria. The Greeks reacted to this by holding a demonstra-
tion in mockery in which they dressed up a madman named Carabas and
hailed him as Marin, "the name by which it is said that kings are called in

113. J. Jeremias, Jerusalem in the Time of Jesus {Philadelphia: Fortress, 1969) 69 n. 13,
who cites a fragment of De Providentia preserved in Eusebius, Praep. Evang. 7.14.64. The au-
thenticity of the fragment is not fully certain.
114. H. Wenschkewitz, Die Spiriiualisierung der Kultus Begriffe (Leipzig: Pfeiffer,
1932); U. Fruchtel, Die Kosmologischen Vorsteltungen bei Philo von Alexandrien (Leiden:
Brill, 1968) 69-118.
115. Accordingly, Scott, "Philo and the Restoration of Israel," 562-66, goes too far
when he attributes to Philo a "negative view of the Diaspora."
116. So F. Dexinger, "Ein 'Messianisches Szenarium' als Gemeingut des Judentums in
nachherodianischer Zeit?" Kairos 17 (1975) 250-55. See now J. J. Collins, The Scepter and the
Star: The Messiahs of the Dead Sea Scrolls and Other Ancient Literature (New York:
Doubleday, 1995). Hecht, "Philo and Messiah," argues that Philo's generally spiritualizing phi-
losophy serves to neutralize messianic expectations.
117. On the question of eschatological references in the LXX, see further P. Volz, Die
Eschatologie der jiidischen Gemeinde (Tubingen: Mohr, 1934) 183; L. Prijs, Jiidische Tradi-
tion in der LXX (Leiden: Brill, 1948) 67-75; J. Schaper, Eschatology in the Greek Psalter
(Tiibingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1995).
118. Josephus, Am. 20.8.6 § § 1 6 7 - 7 2 ; 2 . 1 3 . 5 §§261-63.
138 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

Syria."^'^ The point at issue was that Agrippa was a Jewish king. If the Alex-
andrian mockery is assumed to reflect the claims of the Jews, we might sus-
pect that the king's visit had kindled a flame of Jewish messianism. In fact,
there is no doubt that the Jews were proud that Agrippa was a Jewish king.
They did not, however, look for him to overthrow the Romans or liberate the
Jews but only to intercede with Gaius for the protection of Jewish rights.^2"*
The friction with the Greeks was not due to any desire to end the Diaspora,
but to the determination to maintain Jewish identity even in exile.

T h e Events of 66-73 C.E.

The Jews of the Diaspora did not join in the revolt of 66-70, but there was
trouble in Alexandria in 66 C.E.^^^ When the Greek population was holding a
meeting concerning an embassy to Nero, some Jews mingled with them in
the amphitheater. They were detected, and three of them were captured and
burned alive. This outraged the Jewish population, which proceeded to riot.
The outbreak was brought to an end when Tiberius Alexander, Philo's
nephew, who was governor of the city, "let loose upon them the two Roman
legions stationed in the city together with two thousand soldiers, who by
chance had just arrived from Libya to complete the ruin of the Jews; permis-
sion was given them not merely to kill the rioters but to plunder their prop-
erty and burn down their houses." The Jews "offered a prolonged resistance,"
but "wholesale carnage ensued" (J.W. 2.18.8 §§494-95). Josephus relates this
incident to the earUer tensions between Jews and Greeks in the city. While
the purpose of the embassy to Nero is not stated, it was presumably con-
cerned with the status of the Jews in some way, whence the interest of the
Jews in infiltrating the meeting. But while the incident may have begun as a
conflict between Jews and Greeks, the primary agents of destruction were the
Romans. Despite the fact that the governor himself was of Jewish stock, it
was at this juncture that the Roman army was first "let loose" on the Jews of
Alexandria. Josephus is at some pains to present Tiberius as reasonable and
moderate. At first he "attempted to recall them to reason without recourse to
arms," and at the end he was moved to compassion and ordered the Romans
to retire. The Romans withdrew at once, but the Alexandrians were not so
easily called off. Yet Josephus cannot hide the brutality with which the revolt
was suppressed. It Is possible that Tiberius protected some of the upper-class

119. In Flaccum 25-42. Smallwood, Legatio, 18-19; eadem, The Jews. 238-39.
120. Smallwood, The Jews, 238-39.
121. J.W. 2.18.7-8 §§487-98; CPJ. 1:78-79; Smallwood, The Jews, 364-66; Modrze-
jewski, The Jews of Egypt, 185-90.
 RELIGION AND POLITICS: THE ROMAN PERIOD 139

Jews such as the members of the gerousia, or council of the elders, since we
find this body still in control of the Jewish community in the events of 73
c . E . T h e governor's handling of the situation may, of course, have been in-
fluenced by the contemporary events in Palestine, although there is nothing
to indicate that the Egyptian Jews intended to revolt against Rome.
The severe blow dealt to the Jewish community in 66 C.E. was not fatal.
When Titus visited Alexandria in 71 C.E., the Greeks requested that he dis-
band the Jewish politeuma, but he refused and reaffirmed Jewish rights.
The gerousia continued to function and played a decisive role in averting an-
other outbreak in 73 c.E. A group of Slcarii who had fled to Egypt "sought to
induce many of their hosts to assert their independence, to look upon the
Romans as no better than themselves and to esteem God alone as their
lord."'^"* They murdered some of the leading Jews who opposed them, but
the gerousia prevailed on the Jewish population to hand them over to the
Romans. According to Josephus, six hundred were captured on the spot and
others who had fled into Egypt were arrested and brought back. They were
then tortured and executed.
From the episode of 73 C.E. we may infer that the more prominent
members of the Jewish community were more loyal to the Romans than the
lower classes. This is only to be expected, since they obviously had more to
lose in a rebellion. Yet the Sicarii could not find enough popular support to
withstand the gerousia. Perhaps chastened by the events of 66 and the out-
come of the war in Judea, the Jewish community of Alexandria had no appe-
tite for rebellion. Despite the collaboration of the Jewish leaders to an ex-
treme and shameful degree on this occasion, the Romans were not impressed
with their loyalty. Rather, "suspicious of the interminable tendency of the
Jews to revolution," they proceeded to close up the temple at Leontopolis.'^^
The Jews of the Diaspora were all liable for the fiscus Judaicus. The
didrachmon or half-shekel previously paid to the temple of Jerusalem was
now paid to Rome, initially to defray the expenses of rebuilding the temple
of Jupiter Capitolinus. Since this tax was levied on both sexes, three years
and over, including slaves, and was added to the various other taxes of Ro-
man Egypt, it amounted to a considerable burden.'^^
The betrayal of the Sicarii in Alexandria is the first overt division in the

122. CPJ, 1:79.

123. Ant. 12.3.1 § 121, The people of Antioch made a similar request which was also de-
nied. Smallwood, The Jews, 366.
124. J.W. 7.10.1 §§409-19; CPJ, 1:79-80; Smallwood, The Jews, 366-67.
125. J.W. 7.10.2-4 §§420-36, The closing of the temple by Lupus had to be repeated by
his successor Paulinus.
126. The Jewish tax had been levied only on men, between the ages of 20 and 50. It ap-
pears that women were exempted from xh^ fiscus Judaicus at age 62, but we know of no age
limit for men. See Smallwood, The Jews, 371-76; CPf 1:80-82.
140 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

Egyptian Jewish community for reasons of social class. A similar class con-
flict is reflected in an episode at Cyrene about the same time.'^^ A weaver
named Jonathan, who had taken refuge in the town "won the ear of not a few
of the indigent class, and led them forth into the desert, promising them a dis-
play of signs and apparitions." Although Josephus refers to Jonathan and his
followers as Sicarii, his conduct resembles rather that of the messianic
prophets such as Theudas or the prophet from Egypt, who were not militant
revolutionaries but visionaries hoping for miracles. His exodus to the desert
escaped notice, but "the men of rank among the Jews of Cyrene" reported his
activities to the governor, Catullus. Catullus overpowered the crowd, slaugh-
tered many, and took Jonathan prisoner. Now, with a fine Irony, Jonathan
claimed he had received instructions from the wealthiest of the Jews.
Catullus exploited the situation and had Jonathan accuse all the well-to-do
Jews, three thousand In all, according to Josephus. He confiscated their prop-
erty to the imperial exchequer and had them killed. The scheme came to an
end when the accusations were extended to prominent Jews in Rome and
elsewhere, including Josephus. Vespasian then made an Inquiry. Jonathan
was tortured and burned alive, but Catullus was only reprimanded.
The division between the Jewish upper and lower classes emerges in
the context of the revolt against Rome. The upper classes had too much to
lose and inevitably incurred the resentment of the revolutionaries. The epi-
sode in Cyrene especially shows the vulnerability of the Jews. No matter
how either Jonathan or the wealthy Jews cooperated with the Romans, they
were not safe. Since Vespasian was concerned to consolidate his empire, the
governor could act with virtual impunity. As a result, both the upper class
and the revolutionary element were wiped out. The latter was the more easily
replaced. The removal of the Jewish upper class in Cyrene may have contrib-
uted eventually to the spread of the revolt under Trajan, since there was now
no restraining element within the Jewish community.

T h e Background of the Great Revolt

We have little direct evidence of the relations between Jews, Greeks, and
Romans between 73 and 115 C.E. The Acra Hermaisci, in the Acts of the Al-
exandrian Martyrs, tells of a confrontation between Greek and Jewish em-
bassies before Trajan. In accordance with the genre of the Alexandrian

127. J.W. 7.11.1-4 §§437-53. S. Applebaum, Jews and Greeks in Ancient Cyrene (SJLA
28; Leiden: Brill, 1979) 220-25.
128. CPJ. 2:82-87 (no. 157); Musurillo, The Acts of the Pagan Martyrs. 44-48;
Smallwood, The Jews, 389-92; Modrzejewski, The Jews of Egypt. 191-97.
 RELIGION AND POLITICS: THE ROMAN PERIOD 141

acts, the emperor is represented as heavily biased in favor of the Jews. The
account is highly fictional but may be taken to indicate the persistence of the
old conflicts between Greeks and Jews. This traditional animosity is hardly
sufficient to account for the revolt which spread through the Diaspora in 115-
17 c.E.
This crucial chapter in the history of the Jewish Diaspora is very poorly
d o c u m e n t e d . E v e n the sequence of events is not entirely clear. There was
an outbreak of fighting in Alexandria in 115 C.E. which is known from a pa-
pyrus containing what appears to be an edict of the governor of Egypt.'^" The
papyrus says that a judge came from Rome to investigate this incident, and
the governor warns the Jews not to disturb the peace. It would seem that this
incident followed the traditional pattern of friction between Jews and Greeks
in Alexandria. It also appears, however, that this incident was isolated and
was not the spark of the wider revolt, which broke out in Cyrene and Cyprus.
The main conflict in Egypt developed when the rebels from Cyrene invaded
the Egyptian countryside. The Alexandrian Jews were then drawn into the
conflict when the Greeks who had fled from the countryside attacked them,
and a particularly destructive struggle ensued. According to some medieval
sources, the Jews of Cyrene eventually penetrated Judea and were crushed by
Lusius Quietus, but this stage of the revolt is extremely obscure.'^' There
was some fighting in Palestine, known as the "War of Quietus" in Jewish tra-
dition.'^^
The revolt was especially destructive, and the wrath of the Jews was di-
rected against pagan temples in particular. Casualties of the violence in-
cluded the Ptolemaic Sarapeum and the largest Jewish synagogue in Alexan-
dria. The terror inspired by the revolt is aptly expressed in the prayer of a
Greek mother for her son "that they may not roast you."'^^ In the end, the
Jewish population was decimated, and some of those who survived lost their

129. The main account is that of Eusebius, Hisl. Eccl. 4.2.1-4. Also Die Cassius 68.32;
Appian, Bella Civilia 2.90 (Appian witnessed the revolt himselO; Orosius 7.12; Syncellus
347d, 348d. There is also a brief notice in the Armenian version of Eusebius's Chronica. See
CPJ. 1:86-93; Smallwood, The Jews, 393-427; A. Fuks, "Aspects of the Jewish Revolt in A . D .
115-117," 7^5 51 (1961) 98-104; Applebaum, Jews and Greeh, 242-344; Schurer, The History
of the Jewish People, 1:529-34; M. Hengel, "Messianische Hoffnung und politischer
'Radikalismus' in der jiidisch-hellenistischen Diaspora," in D. Hellholm, ed.. Apocalypticism
in the Mediterranean World and the Near East (Tiibingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1983) 653-84;
A. Kasher, "A Comment on the Jewish Uprising in Egypt during the Days of Trajan," JJS 27
(1976) 147-58; Modrzejewski, The Jews of Egypt, 198-205.
130. CPJ, 2:228-33 (no. 435); Applebaum, Jews and Greeks, 266-67.
131. Applebaum, Jews and Greeks, 303. The authorities are Bar Hebraeus and Michael
Syriacus.
132. Applebaum, Jews and Greeks, 303. Quietus had already suppressed the Jews in
Mesopotamia.
133. CPJ, 2:236 (no. 437). The papyri relevant to the revolt are collected in CPJ, 2:225-
60.
142 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

property. The Jews were no longer allowed to live in Alexandria but were
given a settlement just outside it, although even this drew objections from the
Greeks. It appears from the Acts of the Alexandrian Martyrs that Jewish
and Greek deputadons appeared before Hadrian after the end of the revolt
and traded charges about the whole series of disturbances, but the Acr^, as al-
ways, is unreliable in its details.
The surviving accounts of the revolt give no rational explanation of
why it started. The Jews rose "as If mad," according to Orosius, or "as if in
the grip of some terrible spirit of rebellion" (Eusebius). Modem authors have
often suggested that the revolt had no more specific cause than the intensity
of messianic expectation.'^^ The emergence of a "king," whose name is vari-
ously given as Lukuas (Eusebius) or Andreas (Dio),'^^ lends some support to
such an idea. The revolt had evidently a strong religious dimension, as can be
seen from the destruction of the pagan t e m p l e s . W e have seen above that
messianic ideas were current in the dme of Philo. Yet there was little support
for messianic or nadonaUstic movements before 115, as can be seen from the
treatment of the Sicarii in Alexandria and Cyrene. A number of factors may
have inclined the Diaspora Jews more strongly towards messianism in the
period after 70 than had previously been the case. One was the fiscus
Judaicus, which not only branded all Jews as seditious people but also im-
posed a considerable financial burden. Applebaum considers "agrarian fac-
tors," including excessive taxation, as a factor in the revolt. The acknowl-
edged abuses of the tax, especially under Domitian,^^^ could not fail to
arouse resentment against Rome. The destruction of the temple was itself an
event of great symbolic significance. There was an influx of Jewish prisoners
to Egypt, for compulsory work or for sale as slaves.^"^^ These people had am-
ple reason for anti-Roman feeling. The role of the Roman legion in the Alex-

134. CPJ, 2:95 (no. 158a, col. 6).

135. CPJ, 2:87-99 (The Acta Pauli et Antonini); Musunllo, The Acts of the Pagan Mar-
tyrs, 179-94, Smallwood, The Jews, 406-9.
136. SoM. J. Lagrange, Le Messianisme chez les Juifs (Paiis: Gabalda, 1909) 308; Fuks,
"Aspects," 98-104; CPJ, 1:90; Applebaum, Jews and Greeks, 260; Hengel, "Messianische
Hoffnung."
137. It is not even certain that one individual is meant. CPJ, 2:94 (no. 158a, col. I) refers
enigmatically to "the king of the scene and the mime." It would appear that the Alexandrians
had staged a mockery of the Jewish "king" as they had of Agrippa in the time of Caligula.
138. The Egyptian reaction also drew on religious motivations. See D. Frankfurter,
"Lest Egypt's City Be Deserted: Religion and Ideology in the Egyptian Response to the Jewish
Revolt, 116-117 C E , " JJS 43 (1992) 203-20.
139. Applebaum, Jews and Greeks, 328-31.
140. Suetonius, Domitian 12.2. The elimination of these abuses under Nerva was com-
memorated by a Roman coin (CPJ, 1:80).
141. CPJ, 1:85. Josephus (J.W. 6.9.2 §418) mentions that prisoners were sent in chains
to the works in Egypt while those under 17 were sold. Jerome (Comm. in Jerem. 31.15 [PL
24.877]) says that "infmita millia captivorum" were sent to Rome via Gaza and Alexandria.
 RELIGION A N D POLITICS: THE ROMAN PERIOD 143

andrian disturbances of 66 was surely remembered. Tcherikover cites the

"steady increase in the use of Hebrew names from the Ptolemaic to the Ro-
man period" as evidence for "the gradual increase of national spirit among
the Egyptian Jews."'^^ The involvement of Trajan in a Parthian war, and the
transfer of some forces from Egypt to the East, provided an occasion for re-
volt against Rome.'"*^
The increase in messianic fervor went hand in hand with the deteriora-
tion of Jewish life in Egypt, because of taxation among other things, and with
the influx of prisoners and refugees from Judea. Only now do we find a real
attempt to abandon the Diaspora and return to the land of Israel. The progress
of Lukuas and his followers through Egypt, and if the late reports are correct,
into Judea, has eschatological overtones of the return of the exiles. The far-
reaching destruction is indicative of the abandonment of the Diaspora.'^'* It is
significant that the Jews of Alexandria were drawn into the revolt late and
even then were not firm allies of the rebels. Eusebius says that the rebels
"lost the alliance" of the Alexandrian Jews.'"*^ The spirit which motivated the
revolt was very different from that of the Jews who had struggled for status
in the mid-first century C.E. and drew its vigor from a different social class.

The Fifth Sibyl

We have only one document which may reflect the attitudes of Egyptian Ju-
daism in the period leading up to the revolt. The Fifth Sibylline Oracle is
made up of six oracles or collections of oracles.'*^ The first, verses 1-51, re-
views history from Alexander to Hadrian (or, if vs. 51 be original, Marcus
Aurelius) and constitutes an introduction to the book. The next four oracles,
verses 52-110, 111-78, 179-285, and 286-434, show a common pattern of
(a) oracles against various nations; (b) an eschatological adversary, who
evokes the figure of Nero with varying degrees of clarity in the different ora-
cles; (c) the advent of a savior figure; and (d) destruction (usually by fire).
Verses 435-530 constitute a concluding oracle which is largely concerned

142. CPl 1:84.

143. Smallwood, The Jews, 394.
144. J. M, ScoU, "Exile and the Self-Understanding of Diaspora Jews," in idem, ed.. Ex-
ile: Old Testament, Jewish, and Christian Perceptions (Leiden: Brill, 1998) 173-218, sees this
as the culmination of the Diaspora experience, but there is little evidence of a realistic desire to
return before 70 c . E .
145. Hist. Eccl. 4.2.3. Applebaum, Jews and Greeks, 295.
146. J. J. Collins, The Sibylline Oracles of Egyptian Judaism (SBLDS 13; Missoula,
Mont.: Scholars Press, 1974) 73-76; Goodman, in Schiirer, The History of the Jewish People
3.1:644; H. Merkel, Die Sibyllinen (JSHRZ 5.8; Gutersloh: Mohn, 1998) 1065-68.
144 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

with Egypt and which concludes with an elaborate battle of the stars (512-
31). Only one passage, verses 256-59, reflects ChrisUan redaction, and even
there it is probable that an original Jewish passage has only been modified by
an allusion to the crucifixion.
It is unlikely that all of Sib. Or. 5 was composed at the same dme. The
prominence of the Nero legend requires a date no earlier than 70 C.E. but
more probably later than 80. At the other extreme, the favorable reference to
Hadrian in verses 46-50 must have been written before the revolt of 132 C.E.
The bitterness of complaint about the destrucdon of the temple, especially in
verses 398-413, suggests that at least the central oracles were not too far re-
moved in time from that event. It seems likely that the greater part of Sib. Or.
5 comes from the period between 70 and 115 C.E., ahhough the introduction,
and possibly the conclusion, is later. It is significant that the sibyl speaks
more than once of the destrucdon or dereliction of pagan temples (vss. 52-
59, 484-91).'*^ Destruction of temples was a noteworthy feature of the re-
volt. The allusion to the overthrow of Sarapis in the concluding oracle (vs.
487) may reflect the destrucdon of the Ptolemaic Sarapeum.
The atdtude of Sib. OK 5 to the GenUle nations is far more negative
than anything in the earlier sibylline tradidon. Only in the introductory ora-
cle does the sibyl find something positive to say about any Gendle ruler. Two
of the four central oracles (vss. 52-110 and 179-285) are dominated by
prophecies of the destruction of Egypt. Not only does the sibyl repeat the fa-
miliar denunciadons of Egypdan idolatry and theriolatry (Sib. Or 5:77-85;
cf. Sib. OK 3:30-33; Wisdom of Solomon 13-15), but she also denounces
Egypt "because you have raged against my children . . . and incited evil
against good men" (vss. 67-68). Undoubtedly, the Alexandrians, who were
the most immediate adversaries of the Jews, are included in the Egyptians
here.
The most bitter words of the sibyl, however, are directed against Rome.
Like Babylon in the Old Testament (which is invoked in Sib. Or 5 as a type
of Rome),'"*^ Rome had said, "I alone am and no one wilt ravage me."^"*^ This
blasphemous pretension to divinity is typified by Nero and is the ultimate sin
in the biblical tradition. In more specific terms, Rome is denounced for im-
moraUty (vs. 166), a charge familiar from the earliest strata of the sibylline
oracles. More significandy, it was Rome which destroyed Jerusalem (vss.
160-61) and was thereby established as the new Babylon.
Sibylline Oracle 5 was not the first outburst of sibylline fury against

147. Collins, The Sibylline Oracles, 94-95. The point is also noted by Hengel,
"Messianische Hoffnung," 668-74.
148. Sib. Or. 5:143, 159. Cf. the use of Babylon for Rome in Revelation 13; 17; 18;
2 Baruch 36-40; 4 Ezra 11-12.
149. Sib. Or. 5:173; Isa. 47:8. Collins, The Sibylline Oracles, 79.
 RELIGION AND POLITICS: THE ROMAN PERIOD 145

Rome. A powerful oracle preserved in Sib. Or. 3:350-80 promises that "how-
ever much wealth Rome received from ttibute-bearing Asia, Asia will receive
three times that much again from Rome, and will repay her deadly arrogance to
her." The oracle goes on to say that a mistress (despoina) will cut your delicate
hair, and dispensing justice, will cast you from heaven to earth, but from earth
will raise you up to heaven." The sibyl goes on to predict a time when "serene
peace will return to the Asian land, and Europe will then be blessed." All com-
mentators have dated this oracle to the first century B.C.E. The despoina may be
Asia personified, in which case the oracle can be plausibly associated with the
campaign of Mithridates.'^'* Alternatively, the despoina may be Cleopatra as
the goddess Isis, whose conflict with Rome at Actium was often presented as a
war between Europe and Asia.'^' The emphasis on Rome's predatory taxation
fits better with the context of Mithridates, but the vision of a harmonious fu-
ture, where Rome is again raised up to heaven, fits the ideology of Cleopatra.
In either case, the oracle is not necessarily Jewish, but is picked up in a collec-
tion of pagan sibylline oracles that lend authenticity to the pseudepigraphie
Jewish composition. What is most remarkable in contrast to Sib. Or 5 is the
harmonious conclusion of the older oracle.
The destruction of Rome is also predicted in Sib. Or. 3:46-62 in an oracle
that dates to a time shortly after the battle of Actium ("when Rome will also
rule over Egypt"). This oracle, however, does not develop charges against
Rome and can be understood in light of the common sibylline theme of the de-
struction of all human kingdoms. It has been suggested that Rome is also the
"widow" who reigns over the whole world and brings it to desolation in Sib.
Or. 3:75-92,'^^ but in that case the reference is uncertain. The explicit statement
that "then indeed the world will be governed under the hands of a woman" sug-
gests the reign of an actual woman, most plausibly C l e o p a t r a . I n any case,
none of these passages develops the kind of invective against Rome that we
find in Sib. Or. 5. Another sibylline book. Sib. Or 11, a chronicle of history that
concludes with the Roman conquest of Egypt, shows no animosity against

150. H. G. Kippenberg, " 'Dann wird der Orient Herrschen und der Okzident Dienen':
Zur Begrundung eines gesamtvorderasiatischen Standpunktes im Kampf gegen Rom," in N. W.
Bolz and W. HUbener, eds., Spiegel und Gleichnis: Festschrift ftir Jacob Taubes (Wtirzburg:
Konigshausen und Neumann, 1983) 40-48. The association with Mithridates was proposed by
Johannes Geffcken.
151. E.g., Philo, Legaf/o 144. For the identification with Cleopatra, see W. W. Tarn, "Al-
exander Helios and the Golden Age," JRS 22 (1932) 135-59; Collins, The Sibylline Oracles,
57-64. Merkel, Sibyllinen. 1062, allows that the reference may be either to Mithridates or to
Cleopatra.
152. Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 286.
153. Collins, The Sibylline Oracles. 66-70. So also Goodman, in Schurer, The History of
the Jewish People, 3.1:641. The oracles mSib. Or 3:46-62 and 75-92 are generally regarded as
part of the lost Sib. Or. 2, a different collection of oracles from the one that begins in Sib. Or
3:97.
146 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

Rome and seems rather to rejoice in the subjugation of Egypt.^^'* Opposition to

Rome was not endemic to Jewish sibylline oracles.
Rome is raised to a mythological level in the sibyl's use of Nero as an
eschatological adversary. Drawing on the popular legend that Nero had
not died but had fled to Parthia and would one day return, the sibyl presents
him both as king of Rome (vs. 138) and as leading an attack on Rome in the
eschatological period (vs. 367). He is not yet idendfied with Belial, as he is
in the, Ascension of Isaiah (4:1) and probably in Sib. Or. 3:63-74,'^^ or said to
return from the dead as in Reveladon,^^^ but he sdll approximates to the scale
of an Antichrist figure. His evil character corresponds direcUy to that of
Rome: he Is morally evil, responsible for the destrucdon of Jerusalem (since
the Jewish war began in his reign), and claims to be god (vss. 34, 139-40).
The hosdiity of the sibyl to Rome does not entail any endorsement of
Rome's enemies. Unlike Sib. Or 3:350-80, which had enthusiastically
looked for the subjection of Rome to Asia, Sib. Or. 5 has no positive counter-
part to Rome. Prophecies of destruction against Asia alternate with those
against Egypt (vss. 111 -36, 286-327). The main enemies of Rome in this pe-
riod, the Parthians, are closely linked with Nero. In fact, Nero would seem to
be "the Persian" or "the one who obtained the land of the Persians" (vss. 93,
101; in vs. 147 he is said to have gone to the Persians). Both Rome and the
Parthians are seen as near-diabolical powers in Sib. Or 5, irrespective of
their mutual r e l a t i o n s . T h e general xenophobia of the sibyl is perhaps best

154. Collins, "Tlie Sibylline Oracles," in OTP, 1:430-42. Some scholars date Sib. Or. 11
to the third century c.E., because of its resemblance to books 12-13, but nothing in the book re-
quires a date later than the reign of Augustus. The uncertainty about the date is due to doubt
over whether the present division of books reflects the original units of composition.
155. Pace Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 285-86, who finds an anti-Roman leitmotiv
already in Sib. Or. 3.
156. Collins, The Sibylline Oracles, 80-87. On the Nero legend in the Sibylline Oracles,
see also L. Kreitzer, "Hadnan and the Nero Redivivus Myth," ZNW 79 (1988) 92-115; G. C.
Jenks, The Origin and Early Development of the Antichrist Myth (BZNW 59; Berlin:- de
Gruyter, 1991) 257-67; B. McGinn, Antichrist: Two Thousand Years of the Human Fascination
with Evil (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1994) 45-53; L, C. L. Peerbolte, The Anteced-
ents of Antichrist (Leiden: Brill, 1996) 322-34.
157. 'Then Beliar will come from the Sebastenoi" (ek Sebaslendn). This line is often
taken to mean that Beliar will come from Samaria. The parallel with Asc. Isa. 4:1, however,
where Beliar is clearly identified with Nero, suggests that ek Sebastenon means "from the line
of the Augusti." See Collins, The Sibylline Oracles. 86.
158.Rev. 13:3; 17:8, 11. A. Yarbro Collins, T/ie Combat Myth in the Book of Revelation
(HDR 9; Missoula, Mont.: Scholars Press, 1976) 170-86.
159. Contrast the prediction of R. Simeon b. Yohai (mid-second century): "If you see a
Persian horse tethered in Israel, look for the coming of the Messiah" (Midrash Song of Songs
Rabbah viii, 9 § 3; Lamentations Rabbah i, 13 § 41). See J. Neusner, A History of the Jews in
Babylonia (2d ed. Leiden: Brill, 1965) 74-76; Smallwood, The Jews, 426. Smallwood's conten-
tion that "Palestinian Jews looked upon the Parthians... as potential saviors" lacks documenta-
tion for the first century.
 RELIGION A N D POLITICS: THE ROMAN PERIOD 147

illustrated in its strange allusions to the "Ethiopians." In verses 206-13 the

Indians and Ethiopians are warned of a coming conflagration. Since only the
land of the Ethiopians is said to be destroyed, the Indians and the Ethiopians
appear to be identified here, a confusion that is also attested elsewhere in an-
cient geographers.'**^ Then in the concluding oracle, the final conflagration is
precipitated by the Ethiopians, who "leave the shameless tribes of the
Triballi," launch on a course of wickedness, and destroy the (mysterious)
temple which will have been erected to the true God in the land of Egypt.
Then God will rain on them a terrible wrath. This passage makes even less
geographical sense than verses 206-13. The Triballi were a tribe in Thrace.
Sib. OK 5 may be influenced by Sib. Or. 3:319-20, where Gog and Magog are
located between the Ethiopian rivers, so that the Ethiopians now become a
general and vaguely conceived eschatological adversary. What is noteworthy
is the willingness of the sibyl to regard a remote nation, whose location was
not even known clearly, in such a hostile way.
The bitterness of the sibyl against Rome does not displace the enmity
towards Egypt. Two of the four central oracles are devoted to Egypt, and the
sibyl complains of Egyptian hostility to the Jews. Again, the final oracle
prophesies the overthrow of Isis and Sarapis. Yet, the final oracle also holds
out the prospect of the conversion of Egypt to the one true god, even though
this is brought to naught by the invasion of the Ethiopians. No such prospect
is ever held out for Rome. Rome clearly supersedes Egypt and the Egyptian
Greeks as the primary enemy of the Jews.
The hatred for Rome that pervades Sib. Or 5 is of interest as back-
ground to the Diaspora revolt. As we have seen above, the disturbances in the
Diaspora in the first century C.E. appear to have been local conflicts with the
Greeks, and the involvement of the Alexandrian Jews in the revolt under
Trajan seems to have been initially a defensive reaction to the attack of the
Greeks. Yet in Sib. Or 5 hostility toward Rome seems more deeply rooted
than the traditional ethnic conflict with the Greeks.
The final oracle of the book is especially intriguing in this regard. The
allusions to the overthrow of Isis and Sarapis in verses 484-88 provide the
clearest echoes of the revolt. Yet, they are followed by the fantasy of a temple
to the true god in the land of Egypt. While this is definitely a fantasy, it had a
precedent in the temple of Leontopolis. If, as we have suggested, the Egyp-
tian sibyllina originated in the circles of the Oniads and their descendants,
the dream of a Jewish temple in Egypt is more understandable. Yet the sibyl
anticipates the destruction of this fantasized temple too. The temple of
Leontopolis had been closed by the Romans in 73 C.E., and we may suspect
here the basis for the sibyl's pessimism on the fate of the future temple. The

160. Strabo 1.2. In Sib. Or. 11:61-79 the Indians/Ethiopians are said to rule over Media.
148 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

"Ethiopians" take the place of the Romans in the eschatological tableau and
may conceivably, because of their association with Gog and Magog, be no
more than a symbolic name for Rome. The final batde of the stars vividly ex-
presses the desolation brought about by the failure of the revolt, a desolation
which was uUimately the work of Rome.
Sibylline Oracle 5 is exceptional in placing the major share of blame on
Rome rather than on Egypt. It is difficult to judge how far it was typical of
the Jews who joined in the revolt. In any case, it is striking that Sib. Or 5, the
only document that can at all be taken to reflect the atutudes behind the re-
volt, holds out a modified hope for the conversion of Egypt and directs its
wrath primarily against Rome.
While the earlier sibyls had hoped for deliverance through the agency
of a Ptolemy or Cleopatra, Sib. Or. 5 looks for an intervendon of God himself
(vs. 174) or, more typically, of a "king sent from God" (vs. 108) or a "man
from heaven" (vs. 414).^^^ The reference in verse 108 could apply to a hu-
man, earthly king, as was envisaged in Sib. OK 3, but could also be a heav-
enly figure. Verse 414 clearly refers to a heavenly figure. The other allusions
to a savior figure also suggest a heavenly origin. In verse 256, where the is-
sue is confused by the Christian interpolation in verse 257, he is said to come
"from the sky."^^^ In verses 158-59 "a great star" comes from heaven and
burns the sea and Babylon (i.e., Rome). Stars were frequently associated
with savior figures in the Hellenistic world.^^^ Messianic figures in Judaism
could be designated as stars by application of the oracle of Balaam. The
name given to the leader of the revolt of 132 C.E., Bar Kochba, "son of the
star," is significant in this regard. Since stars were frequently identified with
angels in the Jewish tradition. Sib. OK 5:158-59 must be seen in the context
of such heavenly saviors as the archangel Michael in the book of Daniel and
the Qumran War Scroll, Melchizedek in llQMelchizedek, and the "son of
man" figure in Daniel and the Similitudes of Enoch. ^^"^ The man from heaven
in vs. 414 has traditionally been associated with the "son of man" figure.
The parallel with Bar Kochba should warn us, however, against a sharp di-
chotomy between heavenly and earthly savior figures. Already in the Simili-
tudes of Enoch the heavenly "son of man" figure is identified as the mes-

161. Collins, The Sibylline Oracles, 87-92; Hengel, "Messianische Hoffnung," 674-79.
162. J. C. O'Neill, "The Man from Heaven: Sib Or 5.256-59," JSP 9 (1991) 87-102, ar-
gues that there is no Christian interpolation, but that a Jewish oracle spoke of a man sent from
heaven who had previously been crucified. It seems easier to suppose a Christian insertion.
163. Collins, The Sibylline Oracles, 90. Stars or comets were said to have marked the
births of Alexander, Mithridates, Augustus, Alexander Severus, and, of course, Jesus.
164. Collins, The Scepter and the Star, 173-94. W. Horbury, "The Messianic Associa-
tions of 'The Son of Man,'" JTS 36 (1985) 48, sees an allusion to Daniel 7 in Sib. Or 5:414,
432.
165. E.g., S. Mowinckel, He That Cometh (New York: Abingdon, 1954) 357.
 RELIGION AND POLITICS: THE ROMAN PERIOD 149

siah/*^ and 4 Ezra, which was roughly contemporaneous with Sih. Or. 5,
speaks of a "man from the sea" who comes on the clouds, as well as of a mes-
siah who is subject to d e a t h . T h e traditional conceptions of an earthly mes-
siah and a heavenly savior appear to have been confused by the late first cen-
tury c.E.'^^ The savior figure of Sib. Or 5 is then quite compatible with the
messianic expectations of the Jewish revolt, although the oracles do not indi-
cate a specific figure like Lukuas.
The role of the savior figure in the first two references (5/^. OK 5:108
and 256) is purely destructive. In the other cases, however, he is associated
with a restoration of Jerusalem. The restoration of the temple is explicit in
verse 422 and is implied in verse 268 by the offering of sacrifices.'™ In both
cases, Jerusalem is enlarged by a wall, which in verse 252 extends as far as
Joppa and reaches to the clouds (vss. 251, 425).'''' Not only will the restored
Judea enjoy peace; it will be freed from "the unclean foot of the Greeks" (vs.
264) and sexual immorality (vs. 430). More clearly than in any previous doc-
ument of the Egyptian Diaspora, the exaltation of Jerusalem is accompanied
by the destruction of other nations. In verses 414-19 the man from heaven
"destroyed every city from its foundations with much fire, and burned na-
tions of mortals who were formerly evildoers." Verses 264-85 declare that all
the earth will be desolate, unsowed and unploughed, except for the "holy
land of the pious," which will flow with milk and honey. This passage allows
for an eventual reprieve, if men "pay attention to the immortal eternal God"
and desist from idol worship. Both passages, however, would seem to pre-
suppose the end of the Diaspora and abandon the hope for Jewish prosperity
under Gentile powers. Judaism is here identified more closely with the an-
cestral land than in any of the earlier Diaspora documents.
Yet this conception is modified in the concluding oracle, which envis-
ages a temple to the true God in the land of Egypt. When this fails there is no
restoration of Judea but a cosmic conflict, resulting in a conflagration of the
earth and a starless sky. It is possible that the concluding oracle comes from a
different hand than the rest of the book and probable that it reflects the deso-
lation after the revolt had failed. In the end, it allows no more hope for the

166. 1 Enoch 48:10. See J. Theisohn, Der Auseiwdhiie Richler (SUNT 12; Gottingen:
Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1975) 53-99.
167. 4 Ezra 13:1-4; 7:29. See M. E. Stone, 'The Concept of the Messiah in 4 Ezra," in
J. Neusner, ed.. Religions in Antiquity (Leiden: Brill, 1968) 295-312.
168. U. B. Mueller, Messias und Menschensohn in jiidischen Apokalypsen und in der
Ojf'enbarung des Johannes (Giitersloh: Mohn, 1972) 107-55.
169. So also Hengel, "Messianische Hoffnung," 678.
170. A. Chester, "The Sibyl and the Temple," in W. Horbury, ed., Templum Amicitiae:
Essays on the Second Temple Presented to Ernst Bammel (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press,
1991) 47-56.
171. In 424-25 it is a tower which covers many stadia.
150 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

Diaspora than do the other oracles, but it sees none for Judea either. Sib. Or. 5
is not fully consistent in its expectations. It reflects two attitudes, both of
which had probably some currency at the beginning of the second century:
the hope for salvaUon in Judea, and the sense that if the Diaspora failed, all
failed. It is remarkable that Sib. Or. 5 never entertains the hope for salvation
beyond death which was commonplace in the apocalyptic literature of the
day.
The introduction to Sib. On 5 (vss. 1-51), which consists of a list of em-
perors, does not share the animation of the rest of the book. While vs. 51 con-
tinues the list down to Marcus Aurelius, this verse is probably an addition,
since the sibyl does not comment on any emperor after Hadrian, and the fa-
vorable remarks on him could scarcely have been written after the Jewish re-
volt of 132. It would seem, then, that this introduction was written within a
decade or so after the Diaspora revolt. Yet it lacks the seething hatred of
Rome characteristic of Sib. Or. 5 and is rather in the tradition of Sib. Or. 11,
which in part it summarizes. While the sibyl here is scathing in the portrayal
of Nero ("a terrible snake"), the odium is not extended to Rome as such. The
attitude is that of a Roman provincial. Some emperors may be criticized, but
others are praised. So Vespasian is "a destroyer of pious men," but there is no
reference to Trajan's suppression of the revolt. Hadrian, who was evidentiy
the current emperor, is "a most excellent man." It is somewhat paradoxical
that such a benign preface should introduce the vehemently anti-Roman Sib.
Or. 5. We should probably understand its role as a modification of the attack
on Rome, though not as a complete disavowal. As was the case in Philo and
3 Maccabees, the message is that Rome itself is not the problem, but only
certain evil emperors. The Jews after the revolt had learned again the art of
accommodation, since for better or worse their destiny lay within the Roman
empire.

T h e Later Sibyllines

Both the vehement anti-Roman rhetoric of Sib. Or 5 and the more submis-
sive stance of the introduction are echoed in the later sibylline tradition. Sib.
Or 8 preserves an extensive Jewish oracle in vss. 1-216, although the re-
mainder of the book is clearly Christian. The Jewish oracle can be dated with
some precision to the reign of Marcus Aurelius, about 175 C.E., since the re-
turn of Nero is expected in his reign (8:65-74). Its provenance is uncertain,
but an extraneous oracle in vss. 131-38 is obviously from Egypt.'^^ In view

172. This passage is in praise of Hadrian, whom it calls the fifteenth king of Egypt.
 RELIGION AND POLITICS: THE ROMAN PERIOD 151

of their general familiarity with the sibylline tradition, the Jewish parts of
Sib. Or. 8 are quite probably from Egypt too. The vehemence of their anti-
Roman invective surpasses even Sib. Or 5. It focuses on social injustices
rather than any specific acts against the Jews and may be an accumulation of
anti-Roman oracles over a period of time.
The last three books of the sibylline collection are essentially lists of
emperors in continuity with Sib. Or. 11 and 5:1-51.'^^ The first eleven verses
of Sib. Or. 12 correspond exactly to Sib. Or 5:1-11. Books 12-14 are contin-
uous with each other, although the ends and beginnings of the books are
punctuated by prayers of the sibyl and introductory formulae. It would ap-
pear that the material was constantly updated and that the eschatological con-
clusion of book 14 was retained as the end of the entire sequence. The locus
of the tradition was Alexandria. The latest identifiable event in Sib. Or. 14 is
the Arab conquest of Egypt in the seventh century.'^^ Sib. OK 12 is the most
significant part of this material. Its interest lies chiefly in its collection of
opinions and traditions about emperors down to the mid-third century. Some
emperors, Caligula, Nero, Nerva, Commodus, and Septimius Severus, are
negatively presented, but the general tone is positive. Augustus, Domitian,
Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius are praised. Vespasian is "noble" and "excel-
lent" despite his suppression of the Jewish revolt. Trajan's suppression of the
Diaspora revolt is passed over in a single verse. The passage on Hadrian
makes no reference to a revolt, although it is based on a hostile passage in
Sib. Or. 8:52-59. In all, Geffcken's opinion that the sibyllist placed his loy-
alty to Rome above his Judaism seems well founded.

Conclusion

Looking back over the four hundred odd years from the early Ptolemaic pe-
riod to the Diaspora Revolt, we may say that the dominant tendency of Dias-
pora Jewry was to live as loyal subjects of their Gentile masters and to partic-
ipate in the culture and society as fully as possible within the constraints of
their religious tradition. In the early period, we found some cases, such as
Artapanus and the tale of the Tobiads, where the main element of Jewish

173, J. Geffcken, "Romische Kaiser im Volksmunde der Provinz," Nacfirickten der

koniglicfien Gesellschaft der Wissenschqften zu Gottingen. Phil.-Hist. Kl. (1901) 188-95
A. Kurfess, "Oracula Sibyllina XI(IX)-XIV(XII), nicht christlich sondem judisch," ZRGG 7
(1955) 270-72. D. S. Potter, Prophecy and History in the Crisis of the Roman Empire (Oxford
Oxford University Press, 1990), is a study of Sib. Or 13 as a source for Roman history,
174. W. Scott, "The Last Sibylline Oracle of Alexandria," CQ 9 (1915) 144-66; 207-28
10 (1916) 7-16.
152 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

identity was ethnic and naUonal pride, but even there loyalty to the Gentile
rulers was not in doubt. In the early sibylline oracles there is an apparent
hope for the restoration of Jerusalem and the Jewish homeland through the
agency of the Ptolemies. In Sib. Or. 5 there is, finally, a sharp rejection of all
Gendle power, and here we might legitimately speak of a nationalistic hope
centered on the land of Israel. There is little evidence for such hope in Egyp-
tian Judaism before 70 C.E. Even in Sib, Or 5, in its final form, the rejection
of the Gentiles is muted in the introduction, and the hope for the land of Is-
rael is abandoned in the final oracle of destruction.
The early sibyllines reflect the most energetic attempt of the Jews to
participate actively in Egyptian politics. We know that Onias IV and his sons
were indeed activists in this way. Their hopes for the glory of Judaism were
evidently centered on the Ptolemaic line. Such hopes, however, died with
Cleopatra. Even in the second century B.C.E., not all Jews shared this active
approach to politics. The Letter of Aristeas carefully avoided political align-
ment and suggested that Judaism was essentially a religious philosophy.
2 Maccabees, despite its revolutionary subject matter, presented Judaism as
devotion to the law and was at pains to suggest that there was no necessary
hostility between Gentiles and pious Jews. In the Roman period, Philo evi-
dently regarded Judaism as primarily a religious philosophy. Even
3 Maccabees, which is scarcely a philosophical document, locates Jewish
identity in observance of the law rather than in political allegiance. In short,
the great bulk of the literature of Egyptian Judaism disregarded political alle-
giance as a factor in Jewish identity. By presenting Judaism as a religious
philosophy or as the piety of Torah observance, the Hellenistic Jews left
themselves free to be loyal subjects of the state in which they lived.
Despite the persistent concern with matters of political allegiance and
civil status, the dominant locus of Jewish identity was in the area of ethics
and piety. Even the politically oriented Sibylline Oracles still present a code
of behavior which is distinctively Jewish. In Part Two below we will con-
sider several works which pay no attention to political matters but present Ju-
daism as an ethical or religious system in which political identity plays virtu-
ally no part.
 P A R T T W O

IDENTITY THROUGH
ETHICS AND PIETY
 CHAPTER 4

The Common Ethic

The distinctiveness of Diaspora Judaism was never simply a matter of political

allegiance. It was deeply rooted in customs and observances which ultimately
derived from the Mosaic law. The strangeness of Judaism in the eyes of many
Gentiles sprang from the influence of Mosaic commandments, especially those
which prohibited worship of pagan gods and restricted intercourse with neigh-
boring peoples. Moses and his code drew the admiration of some philosophical
Greeks and Romans but were the targets of the most vehement hostile polemic.
Jewish apologists like Philo and Josephus could boast of the extent of Moses'
fame but were also extended in their efforts to remove the scandal of his laws
and reconcile them with Hellenistic culture. In fact, while the Mosaic law al-
ways retained an authoritative position in Jewish life in the Diaspora, its role
was by no means a simple one. It could be treated selectively, by highlighting
some laws and neglecting others, and it could be buttressed with philosophical
and religious foundations that were remote from the original Torah. The variety
of Diaspora Judaism and its peculiar character can be appreciated in the light of
the ways in which it adapted the traditional laws.

J u d a i s m according to Hecataeus

The brief account of Judaism by Hecataeus of Abdera is instructive for the

Gentile perception of Judaism at the beginning of the Hellenistic period, be-
fore the history of ethnic conflict in Alexandria had begun to unfold. A frag-
ment is preserved in Diodorus, Bibliotheca Historica, 40.' Hecataeus follows

1. Diodorus Siculus 40.3, preserved by Photius. See M. Stem, Greek and Latin Authors

155
156 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

the Egyptian account, of which a variant is found also in Manetho, according

to which the Jews were foreigners expelled from Egypt, who setUed in Pales-
tine and founded Jerusalem. In accordance with Hecataeus's general interest
in laws and lawgivers, the focus of the narrative is on Moses. While the way
of life introduced by Moses is characterized as "unsocial and hostile to for-
eigners," the account on the whole is favorable. Hecataeus emphasizes the
monotheism of the Jews and says that they rejected anthropomorphism: "He
did not fabricate any Image of the gods, because he believed that god was not
anthropomorphic; rather, the heaven which encompassed the earth was the
only god and lord of all." He notes the humanitarian aspects of the laws —
the concern for the protection of the poor, and the insistence that children be
raised and not exposed. He also notes favorably the prominent role of the
priests. Judaism is portrayed as a religion of the law. In fact, traditional Juda-
ism fitted well with Hecataeus's interest in laws and the regulation of society.
His generally favorable attitude to Judaism resulted in part from the similari-
ties between Jewish and Egyptian laws, and Hecataeus's preference for the
latter over those of the Greeks.^
Hecataeus's interest in laws was exploited by the Jewish forger who
composed the Peri loudaion cited by Josephus in his Against Apion:

In another passage, Hecataeus mentions our regard for our laws and
how we deliberately choose and hold it a point of honor to endure
anything rather than transgress them. "And so (he says) neither the
slander of their neighbors and of foreign visitors, to which as a na-
tion they are exposed, nor the frequent outrages of Persian kings and
satraps can shake their determination; for these laws, naked and de-
fenseless, they face death in its most terrible form rather than repudi-
ate the faith of their forefathers."^

Josephus goes on to paraphrase some examples: the refusal of Jewish

workers to collaborate on the restoration of the temple of Bel in Babylon
and "again when temples and altars were erected in the country by its in-
vaders, the Jews razed them all to the ground, paying in some cases a fine
to the satraps and in others obtaining pardon. For such conduct, he adds,

on Jews and Judaism (3 vols.; Jerusalem: Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1974-
84) 1:20-44; J. G. Gager, Moses in Greco-Roman Paganism (SBLMS 16; Nashville: Abingdon,
1972) 26-37; B. Bar-Kochva, Pseudo-Hecataeus 'On the Jews': Legitimizing the Jewish Dias-
pora {Berkeley: University of California Press. 1996) 18-43. The fragment is attributed to
Hecataeus of Miletus, but this is universally taken for a simple mistake by Diodorus.
2. On the general Tendenz of Hecataeus, see P. M. Eraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria (2 vols.;
Oxford: Clarendon, 1972) 1:504: "The tendency being what it was — to prove the superiority
and greater antiquity of Egyptian culture — it seems very probable that Hecataeus' ultimate
aim was to establish the superiority of the kingdom ruled over by Soter."
3.Ag. Ap. 1.190-91.
 THE COMMON ETHIC 157

they deserve admiration." It is surely incredible that Hecataeus would ad-

mire the Jews for destroying pagan temples, and in any case such acts
could not have been perpetrated by Jews before the Hasmonean period.
Another passage attributed to Hecataeus by Josephus tells the story of
MosoUamus the Jewish archer, who shot a bird that was being observed by
an augurer, saying that the bird could not have known the future or it would
have avoided the arrow.^ The element of ridicule is not in accordance with
the usual attitude of Hecataeus toward religious practices.* Nonetheless,
many enlightened Greeks were critical both of temples and of divination,
and many modern scholars have been willing to believe in at least the par-
tial authenticity of these fragments.^

The Basis for a C o m m o n Ethic

The authentic fragments of Hecataeus illustrate the point that while Gentiles
found Judaism alien and uninviting in some respects, enlightened Greeks
could also find much in Judaism to admire. Several early Hellenistic writers
(Megasthenes, Theophrastus, Clearchus of Soli) speak of the Jews as philos-
ophers.^ Moses was widely respected as a wise lawgiver.^ Some of the fea-
tures of Judaism that contrasted most sharply with Greek religion, such as
monotheism and rejection of idols, were considered admirable by enlight-
ened Greeks. "What man then," asks Strabo, "if he has sense, could be bold
enough to fabricate an image of God resembling any creature amongst us?
Nay, people should leave off all image-carving, and setting apart a sacred
precinct and a worthy sanctuary, should worship God without an image."
Those persuaded by Moses were "thoughtful men."''' Conversely, Jews could
present their religion in a way that invited the respect of such Greeks, and
that expressed their own Hellenistic identity, without repudiating their own
fundamental beliefs and values. The attempt to discriminate between those
aspects of Hellenistic culture that were acceptable to Judaism and those that
were not is essential to the self-understanding of Diaspora Judaism.

4. Bar-Kochva, Pseudo-Hecataeus. 97.

5. Ag.Ap. 1.201-4.
6. Bar-Kochva, Pseudo-Hecataeus, 61.
7. See Stern, Greek and Latin Authors, 1:20-25. Stern concludes that Josephus had be-
fore him a Jewish revision of an authentic writing by Hecataeus.
8. Stern, Greek and Latin Authors, 1:8-17 (Theophrastus); 45-46 (Megasthenes); 47-52
(Clearchus); L. H. Feldman, Jew and Gentile in the Ancient World (Princeton: Princeton Uni-
versity Press, 1993) 203-4.
9. Gager, Moses in Greco-Roman Paganism, 25-79. See especially Strabo 16.2.35-39.
10. Strabo 16.2.35-36; Stem, Greek and Latin Authors, 300.
158 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS A N D PIETY

The earUest literature of the Hellenistic Diaspora, which can be dated

prior to the reign of Philometor, displays widely divergent attitudes towards
the law. On the one hand, Demetrius the Chronographer shows a rather scru-
pulous attitude both in his concern for reconciling chronological data and in
his demonstration that Moses (^id not marry outside his people. At the other
extreme, Artapanus shows no compunction in associating Moses with the
Egyptian animal cults. We shall see later yet another distinct viewpoint in the
Exagoge of Ezekiel the Tragedian. The fragmentary character of these early
writings makes it difficult to get a clear picture of their attitudes to the law. It
is apparent, however, that those early writings which have in part survived
were not primarily oriented to the law and did not share any common under-
lying attitude towards it.
From the time of Philometor on, the Jewish documents have been more
substantially preserved, but they also begin to reflect an emerging common
ethic. The characteristic feature of this ethic was that it emphasized those as-
pects of Jewish law which were respected by enlightened Gentiles and fitted
easily into the self-understanding of the Jewish authors as enlightened Hel-
lenes — chiefly monotheism and the prohibition of idolatry, and various sex-
ual laws such as the prohibition of homosexuality.^^ These matters had an
important place in Jewish tradition, but they could be formulated in ways that
were also thoroughly Hellenistic.
There had been a growing tendency towards monotheism in Greek phi-
losophy since the fifth century B.C.E.^^ Antisthenes, a pupil of Socrates and
teacher of Diogenes, had declared that there are many gods by convention,
but only one god in nature.'^ The tendency was furthered by the natural the-
ology of the Stoics and is vividly illustrated in Cleanthes' Hymn to Zeus. Cri-
tiques of idolatry were not uncommon in the philosophers, and they were of-
ten extended to the use of temples as well.^* The philosophical critique of
idolatry is found as early as Heraclitus and Xenophanes,'^ and again in Zeno,

11. Compare K. Berger, Die Gesetzauslegung Jesu (WMANT 40; Neukirchen-Vluyn:

Neukirchener Verlag, 1972) 39: "Fiir eine bestimmte Schicht des jiidischen Hellenismus ist no-
mos de facto nicht das atl. Gesetz, sondem lediglich ein Monotheismus, verbunden mit
allgemeinen und sozialen Tugenden."
12. See M. Nilsson. Geschichte der Gnechischen Religion (Munich: Beck, 1950) 2:546-
52. See also the usage of the epithet monos: G. Delling, "Monos Theos," in idem, Studien zum
Neuen Testament und zum hellenistischen Judenlum (Gbttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht,
1970) 391-400.
13. Cicero, De Natura Deorum 1.32.
14. H. W, Attridge, First-Century Cynicism in the Epistles of Heraclitus (HTS 29;
Missoula, Mont.: Scholars Press, 1976) 13-23, and the material there cited. See also Attridge,
"The Philosophical Critique of Religion under the Early Bmpke" ANRW ll.\6. \ (1978) 45-77.
15. H. Diels and W. Kranz, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker (10th ed.; Berlin:
Weidmann, 1960-61) frag. 5. See also B. de Borries, Quid veteres philosophi de idolatria
senserint (Gottingen: Dieterich, 1918) 72.
 THE COMMON ETHIC 159

the founder of Stoicism.'* According to St. Augustine, the Roman antiquar-

ian Varro claimed that the Romans had worshipped the gods without an im-
age for more than a hundred and seventy years. '"If this usage had continued
to our own day,' he says, 'our worship of the gods would be more devout.'
And in support of his opinion he adduces, among other things, the testimony
of the Jewish race."''' Numerous other critiques of idolatry can be found in
the Stoic and Cynic philosophers of the Hellenistic and early Roman periods.
Jewish sexual ethics could also find support in the Hellenistic world.
Greek attitudes towards adultery varied and, in general, were harsher on
women than on men. There are numerous tales of individual vengeance and
public punishments.'^ Plutarch (Lycurgus 15) recounts a story in which adul-
tery is said to have been unknown among the ancient Spartans. Plato, in the
Laws (8.841-42), proposed "one or other of two standards of sexual con-
duct." Ideally, no one would dare to have relations with any woman or man
other than his spouse. Alternatively, if a man had an affair with another
woman, he must keep it secret. If detected he would lose his citizen's rights.
Later, Epictetus (Discourses 2.22.28) even claimed that whatever produced
incontinents, adulterers, and seducers was not really human. Jewish strict-
ness on the question of adultery, then, was not alien to Hellenistic thought on
the subject, although it was atypical.
No sin is denounced more frequently in Jewish writings than homosex-
uality. Despite the generally indulgent Greek tradition on this subject, there
was also a long history of criticism. Plato conveys a positive attitude in the
Symposium, but in the Laws (636) he condemns homosexuality unequivo-
cally as contrary to nature. He adds, however, that "if anyone following na-
ture should lay down the law . . . and denounce these lusts as contrary to na-
ture, adducing the animals as a proof that such unions were monstrous, he
might prove his point, but he would be wholly at variance with the custom of
your states" (Laws 836). Antisthenes and the Cynics likewise rejected it, as
did the Epicureans.'^ Here again the Jewish writers were not simply at vari-
ance with Greek morality but could be seen as taking sides in widespread
Greek debate.
The Jewish law that children be reared, not aborted or exposed, had al-
ready been noted with approval by Hecataeus. Greek and Roman moralists

16. In his Republic, Zeno prohibited the building of temples and, according to Clement,
the erection of idols. Diogenes Laertius 7.33; Clement, Stromateis, 5.11.76, 1-3.
17. Augustine, De Civitate Dei 4.31.
18. For random anecdotes and references, see H. Licht, Sexual Life in Ancient Greece
(London: The Abbey Library, 1932) 61-63.
19. W. KroU, "Knabenliebe," PWRE 11.1:897-906. For a full treatment of the subject,
see K. J. Dover, Greek Homosexuality (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978). See also
his Greek Popular Morality in the Time of Plato and Aristotle (Berkeley: University of Califor-
nia Press, 1974) 213-16.
160 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

seldom concern themselves with this issue, but the Roman satirist Juvenal re-
fers scathingly to the widespread practice of a b o r t i o n . I n all these points,
the sexual morality defended by the Jewish writers was indeed faithful to
Jewish law, but it could also expect to find some sympathy among enlight-
ened Gentiles and could be defended within the context of Hellenistic de-
bates.
By emphasizing those aspects of Jewish law which could command re-
spect in a Gentile context, the Hellenistic Jewish writers were able to project
Judaism as a universal religion which was in accordance with the laws of na-
ture.^' Distinctive aspects of Judaism such as circumcision and dietary laws
were usually played down, with a few notable exceptions. We need not con-
clude that the Jews of Egypt actually abandoned these practices — even such
a Hellenized Jew as Philo was faithful to the letter of the law — but these ele-
ments were not up front or central in their formulations of Jewish ethics. Nat-
urally there were variations in emphasis from text to text. In the rest of this
chapter we will consider three samples from the less philosophical literature
of Hellenistic Judaism, the Sibylline Oracles, the Testaments of the Twelve
Patriarchs, and the sayings of Pseudo-Phocylides.

T h e Sibylline Oracles

The Third Sibyl

We have already seen that the Third Sibyl is largely concerned with predic-
tions of the destruction of various Gentile peoples and the glorious restora-
tion of Israel. The ethical and religious requirements of the sibyl are found in
the hortatory passages, framed by the eschatological predictions. These pas-
sages specify the kinds of conduct that lead to destruction and those that lead
to salvation and deliverance, and so identify the conduct required by true re-
ligion. Thus, the destruction of the Romans will be brought about through
their "unjust haughtiness," homosexuality, and greed (3:182-90). The Greeks
are condemned for idolatry (3:545-55), and several nations are denounced
for homosexuality and idolatry and, in general, for "transgressing the holy
law of immortal God, which they transgressed" (3:599-600). The conduct re-
quired by the sibyl is summarized in verses 762-66: "But urge on your minds
in your breasts and shun unlawful worship. Worship the Living One. Avoid

20. Juvenal, Satires 6.594-97. See Attridge, First-Century Cynicism, 28.

21. D. Georgi, The Opponents of Paul in Second Corinthians (Philadelphia: Fortress,
1986) 148-51.
 THE COMMON ETHIC 161

adultery and indiscriminate intercourse with males. Rear your own offspring
and do not kill it, for the Immortal is angry at whoever commits these sins."
Because of these persistent denunciations of Gentile sin, John Bar-
clay has claimed that the book is dominated by a mood of social alienation
and cultural a n t a g o n i s m . B u t the denunciations are only part of the story.
The sibyl also appeals repeatedly to the Greeks to turn to the worship of the
one God and support his temple. They can escape war and slavery by send-
ing their holocausts to the temple of the great God (3:545-72). Again in
verses 624-34 people are asked to show their conversion by sacrificing
bulls and lambs. Finally, the sibyl predicts that after great eschatological
upheavals all cities and islands will turn to the great God, send offerings to
the temple, and ponder the law of the Most High God (3:710-31). These
appeals for conversion do not bespeak alienation or antagonism. Barclay
objects that this conversion can only come about when the Gentiles aban-
don idolatry and recognize the unique sanctity of the Jerusalem temple.
Indeed. That is how conversion is defined. Even Philo, whom Barclay
rightly regards as a model of cultural convergence, says that in an ideal
world "each nation would abandon its peculiar ways, and throwing over-
board its ancestral customs, turn to honoring our laws alone."2^* The univer-
salism implied is triumphalist and condescending, but It is as generous as
believers in an exclusive, revealed religion can ever be.^^ It is far from the
hostility to the Gentile world that we find later in Sib. Or. 5. In the words of
Erich Gruen: "Insofar as the Third Book contains negative aspersions upon
Greeks, it includes them among wayward peoples whose failure to see the
truth has led them into arrogance, impiety, and immorality, thus provoking
divine vengeance. But Greeks alone are singled out for encouragement to
enter the fold of the true believers."'^* The repeated references to the reign
of the seventh king of Egypt as the turning point of history, and the more
explicit role of "the king from the sun," show that the sibyl expected that a
favorable Ptolemaic ruler would play a role in bringing about the great
conversion.

22. J. M. G. Barclay, Jews in tfie Mediterranean Diaspora from Alexander to Trajan

(323 BCE-tl7 CE) (Edinburgh: Clark, 1996) 218-25.
23. Ibid., 222. He recognizes the vision of repentance only in "the final oracle."
24. De Vita Mosis 2.44. See A. Mendelson, Pliilo's Jewish Identity (BJS 161; Atlanta:
Scholars Press, 1988) 128-32.
25. E. Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism: The Reinvention of Jewish Tradition (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1998) 288, calls the gesture of the sibyl "noble and inagnani-
mous." Cf. also M. Simon, "Sur quelques aspects des Oracles Sibyllins juifs," in D. Hellholm,
ed.. Apocalypticism in the Mediterranean World and the Near East (Tiibingen: Mohr Siebeck,
1983) 219-33: "Un souffle universaliste anime ces Merits" (p. 232).
26. Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism. 287. Gruen's portrayal of the Third Sibyl as vehe-
mently anti-Roman is not supported by the texts that make up the original stratum of the book.
(Gruen does not accept the distinction of strata.)
] 62 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

Over against the denunciations of Gentile sin stand the eulogies of the
Jews — "a race of most righteous men" who avoid all forms of divination
and "the astrological predictions of the Chaldeans,"^^ and are characterized
by "righteousness and virtue and not love of money," helping the poor and
sharing with them, "fulfilling the word of the great God, the hymn of the
law,^^ for the Heavenly One gave the earth in common to all" (3:218-47).
The future ideal is the restoraUon of "a sacred race of pious men who attend
to the counsels and intention of the Most High" and "fully honor the temple
of the great God" with all kinds of sacrifices. These, "sharing in the righ-
teousness of the law of the Most High," will be "exalted as prophets by the
Immortal and bring great joy to all mortals. For to them alone did the great
God give wise counsel and faith and excellent understanding in their hearts.
Hence they honor God, their parents, and holy wedlock and avoid homosexu-
ality" (3:573-600). In the final Utopian state, "the sons of the great God will
all live peacefully around the temple." The nadons will be moved with admi-
ration and resolve: "Let us send to the temple, since He alone is sovereign,
and let us all ponder the law of the Most High God" and avoid idolatry
(3:702-31).
In all of this, the Jewish law has a clear and pivotal place. The sibyl re-
fers explicitly to the law given to Moses on Mt. Sinai (3:255-58). True, wor-
ship is specifically located at the temple of Jerusalem, and only the Jews, in
contrast with "Phoenicians, Egyptians and Romans, spacious Greece and
many nations of others," observe the law (3:597-98). Jews do, indeed, fail on
occasion and can be punished like anyone else if they do not "obey in your
heart the holy law of the immortal God" but "worship unseemly idols"
(3:275-79). This is illustrated by the Babylonian exile. However, the exile
also illustrates that they are restored "as immortal God decreed for you."
What they must do is "remain trusting in the holy laws of the great God"
(3:283-84). Yet it is not only to the Jews that the law applies. The other na-
tions, too, can be condemned for faihng to keep the law (3:599-600). The
sibyl, like Romans 1 and Wisdom of Solomon 13, seems to presume that the
essential law is known to everyone by nature. In fact, the requirements of the
sibyl could be seen to a great extent in terms of natural law.^' The basic sin is
idolatry.'" Accordingly, the main requirement for the conversion of the
Greeks is that they "revere the name of the one who has begotten all" (3:550)
and bring their sacrifices to the temple of the one true God (3:545-72). De-

27. The contrast with Pseudo-Eupolemus at this point has often been noted, but there is
no adequate reason to suppose deliberate polemic.
28. Ennomon hymnon. The adjective is a play on nomos as "harmony" and as "law."
29. Cf. Berger, Die Gesetzauslegung, 41.
30. V. Nikiprowetzky, La Troisieme Sibylle (Eludes Juives 9; Paris: Mouton, 1970) 82-
83.
 THE COMMON ETHIC 163

Spite the implication of the superiority of Judaism, this demand is not com-
pletely alien to Greek sensibilities. The accusation of idolatry is based on a
euhemeristic account of the origin of Greek religion, which was quite intelli-
gible in a Greek context:^' "it is a thousand years and five hundred more
since the overbearing kings of the Greeks reigned, who began the first evils
for mortals setting up many idols of dead gods" (3:551-54). These condem-
nations of idolatry were standard fare in Hellenistic Judaism, developed not
least by Philo.^^
The sibyl echoes the common Jewish position on sexual abuses. Her
warnings against the dangers of arrogance and greed are also commonplace.
The assertion that God gave the earth in common to all (3:247, 261) rings of
Stoicism.^^ The same sentiment is reflected in Pseudo-Phocylides (30): "Let
all of life be in common."
The sibyl takes a more distinctive position in her unequivocal condem-
nation of augury, divination, and "the astrological predictions of the Chal-
deans" (3:220-28).^^ Divination had philosophical respectability in the Hel-
lenistic age, since it was defended by most Stoics. However, there were
notable dissenters, such as Cameades, founder of the Third, or New, Acad-
emy (second century B.C.E.) and the Epicureans, while the Stoic Panaetius
had his doubts. Astrology was pervasive In the Hellenistic world, and one of
the great astrological works, that of Nechepso and Petosiris, was composed
in Egypt and roughly contemporary with the Third S i b y l . M a n y Jewish
writings from the period display a positive attitude on this subject, in sharp
contrast to the sibyl.^* In addition to Pseudo-Eupolemus, who credited Abra-
ham with inventing astrology, we should note the Treatise of Shem, a full-
fledged Jewish astrological work apparently composed in Egypt at some

31. Euhemerism was the theory put forward by Euhemerus of Messene (ca. 300 B . C . E . )
that the gods of popular worship had been kings and conquerors to whom humankind had
shown gratitude by worshipping them as gods (Diodorus Siculus 6.1; 5.41). On the theory and
its predecessors, see Nilsson, Gescfiichfe, 2:269-74. Sib. Or. 3 gives a euhemeristic account of
early history in 3:110-55. Kronos and the Titans in that passage are presumably the "overbear-
ing kings" referred to here.
32. De Decalogo 52-81; De Vita Conlemplaliva 3-9; De Specialibiis Legibus 1.13-29;
2.255. See J. Tromp, "The Critique of Idolatry in the Context of Jewish Monotheism," in P. W.
van der Horst, ed.. Aspects of Religious Contact and Conflict in the Ancient World (Utrecht:
University of Utrecht, 1995) 105-20.
33. Nikiprowetzky, La Troisieme Sibylle, 81. Cf. Zeno in Plutarch, De Alexandri Virtute
1.6 (text in H. F. A. von Arnim, ed., Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta [4 vols.; Leipzig: Teubner,
1903-24] 1:264).
34. See P. van der Horst, "Jewish Self-Definition by Way of Contrast in Oracula
Sibyllina III 218-247," in idem, ed.. Aspects of Religious Contact, 147-66.
35. See Nilsson, Geschichte, 261-67. For Nechepso and Petosiris, see E. Riess,
"Nechepsonis et Petosiridis Fragmenta Magica," Philologus Supplementband 6 (1892-93) 327-
88.
36. J. H. Charlesworth, "Jewish Interest in Astrology during the Hellenistic and Roman
Period," ANRW II.20.2 (1987) 926-50.
164 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

time in the Roman p e r i o d . Y e t even here the sibyl's stand could be appreci-
ated by some Greeks and Romans. Cicero could cite with approval the state-
ment of Eudoxus, a pupil of Plato, that "no reliance whatever is to be placed
in Chaldean astrologers," and he also listed false prophecies made to
Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar.'^ Low-level astrology and Chaldaei were of-
ten assailed by Roman magistrates and satirists, and in 139 B.C.E. the
Chaldaei were expelled from Rome.^^ The sibyl was focusing attention on an
issue of deep interest to the Hellenistic world, where debate was possible on
the basis of one's understanding of nature.'*'*
So, while the sibyl remains devoted to the law of Moses, she treats it in
practice as natural law. There is no reference to the more peculiar dietary
laws of Leviticus, or to the laws which separated Jew from Gentile. There is
no indication that circumcision was required of converts.*^ At the end, God
"will put in effect a common law for men throughout the whole earth" (757-
58). It is evident that this law is not only concerned with Jewish traditions but
with the fulfillment of human nature.
Yet, for all the universalism implied in the reduction of the law to ethi-
cal principles of broad human interest, the sibyl remains stubbornly partic-
ularistic. Unlike, for example, Pseudo-Aristeas, she does not say that those
who worship Zeus are worshipping the same God; unlike Pseudo-
Phocylides, she is unequivocal in her rejection of polytheism. Most signifi-
cantly, she insists on the primacy of the Jerusalem t e m p l e . T h i s advocacy

37. See J . H. Chadesworth, "Jewish Astrology in the Talmud, Pseudepigrapha, the Dead
Sea Scrolls, and Early Palestinian Synagogues," HTR 70 (1977) 183-200; idem, "Rylands Syri-
ac Ms. 44 and A New Addition to the Pseudepigrapha: The Treatise of Shem Discussed and
Translated," BJRL 60 (1978) 376-403. Chadesworth suggests a date in the last third of the first
century B . C . E . , but the evidence is not clear and the document could be much later.
38. Cicero, De Divinatione 87-99.
39. E. J. Bickerman, "The Altars of the Gentiles," in idem, Sliidies in Jewish and Chris-
tian History (3 vols.; AGJU 9; Leiden: Brill, 1976-86) 2:329; A. Baumstark, "Chaldaei,"
^^^^£3 (1899) 2059-60.
40. The Sibyl was not, of course, the only Jewish voice raised against astrology. See also
Jubilees 12:17; Philo, De Abrahamo, M; De Migratione Abrahami, 187-88. Astrology is part
of the corrupting revelation of the Watchers in 1 Enoch 8.
41. J . J. Collins, "A Symbol of Otherness: Circumcision and Salvation in the First Cen-
tury," in idem. Seers, Sibyls and Sages in Hellenistic-Roman Judaism (Leiden: Brill, 1997)
212-14 (originally published in J . Neusner and E. S. Frerichs, eds., "To See Ourselves as Oth-
ers See Us": Christians, Jews, "Others" in Late Antiquity (Chico, Calif.: Scholars Press, 1985)
163-86.
42. In this regard, it is noteworthy that Sib. Or. 3, unlike Pseudo-Phocylides, does not at-
tach a spiritual significance to ablutions. The precise meaning of verses 591-93 ("at dawn they
lift up holy arms towards heaven, from their beds, always sanctifying the flesh [or "hands"]
with water") is unclear. (See Nikiprowetzky, La Troisi&me Sibylle, 238-40.) These practices are
said to be typical of Jews but are not required of Gentiles. In any case, neither prayer nor ablu-
tions could be unfamiliar to a Hellenistic audience. See E. Pfister, "Katharsis," PWRE Supp 6
(1935) 146-62.
 THE COMMON ETHIC 165

of the temple, as we have seen In Chapter 2 above, is part of the particular

political stance of the work and reflects its provenance. It shows that the
propaganda of the sibyl was in the service of concrete political and geo-
graphical ideals, not of a philosophy or mystical cult, as may have been the
case in some other Jewish documents. The tension between the universalistic
understanding of the law and the particularistic attachment to land and tem-
ple is quite typical of Diaspora Judaism in the Hellenistic period,''^ although
the sibyl is exceptional in the prominence she gives to the sacrificial cult.

Sibylline Oracle 5

The ethical aspects of the sibylline tradition persist in Sib. Or. 5, at the begin-
ning of the second century C.E., despite the vastly different political climate
of this book. Idolatry is repeatedly denounced (5:75-85; 278-80; 353-56;
403-5; 495-96) but with a new vehemence against Egyptian theriolatry:
"They worship stones and brute beasts instead of God, revering very many
things, one here, another there, which have no reason or mind or hearing, and
things which it is not even lawful for me to mention" (5:75-79). Sexual of-
fenses and homosexuality are again prominent, especially homosexuahty.
"Adulteries, illicit love of boys" are ranked with murder and din of battle as
terrible things which will cease in the eschatological age (5:430). The
Romans are "matricides . . . who formerly impiously catered for pederasty
and set up in houses prostitutes who were pure before" and are also accused
of incest and bestiality (5:386-97; cf. 5:166).*^ Most striking in Sib. Or 5 is
the emphasis on the temple and cultic piety.^^ The sibyl bewails the destruc-
tion of the temple (5:150, 398-410) but also recalls how the Jews honored the
great God with holy sacrifices and hecatombs (5:406-7). In the final section,
a temple in Egypt is envisaged where sacrifices will be offered, though this
too will be destroyed (5:500-507). Even after the temple was no more, this
particular strand of the sibylline tradition remained bound to its concrete
symbolism. Jewish identity in the sibyllines is derived mainly from this sym-
bolism and from the political attitudes implied. The ethics are not distinctive
in the context of Hellenistic Judaism.

43. J. J. Collins, "Natural Theology and Biblical Tradition: The Case of Hellenistic Ju-
daism," CBQ 60 (1998) 1-15.
44. The charge of matricide refers to Nero, a central figure in Sib. Or. 5. See J. J, Collins,
Tlie Sibylline Oracles of Egyptian Judaism (SBLDS 13; Missoula: Scholars, 1974) 80-87.
45. See also A. Chester, "The Sibyl and the Temple," in W. Horbury, ed„ Templum
Amicitiae: Essays on the Second Temple Presented to Ernst Bammel (Sheffield: Sheffield Aca-
demic Press, 1991) 47-56, 59-62; Simon, "Sur Quelques Aspects," 228.
166 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

Sibylline Oracle 4

A different strand of the sibylline tradition is found in Sih. Or. 4, which, in its
present form, was written towards the end of the first century C.E. The date is
established by references to the destruction of the Jerusalem temple (4:116),
the legend of Nero's flight to the Parthians and future return (4:119-24;
4:138-39), and the erupdon of Vesuvius in 79 C.E. (4:130-35).'*6 There is no
clear indication of the place of origin, but the differences over against Sib.
Or. 3 and 5 tell against an Egypdan provenance.*'' In view of the emphasis on
baptism, a location in the Jordan valley has been proposed.*^
The ethics of Sib. On 4 repeat the standard themes of the Diaspora liter-
ature. Monotheism and God's power as creator are emphasized. There is po-
lemic against idolatry (5:6-7), adultery and homosexuaUty (5:33-34), as well
as injustice and violence. But Sib. On 4 is distinguished from other Hellenis-
tic Jewish writings in its outright rejection of temple worship: "For He has
not, as house, stone set up as a temple, dumb and toothless, a bane which
brings many woes to men, but one which it is not possible to see from earth
nor to measure with mortal eyes, since it was not fashioned by mortal hand"
(4:8-11). The righteous reject all temples, altars, and sacrifices (4:27-30). If
the author intended an exception for the Jerusalem temple, he did not make it
explicit.*^ He mentions that a storm from Italy "will sack the great temple of
God" (4:116). One of the marks of the occasion will be that the Romans will
"commit repulsive murders in front of the temple" (4:118), suggesting that
the temple will be defiled.^"* Disapproval of the Roman destruction, however,
does not in itself imply a positive attitude towards the temple. Sib. Or 4 is
evidently at variance with Sib. Or. 3 and 5 on this point.
Even more striking is the attitude to conversion in Sib. Or 4. In verse
162, after describing the impiety of the last times, the sibyl appeals: "Ah,
wretched mortals, change these things and do not lead the great God to all
sorts of anger, but abandon daggers and groanings, murders and outrages,

46. S. A. Redmond, "The Date of the Fourth Sibylline Oracle," The Second Century 7
(1989-90) 129-49, argues for a redaction in the late second century C . E . , on the basis of sup-
posed allusions in verses 140-51. But these verses, which come after the return of Nero in verse
138, surely refer to the eschatological future and are not ex eventu.
47. See J. J. Collins, "The Place of the Fourth Sibyl in the Development of the Jewish
Sibyllina," JJS 25 (1974) 365-80, contra V. Nikiprowetzky, "Reflexions sur Quelques
Problemes du Quatrieme et du Cinquifeme Livre des Oracles Sibyllins," HUCA 43 (1972) 29-
76.
48. J. Thomas, Le Mouvement Baptiste en Palestine et Syrie (Gembloux: Duculot, 1938)
223.
49. Simon, "Sur quelques aspects," 229, contra Nikiprowetzky, La Troisieme Sibylle,
233-35.
50. Nikiprowetzky, "Reflexions," 68, argues plausibly that the "they" in question are the
Romans, not the Zealots.
 THE COMMON ETHIC 167

and wash your whole bodies in perennial rivers. Stretch out your hands to
heaven and ask forgiveness for your previous deeds and make propitiation
for bitter impiety with words of praise. God will grant repentance and will
not destroy." This passage has been regarded as a reference to proselyte bap-
tism. This is scarcely accurate. The appeal is addressed to humanity at large,
and there is nothing to suggest that anyone Is expected to convert to Judaism.
Baptism is here a symbolic gesture of repentance, as it was with John the
Baptist, not a rite of initiation.^' It is noteworthy, however, that this is the
only ritual action demanded. There is no question of circumcision or of any
distinctively Jewish observance. The oracle shows the pervasiveness of the
basic polemic against idolatry and sexual sins, but it adds its own distinctive
nuances.

The Sibylline Fragments

One other strand of the sibylline tradition must be noted briefly. Sib. Or. 3:1-
45 and the fragments preserved by Theophilus and Lactantius attest a highly
spiritual idea of God which goes far beyond anything else in the sibylline tra-
dition and has its closest parallels in the Orphic fragments and in Philo. God
is one, in the sense of both unity and uniqueness (3:11; F 1:7, 32; F 3:3; F
5:1). He is eternal (3:15), self-begotten, and invisible (3:11). Great emphasis
is laid on the contrast between perishable and imperishable (Fragments 1-3).
Idolatry is the supreme sin because it is not in accordance with truth. Yet the
highly spiritual fragments do not reject sacrificial cult as such, but only insist
that it be offered to the true God (F 1:20-22). These passages evidently ap-
pealed to a more rarified audience than did the main corpus of the Sibyllina.
Despite the characteristic Jewish polemic against idolatry, the Judaism of
these fragments is indistinguishable from philosophical Hellenistic religion.
Circumcision, Sabbath observance, or such distinctive Jewish practices are
not demanded by the sibyl in these passages. There is no clear distinction be-
tween the ethics of Judaism and those of a God-fearer, or even of a philo-
sophically minded pagan.

51. See Collins, "The Place of the Fourth Sibyl," 378-80. The biblical point of departure
was Isa. 1:16. The closest parallels to Sib. Or. 4 can be found in the Ebionite and Elcasaite
Christian sects, which also rejected both temple worship and bloody sacrifices.
168 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

Pseudo-Phocylides

A very different strand of Hellenistic Judaism is represented by the sayings

of Pseudo-Phocylides.^^ Like the authors of the Sibylline Oracles, the author
of these sayings availed of a Gentile pseudonym: Phocylides was a Greek
gnomic poet who lived in Miletus in Ionia in the mid-sixth century B.C.E. Un-
like the sibyl, however, Pseudo-Phocylides made no overt reference to Juda-
ism. Consequently, the poem was accepted as an authentic work of
Phocylides through the Middle Ages, until its authenticity was challenged by
Joseph Scaliger in 1606.^^ Its Jewish origin is betrayed only by the use of the
Septuagint and by its adherence to characteristic Jewish themes. Even so, its
provenance is not beyond question.^*
As is typical of gnomic and of proverbial poetry, the content gives little
indication of date. Pseudo-PhocyJides knew the Septuagint and uses a num-
ber of word forms which were unknown before the Hellenistic age, some of
which appear only in the first century C.E. Parallels with such Stoic writers as
Seneca and Musonius Rufus also point to the first century C.E. P. W. van der
Horst, the best recent authority on Pseudo-Phocylides, tentatively suggested
a date between 30 B.C.E. and 40 C.E., on the assumption that "an Alexandrian
Jew could not have maintained such great openness towards pagan culture"
after the pogroms of the time of Caligula.^^ It is by no means certain that this
assumption is justified. The very difficulty of specifying the time of origin is
due in part to the consistency of the ethical tradition and the lack of peculiar,
distinguishing traits in Pseudo-Phocylides.
Clear indications of the place of composition are likewise elusive.
Most scholars opt for Alexandria. Verse 102, "it is not good to dissolve
the human frame," probably refers to the dissection of corpses for the
study of anatomy, a practice known only from Alexandria in the ancient

52. See P W. van der Horst, The Sentences of Pseudo-Phocylides (Leiden: Brill, 1978);
N. Walter, Poetische Schriften (JSHRZ 4.3; Gutersloh; Mohn, 1983) 197-216; P. Deiron,
Pseudo-Phocylide: Sentences (Paris: Societe d'Edition "Les Belles Lettres," 1986); J. Thoinas,
Der Judische Phokylides (GoUingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1992); W. T. Wilson, The Mys-
teries of Righteousness: The Literary Composition and Genre of the Sentences of Pseudo-
Phocylides (Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1994); J. J. Collins, Jewish Wisdom in the Hellenistic
Age (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1997) 158-77.
53. See the excellent history of scholarship by van der Horst, The Sentences of Pseudo-
Phocylides. 3-54.
54. M. Goodman, in E. Schurer, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus
Christ (175 B-C.~A.D. 135) (rev. and ed. G. Vermes, F. Millar, and M. Goodman; 3 vols.; Edin-
burgh: Clark, 1973-87) 3.1:688, favors Jev/ish authorship but grants that it is not entirely clear
whether the author is Jewish.
55. Van der Horst, The Sentences of Pseudo-Phocylides, 81-83. He subsequently ex-
tended the range of the possible date to include the whole first century B . C . E . ("Pseudo-
Phocylides Revisited," in idem. Essays on the Jewish World of Early Christianity [Gottingen:
Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1990] 35-62).
 THE COMMON ETHIC 169

w o r l d . V e r s e 39 states that "strangers should be held in equal honor with

citizens."^'' The sentiment fits well enough with the general humanitarian
attitudes of Pseudo-Phocylides, but It takes on a special significance in the
light of the Jewish stiuggle for recognition in Alexandria in the first cen-
tury C.E. Philo argued that "strangers, in my judgment, must be regarded as
suppliants of those who receive them, and not only suppliants but settlers
and friends who are anxious to obtain equal rights with the burgesses, and
are near to being citizens because they differ little from the original inhab-
itants."^^ If Pseudo-Phocylides 39 is indeed to be read in this context, it
provides a rare confirmation of the date and setting of the work. While
these considerations may not amount to proof that the text originated in Al-
exandria, there is nothing at all to support any other provenance.^^
The Jewish origin of the work is betrayed only by a few sayings which
clearly echo the Septuagint (e.g., v. 140: "If a beast of your enemy falls on
the way, help it to rise" — cf. Exod. 23:5). There are strong biblical over-
tones in verses 9-21, which are exhortations to justice.^"* Yet the distinctive
laws of Judaism, such as circumcision and Sabbath observance, are ignored.
The admonition in verse 31 ("Do not eat blood; abstain from food sacrificed
to idols") is an interpolation which is found in only one inferior manu-
script).^' There is only one element that is described by van der Horst as
"typically Jewish and very un-Greek."^^ This is the formulation of the after-
life in verses 103-4: "we hope that the remains of the departed will soon
come to the light again out of the earth." This apparently physical notion of
resurrection is juxtaposed with the assertion that the resurrected ones "will
become gods" (v. 104). Verses 107-8 imply that the body dissolves after
death while the spirit is released, and verse 115 states very explicitiy that the
soul is immortal. These variant formulations reflect the typical range of Jew-
ish beliefs about the afterlife both in Judea and in the Diaspora. They cannot
be neatly resolved into a coherent system. Needless to say, ideas of afterlife
were widespread in the Hellenistic world. The particular suggestion of physi-

56. R Kudlien, "Anatomle," PWRESup 11 (1968) 38-48; van der Horst, Pseudo-
Phocylides, 183-84.
57. Van der Horst, The Sentences of Pseudo-Phocylides. 139. The word for "strangers"
is epelydes.
58. De Vita Mosis 1.35. The term for "strangers" is xenoi.
59. Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora, 336, lists Pseudo-Phocylides as rep-
resentative of Judaism outside Egypt, on the grounds that Egyptian provenance is not certain.
60. Thomas, Der jUdische Phokylides, 161-70, following Bernays, argues that this sec-
tion is based on Leviticus 19 in conjunction with the Decalogue. There are several parallels to
Leviticus 19 in this section, but also to other sources, both Greek and Jewish. See K.-W.
Niebuhr, Gesetz und Pardnese: Katechismusartige Weisungsreihen in der friihjUdischen
Literatur (Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1987) 20-26.
61. Van der Horst, The Sentences of Pseudo-Phocylides, 135.
62. Ibid., 185.
170 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS A N D PIETY

cal resurrection may be taken as a trace of the author's Judaism, but it is suf-
ficiently counterbalanced with well-worn Greek formulations that the ideas
could seem neither strange nor offensive to a Hellenistic audience.^'
The sayings share considerable common material with Philo's Hypo-
thetica 7.1-9 and Josephus's Against Apion 2.190-219.^'* Philo and Josephus
claim to be giving a summary of the Jewish laws, but they are highly selec-
tive and they also include material which goes beyond the actual Torah but is
derived from Greek sources or designed for a Hellenistic audience.^^ The
poem of Pseudo-Phocylides is, of course, disguised as the work of a Gentile,
with no overt reference to the Jewish law at all. In addition to monotheism,
all three place heavy emphasis on sexual matters — adultery {Hyp. 7.1; Ag.
Ap. 2.199; Ps.-Phoc. 3, 177-78); homosexuality {Hyp. 7.1; Ag. Ap. 2.199,
215; Ps.-Phoc. 3, 190-91); rape of a virgin {Hyp. 7.1; Ag. Ap. 2.215; Ps.-
Phoc. 198); abortion {Hyp. Ag. Ap. I.IQI; Ps.-Phoc. 183). Josephus {Ag.
Ap. 2.202) and Pseudo-Phocylides (v. 185) forbid sexual relations with a
pregnant woman. Philo {Hyp. 1.1) and Pseudo-Phocylides (v. 186) forbid
emasculation. The common material also extends to such duties as those of
parents and children, husband and wife, the young and their elders, and the
burial of the dead.^^
Some of the offenses (e.g., abortion, abandoning children) are not ex-
plicitiy noted in the Hebrew Bible. Philo and Josephus show influence from a
group of laws which were known in antiquity as unwritten laws attributed to
Buzyges, the legendary hero of an Attic priestly tribe.^^ The affinities of
these codes with the Noachian laws have often been noted.^^ While the
Noachian laws were fully developed in Rabbinic literature, the underlying

63. See further F. Christ, "Des Leben nach dem Tode bei Pseudo-Phokylides," rz 31
(1975) 140-49; U. Fischer, Eschatologie und Jenseitserwartung im Hellenistischen Diaspora-
judentum (BZNW 44; Bedin: de Gruyter, 1978) 125-43.
64. J. E. Crouch, The Origin and Intention of the Colossian Haustafel (FRLANT 109;
Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1972) 84-101; M. Kuchler, FrUhjiidische Weisheits-
traditionen: Zum Fortgang weisheitlichen Denkens im Bereich des friihjUdischen Jahwe-
glauben (OBO 26; Freiburg: Universitaisverlag; Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1979)
207-318; Niebuhr, Gesetz und Pardnese, 5-72.
65. Cf. Berger {Die Gesetzauslegung, 151), who claims that Philo and Josephus derive
their formulation of the twofold obligation to eusebeia and dikaiosyne from Greek rather than
from biblical tradition.
66. Crouch, The Origin and Intention, 84-88.
67. Ibid., 87. On Buzyges, see L. Schmidt, Die Ethik der alten Griechen (Bedin: Hertz,
1882) 2:278-79; H. Bolkestein, Wohltdtigkeit und Armenpflege im vorchristlichen Altertum
(Utrecht: Oosthoek, 1939) 69-70.
68. M. Guttmann, Das Judentum und seine JJmwelt (Berlin: Philo Verlag, 1927);
Crouch, The Origin and Intention, 92-95. On the Noachian laws, see L. Ginzberg, The Legends
o/rfte yeivj (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1955) 5:92n.55 and especially D. Novak,
The Image of the Non-Jew in Judaism (New York: Mellen, 1983). The most frequently men-
tioned laws were against blasphemy, idolatry, incest, murder, robbery, eating meat torn from a
living animal, and the commandment to establish civil law.
 THE COMMON ETHIC 171

tradition is attested in the book of Jubilees in the seeond century B.C.E.^^ The
relevance of the Noachian tradition for our purpose lies not so much in the
content of the laws, but in the very idea of a code to which Gentiles were re-
sponsible. Yet, while the Noachian laws provide a parallel for universalistic
ethics in Rabbinic Judaism, there is no reason to suppose that the Hellenistic
codes were actually derived from them. The crucial difference, as Crouch has
noted, is that the Rabbinic sources clearly differentiate between the laws that
apply to Jews and those that apply to Gentiles, while the Hellenistic Jewish
codes do not.™
While the thesis of G. Klein that the common material in Philo, Jo-
sephus, and Pseudo-Phocylides reflected an actual catechism for proselytes
is not sustained by the evidence,''' there is no doubt that there was a well-es-
tablished tradition in Diaspora Judaism, formed most probably in the syna-
gogue service. An author such as Philo could elaborate this tradition and give
it a philosophical basis in terms of the law of nature and the law of God, but it
is reflected in a wide variety of Jewish writings from the second century
B.C.E. on. The sentences of Pseudo-Phocylides have rightly been regarded as
the major repository of the ethics of Hellenistic Judaism apart from Philo, al-
though they have too often been treated in isolation.
The sayings of Pseudo-Phocylides have obvious affinities with the
Jewish wisdom literature,^^ but the very choice of the pseudonym Phocylides
emphasizes rather the relationship to the Greek genres of didactic poetry and
gnomologies.'^ Since the composition is a collection of sentences rather than
a coherent exposition,'''* the affinities with the gnomologies are the most ob-
vious. The original Phocylides was, in fact, a gnomic poet. Collections of
gnomai had been made from the fifth century on and were promoted in the
philosophical schools by such eminent figures as Epicurus and Chrysippus.''^
The choice of this genre already says much about the framework in which the
ethical teachings are placed. The choice of a Greek pseudonym rules out any

69. Jubilees 7:20, 28 lists the commandments of Noah to his sons. The actual command-
ments differ from the later Noachian laws. They include commands to observe righteousness,
bless the creator, honor father and mother, love the neighbor, and avoid fornication, unclean-
ness, and bloodshed.
70. Crouch, The Origin and Intention, 95.
71. G. Klein, Der dlteste Christiiche Katechismus und die Jiidische Propaganda-
Literatur (Berlin: Reimer, 1909).
72. See further Collins, Jewish Wisdom, 166-73.
73. Van der Horst, The Sentences of Pseudo-Phocylides, 77-80.
74. See however Wilson, The Mysteries of Righteousness, who argues with some suc-
cess for a sophisticated literary structure.
75. K. Homa, "Gnome, Gnomendichtung, Gnomologien," PWRE Supp 6 (1935) 74-90;
Kiichler, FrUhjUdische Weisheitstraditionen, 236-61, surveys the relevant Greek gnomologies.
See also Derron, Pseudo-Phocylide, VII-XXVI; Wilson, The Mysteries of Righteousness, 15-
41.
172 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

appeal to the revelatory status of Jewish law. The teachings claim their valid-
ity as natural law. Since the traditional sayings of Phocylides were regarded
as useful for educational purposes/^ it may be that the author wished to infil-
trate Greek moral education. If so, we must assume that he was interested in
spreading his values, not Judaism as such, since it is never explicitly men-
tioned.
The character of the sentences has already been indicated in the com-
ments above on the material shared with Philo and Josephus. Monotheism is
implicit throughout, despite a few apparent polytheistic references. Verse 98
(metra de teuche theoisi) Is scarcely intelligible and must be emended.''^
Verses 75 and 163 refer to the heavenly bodies as "blessed ones." Verse 104
says that the dead become theoi. Neither the reference to the "blessed ones"
nor that to the theoi in verse 104 is incompatible with monotheism. The latter
case is simply a variant on the common Jewish idea that the righteous dead
become angels or mingle with the a n g e l s . Y e t it must be said that monothe-
ism is not an explicit issue in Pseudo-Phocylides as it is in Philo. Usually the
author refers simply to "god" without qualification, a procedure which had
ample precedent in philosopbical and gnomic writings. Only once, in verse
54, does he specify that heis theos esti sophos. While the phrase heis theos
often appears as "geradezu terminus technicus der monotheistischen
Missionspredigt"^^ and also recalls the Shema (Deut. 6:4), the context here
("pride not yourself on wisdom") suggests that the phrase means "only God
is wise." The unqualified references to "god" result in a practical monothe-
ism. Yet no warning is given to the non-Jewish reader that verses 98, 104, or
163 should not be read in a polytheistic sense. Evidently Pseudo-Phocylides
was more concerned with the ethics one practiced than with the gods one
worshipped. The poem is exceptional in Hellenistic Jewish literature in its
failure to condemn idolatry. This apparent softness on polytheism and idola-
try minimizes the disjunction from Hellenistic civil and social life required
of the convert to Judaism, but also of the Jew who wished to participate fully
in Hellenistic life, and the God-fearing pagan, who may not have broken with
polytheism at alL^°
The interest in sexual offenses is apparent already in verse 3. Practical
advice is added in verses 210-17: "Guard the youthful beauty of a comely

76. Isocrates, Ad Nicoclem 42-43 {cited by van der Horst, 60).

77. Van der Horst {The Sentences of Pseudo-Phocylides, 180) translates Bemays's
emendation gooisi for theoisi ("Be moderate in your grief)
78. Ibid., 186-88.
79. Ibid., 151, citing R. Kerst,"l Kor. 8,6 — ein vorpaulinisches Taufbekenntnis?" ZWW
66(1975) 130-39. Cf. Philo, De Opificio Mundi Letter of Aristeas 132; Sib. Or. 3:11-12;
frag. 1:7-8, 32; frag. 3:3.
80. On the problem of monotheism for God-fearers, see F. Siegert, "Gottesfurchtige und
Sympathisanten," JSJ 4 (\913) 140-47.
 THE COMMON ETHIC 173

boy, because many rage for intercourse with a man. Guard a virgin in firmly
locked rooms. . . . " The basis of the advice is natural law: "even animals are
not pleased by intercourse of male with male" (v. 191), as Plato had also ar-
gued. The denunciadon extends to lesbianism: "Let not women Imitate the
sexual role of men" (v. 192).^' Here the author indulges in a little uncharac-
teristic demythologizing: "eros is not a god but a passion destructive of all"
(v. 194). Yet Pseudo-Phocylides simply takes the keeping of concubines for
granted, as Indeed it was never strongly condemned in antiquity even in the
Bible or postbiblical Jewish writers.
The greater part of Pseudo-Phocylides Is taken up with the network of
social reladons, especially those within the family, but also those in society
at large. The concern for the poor is conspicuous, though not disdncdve in ei-
ther Greek or Jewish traditions. Slavery is taken for granted, but a humane at-
dtude is recommended. Money is the root of all evil (v. 42) — a sendment
widely shared in antiquity. Most of the sentences are quite commonplace in
both Jewish and Hellenistic ethics. Many have a distinctly Greek ring — e.g.,
"moderation is best of all" (v. 69). There is scarcely any concern for cultic
matters. Verse 228 says that "purifications are for the purity of the soul, not
of the body." This sentiment is significant as a widespread attitude of Helle-
nistic Judaism, which was in turn shaped by the spiritualizing philosophy of
the Greeks.
The purpose for which Pseudo-Phocylides was written has not been de-
finitively established. In his 1978 commentary, van der Horst left three possi-
bilities open:^^ that the author wrote for his fellow Jews; that he wrote for a
pagan public, hoping to make them "sympathizers" of Judaism; and that he
was actually a "God-fearer" who wished to promote his way of life. More re-
cently, he has dismissed the idea that Pseudo-Phocylides was intended for a
pagan audience and suggested that the work was intended as "a kind of com-
pendium of misvot for daily life which could help Jews in a thoroughly Hel-
lenistic environment to live as Jews without having to abandon their interest
in Greek culture."^* It is true that the book cannot have been intended to win
converts to Judaism, since there is no overt reference to Judaism in the text.
But neither is it clear that the sayings were intended to reinforce adherence to
Judaism, for the same reason. Gnomologies usually served the purpose of ed-
ucation, and Pseudo-Phocylides was used for this purpose in later times. The

81. Biblical law does not address the question of lesbianism, but it is condemned in the
Talmud, Yebamot 76a, and the condemnation is implied already in the New Testament in Rom.
1:26. See B. J. Brooten, Love between Women: Early Christian Responses to Homoeroticism
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996) 239-53.
82. Van der Horst, The Sentences of Pseudo-Phocylides, 231.
83. Ibid., 70-76.
84. Van der Horst, "Pseudo-Phocylides Revisited," 16; cf. Niebuhr, Gesetz und Pard-
nese, 67.
174 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

teacher who authored these verses was probably a wisdom teacher like Ben
Sira. In advertising his teachings under the name of Phocylides, he hoped to
attract students regardless of whether they were Jewish or not. His purpose
was not to convert, but to educate in gnomic wisdom. His subject was moral-
ity, and in this he was no different from any Greek philosopher who set up a
school. The fact that his understanding of morality was shaped by Jewish
scriptures and tradition was incidental. He did not even inform his readers of
the existence of the scriptures, any more than he lectured them on Plato or
the Stoics. The only purpose that we can safely impute to him was to impart
his understanding of the moral life to his readers, whether they were Jew or
Gentile.
Whatever the primary audience envisaged by the author, his work is re-
markable for its distillation of the ethical message of Judaism and its suppres-
sion of the distinctive indicators of Judaism as a religion set apart. This was the
kind of religion which could be embraced by a God-fearer without becoming a
Jew. If the work was written by a Jew rather than by a God-fearer, it provides a
remarkable insight into the Hellenization of Diaspora Judaism.
The persistence of the attitude expressed in Pseudo-Phocylides is attested
in the Words of the Wise Menander, which has been preserved in Syriac but is
thought to have been composed in Greek, in Egypt, towards the end of the sec-
ond century CE.^^ The monotheism of Pseudo-Menander is not in doubt, but
this, combined with allusions to Jewish wisdom tradition, is the only indication
of the Jewish provenance of the work. Even the Mosaic laws are not reflected.
Here again there is doubt as to the origin and purpose of the work. Audet sug-
gested that it was the work of a God-fearer. This suggestion cannot be verified,
but at least we can say that Pseudo-Menander illustrates the common ground
between Jewish and Hellenistic ethical traditions and that such common
ground could still be exploited in the late second century C.E.

T h e Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs

Another possible window on the ethics of Hellenistic Judaism is provided by

the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs. In this case, however, the evidence
can be adduced only very tentatively since the provenance of the Testaments
is notoriously problematic. Three main current views may be distinguished.
The position which has been dominant since the late nineteenth century
holds that the Testaments are Jewish but interpolated by a Christian. Variant

85. J. P Audet, "La sagesse de Menandre I'Egyptien," RB 59 (1952) 55-81; Kiichler,

Weisheitstraditionen, 303-18.
 THE COMMON ETHIC 175

forms of this view have been defended in recent years by J. Becker,

A. Hultgard, H. C. Kee, and J. H. Ulrichsen, among o t h e r s . T h e theory of
Christian authorship, which had been dominant before the late nineteenth
century, was revived in 1953 by M. de Jonge.^'' He has modified his position
in recent years but condnues to insist on the importance of the final stage of
the Testaments and the difficulty of going behind it.^^ The third position, that
the Testaments are an Essene composition from Qumran, has been champi-
oned mainly by A. Dupont-Sommer and M. Philonenko.^^ Despite a number
of important parallels between the Testaments and the Dead Sea Scrolls,
there are also far-reaching differences, and this position has won little sup-
port in recent years. Much of the debate has centered on text-critical matters.
Here it may be said that the attempts of R. H. Charles and others to remove
Christian interpolations by text-critical arguments have been thoroughly un-
dermined by the work of de Jonge and his students on the Greek text and of
C. Burchard and M. E. Stone on the Armenian.^'' There is no longer room for
doubt that the final text of the Testaments is a Christian document. It is also
clear that attempts to go behind this stage are inevitably hypothetical. Yet the
presence of much Jewish material is undeniable, and even de Jonge admits
that to speak of Christian composition is an oversimplification.^^
The work of Jurgen Becker may stand as a representative example of re-
cent attempts to trace the redaction history of the Testaments. Becker distin-
guishes two Jewish stages and a Christian redaction.The earliest stage was
molded by the testament form. This was later expanded by the incorporation of
traditional, usually hortatory, material. Becker reduces the Christian elements
to the undeniable minimum, although, as de Jonge has repeatedly pointed out,
much of the material could have been written by either Christian or Jew. It

86. J. Becker, Vntersuchungen zur Entstehungsgeschichte der Testamente der zwdlf

Palriarchen (AGJU 8; Leiden: Brill, 1970); idem, Die Testamente der zwdlf Patriarchen
(JSHRZ 3.1; Gutersloh: Mohn, 1980); A. Hultg&rd, VEschatologie des Testaments des Douze
Patriarches. 1. Interpretation des textes (Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1977); H. C. Kee,
"Ethical Dimensions of the Testaments of the XII as a Clue to Provenance," NTS 24 (1978)
259-70; idem, "The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs," in OTP. 1:775-828; J. H. Ulrichsen,
Die Grundschrift der Testamente der Zwdlf Patriarchen: Eine Untersuchung zu Umfang,
Inhalt, und Eigenart der ursprUnglichen Schrift (Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1991).
87. M. de Jonge, The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs: A Study of Their Text, Com-
position, and Origin (Assen: van Gorcum, 1953); idem. Studies onjhe Testaments of the Twelve
Patriarchs: Text and Interpretation (SVTP 3; Leiden: Brill, 1975).
88. H. W. Hollander and M. de Jonge, The Testatnents of the Twelve Patriarchs: A Com-
mentary (Leiden: Brill, 1985).
89. A. Dupont-Sommer, Nouveaux apergus sur les manuscrits de la Mer Morte (Paris:
Maisonneuve, 1953); M. Philonenko, Les Interpolations chritiennes des Testaments des Douze
Patriarches et les manuscrits de Qoumr&n (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1960).
90. For a summary, see de Jonge, Studies, 120-39, H. J. de Jonge, ibid., 63-86.
91. J. J. ColHns, "Testaments," in M. E. Stone, ed., Jewish Writings of the Second Tem-
ple Period (CRINT 2.2; Assen: Van Gorcum; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984) 325-55.
92. Becker, Die Testamente, 23-27.
176 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS A N D PIETY

should also be said that the distinction between Becker's two Jewish stages
rests on the assumption that different formal units may be ascribed to different
sources. While an assumption of multiple stages is reasonable in itself, the dis-
tinction of Becker's two Jewish sh-ata remains quite hypothetical.
Becker and others have argued that the Jewish stages of the Testaments
originated in the Hellenistic Diaspora.^^ It is now widely agreed that Greek
was the original language,^* and the ethics of the Testaments find many par-
allels in works of the Diaspora.^^ Of course neither of these points is conclu-
sive. Greek was widely known in Palestine, and much of the ethical material
is also paralleled in early Christian writing. A more specific indication of
Egyptian origin may be found in the prominence of Joseph, not only in the
Testament of Joseph but also in the Testaments of Reuben, Simeon, Dan, Gad,
and Benjamin. This interest in Joseph is most readily comprehensible in an
Egyptian document. Yet other explanations are also possible. J. Thomas sug-
gested that the Testaments were written in Palestine for circulation in the Di-
aspora.^^ M. Kiichler attributes them to Hellenized Palestinian J u d a i s m . I n
both cases, the scholars are trying to balance the Hellenistic elements against
the parallels in Qumran and Palestinian Jewish literature. While there is a
consensus that the Testaments are heavily Hellenized, there is no clarity on
the more precise question of provenance.
The date of the Jewish strata of the Testaments is equally uncertain.
E. J. Bickerman argued that the original Testaments were written before the
Maccabean revolt, and he has been widely followed.^^ In T. Levi 17:11 the
priests of the seventh week, who immediately precede the "new priest" of the
eschatological age, are denounced as "idolaters, adulterers, lovers of money,
proud, lawless, lascivious, abusers of children and beasts." This denunciation
has been applied to the Hellenizers before the Maccabean revolt, although a
polemic against the priesthood of the Hasmoneans cannot be absolutely ex-

93. So also K. H. Rengstorff, "Herkunft und Sinn der Patriarchen Reden in den
Testamenten der zwolf Patriarchen." in W. C. van Unnik, ed.. La Litterature Juive entre Tenach
et Mischna (Leiden: Brill, 1974) 28-47. It is not disputed that older Semitic traditions, now at-
tested at Qumran, were incorporated. Kee states that "the basic writing gives no evidence of
having been composed by anyone other than a hellenized Jew" (p. 277), but opts for Syria
rather than Egypt as the place of origin.
94. Ulrichsen, Die Grundsclirift, 343, however, argues for an original composition in
Hebrew or Aramaic, in Palestine, about 200 B . C . E .
95. See the parallels adduced in the commentary of Hollander and de Jonge. Also H. W.
Hollander, Josepli as an Ethical Model in the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (Leiden:
Brill, 1981). Niebuhr, Gesetz und Parandse, 84-86, stresses the uncertainty of provenance but
discusses the material largely in the context of Diaspora traditions.
96. J. Thomas, "Aktuelles in Zeugnis der zwolf Vater," in W. Eltester. ed., Studien zu
den Testamenten der zwolf Patriarchen (BZNW 36, Berlin: Topelmann, 1969) 62-150.
97. Kiichler, FrUhjUdische Weisheitstraditionen, 431-545.
98. E. J. Bickerman, "The Date of the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs," in idem.
Studies in Jewish and Christian History, 2:1-23 (first published in JBL 69 [1950] 245-60).
 THE COMMON ETHIC 177

eluded. T. Naphtali 5:8 says that "Assyrians, Medes, Persians, Chaldeans,

Syrians, shall possess in captivity the twelve tribes of Israel." Since no refer-
ence is made to the Romans, this passage must at least be dated before
Pompey, and it was probably written before the expulsion of the Syrians in
141 B.C.E. It cannot be earlier than 200 B.C.E. since it presupposes Syrian, not
Ptolemaic, rule in Palestine. The lack of any reference to the Maccabean re-
volt has been taken as an argument for a pre-Maccabean dating, but this is
unreliable, since the silence may be due to lack of sympathy. The prominence
of the double messiahship of Levi and Judah, one of the more striking, if in-
exact, parallels with the Qumran Scrolls, which also expect two messiahs,
has often been taken as a criticism of the Hasmonean usurpation of the priest-
hood. It seems likely that there was a gradual process of growth in the forma-
tion of the Testaments, and so no single dating is valid for all the pre-Chris-
uan material. Uldmately, the ethics of the Testaments cannot be pinpointed as
the product of a specific situation. They are of interest for our purpose as ma-
terial which seems to have accumulated and circulated in Hellenized Jewish
circles over two hundred years and which was eventually taken over by
Chrisdanity.

The Testaments and the Covenant Form

The oudine of the Testaments shows close similarity to the traditional cove-
nant form, which would seem, prima facie, to bind them to the tradidonal
covenantal ethic. The form may be set forth as follows:

A. A preamble which gives the name of the patriarch and the circum-
stances in which he delivered his testament shortly before his death.
B. A narrative section in which each of the patriarchs recounts stories
from his life. T. Asher is an exception on this point.
C. A set of ethical instmctions,
D. A prediction of the future of the tribe, usually with an eschatological
conclusion.
E. A conclusion which describes the death and burial of the patriarch.

Points A and E are the distinctively testamentary elements in the outiine.^^

Becker has argued that the earliest stage of the Testaments is already

99. K, Baltzer, The Covenant Formulary (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1971). On the form of
the Testatnents, see further E. von Nordheim, Die Lehre der Alten: Das Testament als
Gliedgattung im Judentum der Hellenistisch-Romtschen Zeit (Leiden: Brill, 1980); G. W. E.
Nickelsburg, Jewish Literature between the Bible and Mishnah: A Historical and Literaty In-
troduction (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1981) 231-41.
178 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

shaped by the covenant form. So, for example, in T. Reuben we find a histori-
cal section, the example from the life of the patriarch in 3:11-15. Ethical in-
struction is found in the repeated warnings against adultery and again in 6:9:
"1 charge you, by the God of heaven to deal honestly, each one with his
neighbor, and to have love, each one for his brother." This is followed by a
promise of blessing in 6:10-12. This outline provides a framework within
which longer hortatory passages were later inserted. In T. Joseph the histori-
cal example is found in chapters 10-17. An exhortation to follow the law and
a promise of blessing follow in 18:1-2. Both T. Reuben and T. Joseph are ex-
ceptional in the brevity of their predictions at the end. The majority of the
testaments included in their earliest stage a prophecy of the sin, punishment,
and restoration of the people, which illustrates the elements of curse and
blessing in the covenant form.
A number of important differences between the testament form of the
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs and the Old Testament covenant form
should be noted. In the Old Testament covenant (e.g., Deuteronomy), the re-
view of history served to remind the people of Yahweh's saving acts and
therefore of their obligation to him. In the Testaments, the historical element
consists of stories from the lives of the patriarchs which illustrate a virtue or
vice. K. Baltzer emphasizes that the relationship between the patriarch and
God is more important than the particular virtue or vice, and he notes the
continuity with Jewish wisdom literature.'^'^ Nevertheless, history is used
here as a source of moral examples to an extent which has no precedent in the
Bible. The best parallels to the Testaments in this respect are found in writ-
ings of the Hellenistic Diaspora such as 4 Maccabees, The transformation of
history into moral example is carried to an extreme in the allegorical com-
mentaries of Philo, where, for example, in De Abrahamo 1-46 Enosh sym-
bolizes hope, Enoch repentance, and Noah justice. Similar symbolic mean-
ings are elsewhere attached to the major figures of the Pentateuch.
Further, the emphasis on abstract, generalized virtues and vices
which we find in the Testaments differs from the direct commands of the
bibhcal D e c a l o g u e . T h e interest in abstract virtues is characteristic of
Greek philosophy rather than of the Bible, although catalogues of virtues
and vices are found at Qumran, and some parallels can also be found in the
biblical tradition.

100. Baltzer, The Covenant Formulary, 145.

101. Cf. Berger, Die Gesetzauslegung, 388.
 THE COMMON ETHIC 179

The Content of the Exhortations

The ethical exhortations in the Testaments are expressed pardy through the
example of the patriarchs and partly through direct parenesis (often through
lists of virtues and vices). The narrative section on each patriarch focuses on
some virtue or vice. The story of Reuben illustrates the evil of fornication;
that of Simeon, envy; Judah, inebriation and fornication. On the credit side,
Issachar illustrates single-mlndedness and Zebulun provides a model of com-
passion. Joseph serves as a foil to many of the patriarchs by his chastity, de-
spite the advances of the Egyptian woman, and by his forgiving love for the
brothers who sold him into slavery. These two virtues are illustrated in T. Jo-
seph 3-9 and 10:5-20:6, respectively.
The theme of brotherly love plays a prominent part in the Testaments.
This love is extended not only to the people of Israel but to all humankind
(e.g., T Issachar 5:2; 7:6; T. Zebulun 5:1; 6:4; 6:7; 7:2; 8:1; Z Benjamin 4:2).
Such universalism Is rare in Jewish writings of the Hellenistic period. Most
of the parallels are found in Hellenized writings from the Diaspora.'''^ It Is
not, of course, impossible that such sentiments should be expressed In Pales-
tine, but the evidence may be taken to favor a setting in the Diaspora.

Homiletic Material in the Testaments

In view of the strongly parenetic character of the Testaments, it is only natu-

ral that they should draw on the homiletic practice of the synagogue. While
we do not find in the Testaments any actual sermons, we do find blocks of ap-
parently traditional material which form units independent of their present
context and which may well have been shaped by homiletic tradition. We
may distinguish three types of homiletic material in the Testaments, all of
them interrelated: First is the exposition of a particular vice or virtue, with
the aid of biblical examples; second are lists of vices and/or virtues; and third
are passages which put such lists in a dualistic context, for example, by elab-
orating the contrast of the two ways.
1. The exposition of particular virtues with the aid of biblical examples
is a typical feature of the Testaments. The discourse on fornication in T. Reu-
ben 3:10-4:5; 4:6-6:5 provides a good example. First, the patriarch declares
his theme: "Pay no attention to a woman's face . . . " (3:10). He then provides

102. E.g., 4 Mace. 2:14; Philo. De Virtutibus 109-24, Cf. Letter of Aristeas 225-30; Jo-
seph andAseneth 28-29. See Becker, Vntersuchungen, 377-401; Berger, Die Gesetzauslegung,
120; W. Harrelson, "Patient Love in the Testament of Joseph," in G. W. E. Nickelsburg, ed..
Studies on the Testament of Joseph {SCS 5; Missoula, Mont.: Scholars Press, 1975) 29-35. On
the role of Joseph, see Hollander, Joseph as an Ethical Model.
180 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

as an illustration his misdemeanor with Bilhah (3:11-15) and concludes with

the exhortation to "pay no attention to women's beauty . . . " (4:1-5). This ex-
hortation is complete in itself but is supplemented in 4:6-6:5 with another,
similarly structured sermon, which may well be a redactional addition.
Again, the patriarch begins by enunciating his theme: "For fornication is de-
struction to the soul." This time the example adduced is that of Joseph: "how
he avoided women and kept his mind pure from all thoughts of fornication"
(4:8). The evil of women is further illustrated by the story of the fall of the
Watchers before the Flood (5:1-7). Finally, the exhortation concludes, "be-
ware then of fornication" (6:1).'"^
The biblical incidents are included here specifically as illustrations of a
vice or virtue and its effects. We should note that the form of T. Reuben 3:10-
4:5 or 4:6-6:5 cannot be adequately explained by analogy with the covenant
form. These passages do not simply recite history and then draw a moral from
it. They begin with the declaration of a theme, illustrate it by historical (scrip-
tural) example(s), and conclude with an exhortation. Therefore, they constitute
a rounded self-contained homily within the testament.'*'* We may compare the
list of examples of faith and the exhortation to perseverance in Hebrews 11-12.
Similarly, in T. Joseph 2:4-10:3 we have a self-contained piece of exhortation.
The patriarch begins by announcing his theme of hypomone or endurance
(2:7). He illustrates this at length from his adventures with the Egyptian
woman (chaps. 3-9). The discourse concludes with the repetition of the moral:
"So you see, my children, what great things endurance can do" (J0:1) and an
exhortation, "and you too — if you strive for chastity and purity with endur-
ance and humility of heart . . . the Lord will dwell among you . . ." (10:2-3).
Similar homiletic passages are found in T. Simeon 2:5-5:3 and T. Judah 13-17.
It should be noted that the theme of chastity/fornication enjoys special promi-
nence in the parenetic passages of the Testaments.
2. The second type of hortatory material included in the Testaments con-
sists of lists of vices and virtues. '"^ In Palestinian Judaism such Hsts are found

103. Translations of the Testaments are taken from M. de Jonge, "The Testaments of the
Twelve Patriarchs," in H. F. D. Sparks, ed.. The Apocryplml Old Testament (Oxford: Claren-
don, 1984), with minor modifications.
104. On the structure of homilies in the Hellenistic synagogue, see especially P. Borgen,
Bread from Heaven: An Exegetical Study of the Concept of Manna in the Gospel of Jolin and
the Writings of Fhilo (Leiden: Brill, 1965) 28-58. Borgen stresses the use of scriptural quota-
tions both as main text and as subordinate illustrations of the theme. His main examples are
drawn from Philo.
105. The ascetic tendencies of the Testaments are noted by R. Eppel, Le Pietisme Juif
dans hs Testaments des Doiize Patriarches (Paris: Alcan, 1930) 154-57.
106. A. Vogtle, Die Tugend- und Laslerkataloge im Neuen Testament (MUnster:
Aschendorff, 1936); S. Wibbing, Die Tugend- und Laslerkataloge in Neuen Testament
(Tubingen: Mohr, 1964); H. Conzelmann, / Corinthians (Hermeneia; Philadelphia: Fortress,
1975) 100.
 THE COMMON ETHIC 181

in the Qumran texts, where different virtues are assigned to the Spirit of Truth
and vices to the Spirit of Perversity. The closest parallel to the Scrolls in the
Testaments is found in T. Reuben 2-3, which lists seven spirits that "are ap-
pointed against man": the spirits of fornication, insatiableness, fighting, obse-
quiousness, pride, lying, and injustice. Catalogues of vices and virtues also oc-
cur frequendy in Stoic philosophy and in the popular diatribe.'^^
In a number of testaments, the consequences of a particular virtue or
vice are elaborated in the form of a list. So in T. Benjamin 6 we read:

The good man's impulse is not in the power of the error of the spirit
of Beliar, for the angel of peace acts as a guide to his soul. And he
does not look with greedy eyes on things that perish, nor does he pile
up riches and dehght in them. He takes no delight in pleasure; he
causes his neighbor no pain; he does not overload himself with luxu-
ries, nor is he led astray by a lustful eye, for the Lord is all in all to
him. His good impulse acknowledges neither honor nor dishonor
from men, neither does it countenance any deceit, or lie, or strife or
reviling His good mind will not let him speak with two tongues.

In T. Issachar 4:2-6 we read that

the simple-hearted man does not covet gold,

is not jealous of his neighbor,
is not concerned for variety in his food,
is not always wanting different clothes,
makes no plans for a long life,
but waits on the will of God alone.

In both these passages a virtue, or a virtuous man, is described by a list of

negatives. Precedents for lists of this type can be found in the "confessional"
passages of the Old Testament such as Deut. 26:13b-14: "I have not trans-
gressed any of thy commandments, neither have I forgotten them. I have not
eaten of the tithe while I was mourning or removed any of it while I was un-
clean or offered any of it to the dead; I have obeyed the voice of the LORD my
God." Further examples can be found in 1 Sam. 12:3; Job 31:16-18; or in the
Egyptian Book of the Dead. In each of these cases, a man declares himself in-
nocent by enumerating the sins which he has not committed. The analogy
with the Testaments is obvious, but also limited.'''^ Here the speaker is no

107. For Stoic texts, see H. F. A. von Amim, ed.. Stoicorum Velenini Fragnienla (4
vols.; Leipzig: Teubner, 1903-24) 3: nos. 377-490.
108. See especially G. von Rad, "Die Vorgeschichte der Gattung von 1 Kor 13:4-7," in
Geschichte und Altes Testament: Albrecht Alt zum siebsigsten Geburtstag (Ttibingen: Mohr,
1953) 153-68. Cf. also Psalm 24; Ezek. 18:5-9; Jer. 17:5-8.
182 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

longer simply a man, but a man who embodies a particular virtue. The
sharply increased interest in the virtues as such is a characteristic of the Hel-
lenistic age. We may note again Philo's use of the patriarchs as allegories of
virtues. Philo also makes frequent use of lists of vices and virtues. The influ-
ence of Greek popular philosophy is very probable in the catalogues of vices
and virtues in Paul and Philo, and it cannot be discounted in the Testaments.
These catalogues can also be viewed as an adaptation of a biblical tradition,
but we must allow for the possibility that Jewish preachers deliberately mod-
eled their style on that of their Stoic and Cynic counterparts.^''^
3. Dualistic framework: It is typical of the Testaments that virtues and
vices are contrasted in pairs — for example, the fornication of Reuben with
the chasdty of Joseph, or the envy of Simeon with the forgiving love of Jo-
seph. Consequently, the catalogues of vices and virtues imply an ethical du-
alism in which two contrasting ways of life are set forth. This is most fully
developed in the doctrine of the two ways in T. Asher (1:3-8):

Two ways has God appointed for humankind and two impulses and
two kinds of action and two courses and two ends. Thus all things are
in twos, one over against the other. There are two ways of good and
evil, and along with these are the two impulses in our breasts that
make the distinctions between them. So if the soul is well disposed to
what is good, its every action is in righteousness. . . . But if the soul
inclines the impulse to wickedness, its every action is in wickedness.

The doctrine of the two ways has roots in the ethics of the Bible, espe-
cially in the wisdom tradition.'"** Proverbs 4:10-14 sets out the contrast: "I
have taught you the way of wisdom; I have led you in the paths of upright-
ness. . . . Do not enter the path of the wicked and do not walk in the way of
evil men." The contrast between Dame Wisdom and Dame Folly in Proverbs
9 similarly implies the opposition of two ways. Psalm 1:6 says that "the
LORD knows the way of the righteous, but the way of the wicked will perish,"
The doctrine of the two ways does not derive from the biblical covenant but
was obviously compatible with it. We may compare Deut. 30:15: "See, I
have set before you this day life and good, death and evil." There is no impli-
cation of metaphysical dualism in any of these texts. They simply clarify ba-
sic options by formulating them in terms of binary oppositions. Such con-

109. H. Thyen, Der Slil der Jiidisch-Hellenutischen Homilie (Gcittingeii: Vandenhoeck

& Ruprecht, 1955), following the basic study of Bultmann, Der Stil der paulinischen Predigt
und die kynisch-stoische Diatribe (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1910). Becker
{Untersuchungen, 194) has shown how well Thyen's analysis can be applied to the parenetic
passages in the Testaments.
110. W. Michaelis, "hodos," TDNT5 (1967) 42-96, esp. 56-65, where he traces biblical
influence on the intertestamental writings.
 THE COMMON ETHIC 183

trasts are probably found universally. In Hesiod's Works and Days 287-92 we
read: "Badness can be got easily and in shoals: the road to her is smooth, and
she lives very near us. But between us and Goodness the gods have placed
the sweat of our brows: long and steep is the path that leads to her, and it is
rough at first."*''
The Testament ofAsher goes beyond this purely ethical dualism when
it refers to the evil spirit and the angel of peace. In this respect, it draws
closer to the metaphysical dualism of the Qumran Scrolls. It is apparent,
however, that the schema of the two ways was in itself quite intelligible to a
Hellenistic audience.

The Ethic of the Testaments

The ethics of the Testaments resemble the Diaspora writings in their ten-
dency to ignore the distinctive elements of Judaism and to emphasize those
which would be acceptable to sophisticated Gentiles. Despite numerous ref-
erences to the law (nomos and entole are used over sixty times), the ethics are
presented in broad moral terms. There is no reference to the Sabbath. Cir-
cumcision is mentioned only in the Testament of Levi in connection with the
destruction of Shechem, not in the context of positive teaching. The Jewish
cult is only discussed in connection with the eschatological priest. Purity
laws are cited in T Asher 2:9 and 4:5 but are applied metaphorically to char-
acterize types of sinners. The emphasis is on the virtues inculcated by the
Testaments, not on specific commandments.
The most specific point of continuity with such documents as the Sibyl-
line Oracles and Pseudo-Phocylides lies in the insistent polemic against for-
nication. The Testaments are closer to the sibyl than to Pseudo-Phocylides in
their avoidance of any language which could be taken as polytheistic and in
their political and eschatological interests. The sense of Jewish identity is re-
inforced by the choice of Jewish pseudonyms, and by the expectation of the
restoration of Israel in the messianic age. Unlike the sibyl, however, the 7^5-
taments do not try to delineate the virtues of Judaism in contrast to Gentile
vices, such as idolatry and homosexuality. There is no sense here of a polem-
ical debate with the Gentile world. The teaching is presented within a purely
Jewish context, the patriarchs instructing their children. But the ethical
teaching itself is highly Hellenized and scarcely distinctive in the context of
Hellenistic Judaism.

111. Cf. also Heracles' choice between the ways of vice and virtue in Xenophon, Memo-
rabilia 2.1.21-34.
112. Kee, "Ethical Dimensions," 259-70; Berger, Gesetzauslegung, 42-45.
184 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

T h e Role of the S y n a g o g u e

The eommon ethic which we have seen in such diverse writings as Pseudo-
Phocyhdes, the Sibylline Oracles, and the Testaments of the Twelve Patri-
archs was pervasive in Hellenistic Judaism. We will find it, with few excep-
tions, in the more philosophically and mystically inclined works which we
shall discuss in the following chapters. Throughout, there is a tendency to
bypass the distinctive laws of Judaism and concentrate on monotheism and
matters of social and sexual morality. This tendency constitutes a unifying el-
ement among writings which are diverse in their political attitudes and in the
details of their teaching.
Such unity as we find in the ethics of Hellenistic Judaism must be at-
tributed to the influence of the synagogue preaching.''^ We have noted the
formal traces of homilies in the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs. Other
examples can be found in Philo."* We have little direct information about
the preaching of the synagogue, but there is ample evidence that it played a
central role in Diaspora hfe. An indication of the role of the synagogue may
be taken from Philo, if due allowance is made for his tendency to portray Ju-
daism as a philosophy:

So each seventh day there stand wide open in every city thousands of
schools of good sense, temperance, courage, justice and the other
virtues in which the scholars sit in order, quietly, with ears alert and
with full attention, so much do they thirst for the draught which the
teacher's words supply, while one of special experience rises and sets
forth what is best and sure to be profitable and wall make the whole
of life grow to something better. But among the vast number of par-
ticular truths and principles there studied, there stand out practically
high above the others two main heads; one of duty to God as shown
by piety and holiness, one of duty to men as shown by humanity and
justice.''^

The reduction of the law to the "two main heads" (dyo ta anotato kephalaia)
of duties towards God and humanity is especially significant and is charac-
teristic of Hellenistic Judaism."^
The role of the synagogue also throws some light on the recurring ques-

113. See especially Georgi, The Opponents, 84-91.

114, Borgen, Breadfrom Heaven, 28-58.
U5. De Specialibus Legibus 2.62-63 §282. The term translated "thousands" (myna)
may be taken as "numerous." See also Philo, De Vita Mosis 2.216 ^168.
116. See esp. Berger, Die Gesetzauslegung, 137-16. For comparison with Rabbinic ma-
terial, see A. Nissen, Gott und der NUchste im antil(en Judentum (WUNT 15; Tubingen: Mohr
Siebeck, 1974).
 THE COMMON ETHIC 185

tion of whether this presentation of Judaism was designed primarily for the
Jewish community or was addressed to the Gentile world. The synagogue
was evidenUy a major place of instrucdon for the Jewish community. Yet it
was also open to Gentiles and did in fact attract them. Josephus reports that
the Jews of Antioch "were constantly attracting to their religious ceremonies
muldtudes of Greeks, and these they had in some measure incorporated with
themselves" (J.W. 7.3.3 §45).^^^ This report accords well with the book of
Acts, where Paul is repeatedly said to encounter God-fearing Gendles in the
synagogues."^ No doubt the teaching of the synagogue was primarily di-
rected toward the Jewish audience, but the interpretation of Jewish tradition
presented was thoroughly Hellenistic and accessible to interested Gentiles.

117. Pagan authors were impressed by the openness of Judaism in this respect. See
J. Juster, Les Juifs dans I'Empire Roniain (Paris: Geuthner, 1914) 279, 413. It is debated
whether part of tlie synagogue service was reserved for Jews.
118. Acts 13:16, 26, 43, 50; 17:4, 17. Note esp. 13:44, where "almost the whole city"
came to the synagogue to hear Paul. See also Millar, in Schiirer, The History of the Jewish Peo-
ple, 3.1:162.
 CHAPTER 5

Philosophical Judaism

The Sibylline Oracles, Pseudo-Phocylides, and the Testaments of the Twelve

Patriarchs represent some of the popular formulations of Jewish ethics.
There was always a tradition in Hellenistic Judaism which attempted to pro-
vide a deeper philosophical basis for its teachings. Philo was the supreme ex-
ample, but he had his predecessors, even if they were less systematic in their
approach. The first, and possibly most significant, of these was Aristobulus.
Only fragments of his work survive, but they are sufficiently substantial to
establish him as a major figure in the history of Hellenistic Judaism.'

Aristobulus

The work of Aristobulus was dedicated to "Ptolemy the King." The Ptolemy
in question was specified by Clement^ as Philometor. Both Clement and

1. There are five fragments of Aristobulus's work. Fragment 1 is found in Eusebius

(Hist. Eccl. 7.32.16-18), where Eusebius is citing Anatolius, On the Passover. Fragments 2-5
are found in Eusebius {Praep. Evang. 8.10 and 13.12). Part of fragment 5 is also found in
Praep. Evang. 7.14. Parallels to parts of fragments 2-5 are also found in Clement's Siromateis
1, 5, and 6. See C. R. HoUaday, Fragments from Hellenistic Jewish Authors. Volume III:
Aristobulus (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995); A. Yarbro Collins, "Aristobulus," in OTP, 2:831-
42.
2. Stromateis 1.150.1. Anatolius dates Aristobulus to the time of Philadelphus, but this
is a manifest error, since Aristobulus refers to Philadelphus as the forefather of the Ptolemy for
whom he wrote. See N. Walter, Der Thoraausleger Aristobulus (TU 86; Berlin: Akademie,
1964) 13-26. A shorter treatment by Walter can be found in JSHRZ 3.2:261-79. See also
M. Goodman, in E. Schiirer, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ (175
B.C.-A.D. 135) (rev. and ed. G. Vermes, F. Millar, and M. Goodman; 3 vols.; Edinburgh: Clark,
1973-87) 3.1:579-87; J. M. G. Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora from Alexander to

186
 PHILOSOPHICAL JUDAISM 187

Eusebius identify Aristobulus with the "Aristobulus . . . teaeher of Ptolemy

the king" who is addressed in 2 Mace. 1:10. The identification and dating in
Clement and Eusebius are probably inferred from 2 Maccabees and have ac-
cordingly been challenged. Bickerman has shown that the salutation form in
2 Mace. 1:10 only became current about 60 B.C.E.^ It seems probable that the
forger of 2 Mace. 1:10 knew the work of Aristobulus with the dedication to
the king and inferred that Aristobulus was the king's teacher. 2 Maccabees
1:10, then, only shows that Aristobulus's work was current in the mid-first
century B.C.E. The reign of Philometor is, however, still the most likely pe-
riod for a Jewish writer to dedicate his work to the king. The fact that an au-
thor dedicated a work to the king does not necessarily require that the king
ever read it.*
Walter has shown that the allegorical method of Aristobulus does not
presuppose that of Philo^ and has also argued that Aristobulus is not depen-
dent on Pseudo-Aristeas. The issue here concerns Aristobulus's reference to
the alleged translation of the Septuagint under Philadelphus, at the instiga-
tion of Demetrius of Phalerum (Praep. Evang. 13.12.2). Since at least the
reference to Demetrius is unhistorical, some scholars have assumed that
Aristobulus must be dependent on Aristeas. Walter, however, argues that
both may have drawn on a common tradition. The priority of Aristobulus is
supported by the other parallels between the two texts.^ The scattered re-
marks of Pseudo-Aristeas on allegorical exegesis and the nature of God are
not likely to have inspired the sustained exegesis of Aristobulus.'' The simi-
larities between the two writers suggest close proximity in date and prove-
nance, although Pseudo-Aristeas seems to assume some methodological
steps which Aristobulus feels obliged to justify. We can hardly assume that
Aristobulus was the first to apply allegorical methods to the Torah. However,
if there is influence in either direction between Aristobulus and Pseudo-
Aristeas, Aristobulus would seem to be prior. The relationship between

Trajan (323 BCE-U? CE) (Edinburgh: Clarlc, 1996) 150-58; E. Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism:
The Reinvention of Jewish Tradition (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998) 246-51;
D: Winston, "Aristobulus from Walter to HoWaday,'" .Studia Philonica Annual 8 (1996) 155-66.
3. E. J, Bickerman, Studies in Jewish and Christian History (3 vols.; AGJU 9; Leiden:
Brill, 1976-86) 2:137.
4. Holladay, Fragments, 3:75.
5. Walter, Der Thoraausleger Aristobulus, 58-86,
6. Walter, Der Thoraausleger Aristobulus, 100. The fact that the passages in question
are concentrated in Aristobulus but scattered in Pseudo-Aristeas is taken as evidence of the pri-
ority of Aristobulus. See further Holladay, Fragments 3:64-65.
7. Walter, Der Thoraausleger Aristobulus. 146-47, argues that Pseudo-Aristeas reflects
a more advanced stage of allegorical exegesis than Aristobulus since he does not confine his al-
legorical interpretations to biblical anthropomorphisms. Such an argument seems hazardous,
since the surviving fragments of Aristobulus are quite restricted in scope and may not reflect
his full practice.
188 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

Aristobulus and Pseudo-Aristeas, then, supports the dadng to the dme of

Philometor.^
Both Clement and Eusebius refer to Aristobulus as a Peripatedc, but he
was clearly eclectic and not restricted to any one system.^ He is first and fore-
most a Jewish apologist.'" His entire work is a defense of the Jewish Torah
against interpretations that would make it seem crude or unsophisUcated.'^ The
apologetic, as always, is addressed to two fronts. On the one hand, there is the
explicit address to the Gentile king and the attempt to use acceptable Hellenis-
tic categories. On the other hand, this interpretation of Judaism is inevitably a
challenge to more conservative Jews (the challenge is explicit in Praep. Evang.
8.10.5) and a reinforcement to those who thought in Hellenlsdc categories.
Aristobulus's allegorical interpretation springs directly from his apolo-
getic interests. He exhorts the king to take the interpretations physikos and not
lapse into the mythical. Physikos has a technical sense in Stoic exegesis.
Aristobulus's usage does not conform to that sense, but he may well have bor-
rowed the term from the Stoics. Walter has rightly remarked that Aristobulus's
lack of a technical vocabulary is an indication that he was a pioneer in this kind
of Jewish exegesis.'^ His conception, in any case, is clear. Moses uses language
of outward appearance to express Inward realities. So Aristobulus is led to crit-
icize "those who have no share of power and understanding, but who are de-
voted to the letter alone." His criticism may, in part, be directed against Gentile
critics, but his primary reference is surely to the Jewish literalists, who were
still a significant faction in the time of Philo. The issue between Aristobulus
and the literalists was significant. If a religion is to function as any form of
nomism, the meaning of the laws must be publicly accessible. The allegorical
method shifts the basis of the religion from the actual text to the understanding
which provides the hidden interpretation.'^ There is obviously a relationship
between this allegorical method and the visions of higher reality in Ezekiel the
Tragedian and the Orphic poem, which we will consider in Chapter 6 below.

8. P M. Fraser {Ptolemaic Alexandria [Oxford: Clarendon, 1972] 2:964) holds to the

priority of Pseudo-Aristeas but dates both to the age of Philometor. M. Hengel {Judaism and
Hellenism [2 vols.; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1974] 2:106-7) dates Aristobulus more specifically
between 176 and 170 B . C . E . , since this was the only period in which Philometor was sole ruler.
This, however, may place too much weight on the form in which the dedication has been pre-
served.
9. Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism, 1:164; Holladay, Fragments. 3:72-73.
10. Walter, Der Tfwraausleger Aristobulus, 43-51.
11. Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 251, sees Aristobulus as giving Jews reason to have
pride in their heritage by claiming that Plato plagiarized Moses. This is true, but it misses the
nuances of Aristobulus's reiiiterprelation of Jewish tradition in Hellenistic categories.
12. Walter, Der Thoraausleger Aristobulus, 135. On Aristobulus's use of physikos, see
Holladay, Fragments. 3:206-7.
13. On the allegorical method, see D. Dawson, Allegorical Readers and Cultural Revi-
sion in Ancient Alexandria (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992).
 PHILOSOPHICAL JUDAISM 189

There are differences too. Aristobulus does not rely on vision (even on a vision
of Moses or Abraham) but on philosophical understanding, and he shows a
critical self-consciousness which is lacking In the poetic works. Aristobulus is
the first theologian of Hellenistic Judaism.
Aristobulus's use of allegorical interpretation is confined to the biblical
anthropomorphisms — the hands, feet, "standing," and voice of God. His
discussion of the Passover makes no reference to Jewish history but only to
cosmic phenomena — the equinoxes of the sun and moon. The lengthy dis-
cussion of the holiness of the number seven involves no allegory but at-
tempts to collect pagan witnesses too. The association between wisdom and
light in Praep. Evang. 13.12.9-10 is not direct allegory but claims that what
is said about light "might be said allegorically about wisdom also." Both in
these cases and in the use of allegory, Aristobulus is guided by the underly-
ing assumption of the unity of all truth. So the intention of the Gentile poets
refers to God, even when they call him Zeus or Dis. The poets also testify to
the correlation of light and wisdom. The specific contribution of Judaism is
that writers like Solomon "said more clearly and better that wisdom existed
before heaven and earth." The common basis is that "it is agreed by all the
philosophers that it is necessary to hold holy opinions concerning God," but
this is "a point our philosophical school makes particularly well."
Judaism is a "philosophical school" (hairesis) among others, though it
claims to be the preeminent one. One of the ways in which Aristobulus
makes his point about the superiority of Judaism is by claiming that Plato and
the philosophers borrowed from Moses. (In this context, Aristobulus claims
that there were translations of the Torah before Philadelphus, a claim that is
obviously required if Plato were to have borrowed from Moses.) While the
claim may seem ridiculously arrogant, it involved a recognition that truth
was indeed to be found in the pagan writers; ultimately, in Philo, it meant that
Moses could be interpreted in the light of Greek philosophy. This claim had
its antecedents in the popular assertions of Jewish antiquity in the romantic
historians, but Aristobulus goes further. The god of the Jews and the god of
the Gentiles are one. Judaism differs from the philosophical schools in de-
gree. Judaism, in effect, is not a covenantal nomism, but a philosophy.
As part of his apologetic enterprise Aristobulus cites a number of
verses from Greek poets to support the idea that the seventh day is holy. Only
one of these verses (Hesiod, Works and Days 770) is demonstrably authentic,
although one of the Homeric verses may be based on an authentic verse, and
another may have been part of the Homeric tradition of the time.'* The other

14. Walter, Der Thoraausleger Arislobulus. 150-66. The verse in question reads "And
on the seventh morning we left the stream of Acheron." Since Aristobulus has to interpret this
verse allegorically to make it fit his purpose, it is unlikely that he invented it.
190 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

verses are not necessarily Jewish in origin. Walter has argued that a Jewish
forger would hardly have chosen such an obscure legendary figure as Linus^^
and has suggested that some of these verses may be of Pythagorean origin.
The fact that these verses are cited In support of the Sabbath is significant,
since the Sabbath was one of the more peculiar Jewish institudons. Aris-
tobulus attempts to show that even such a distinctive institution can be ex-
plained and understood in Hellenistic categories. To say that "Aristobulus
thus safeguards the uniqueness of Jewish tradition"'^ misses the point. He
safeguards the tradition by showing that it is not really unique, but a particu-
lar formulation of something that is also prized by Greeks: "not only the He-
brews but also the Greeks recognize the seventh day as sacred."''' It is also
misleading to say that he subordinates Greek philosophical and poetical texts
to the Pentateuch.'^ The subordination is an illusion, since the Torah is rein-
terpreted in the categories of the supposedly derivative Greek authors.

Poetic Forgeries

Unrelated to these verses in Aristobulus is a series of verses attributed to

Greek poets found in Pseudo-Justin and Clement.'^ The use of gnomologia
was developed in the Hellenistic age by Greek writers, most notably
Chrysippus (280-207 B.C.E.), who succeeded Cleanthes as head of the Stoa.
The method of using proof texts from respected writers was inherited by the
Jewish apologists. The spurious verses in Pseudo-Justin and Clement are at-
tributed to Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Pythagoras, Diphilus, Menan-
der, and Hesiod. Clement (Stromateis 5.113.1) attributes one of the Sopho-
cles quotations to (Pseudo-) Hecataeus in his book on Abraham and the
Egyptians. Consequently, Schiirer and others attributed all the poetic forger-
ies to Pseudo-Hecataeus.^'' This is unwarranted, in view of our lack of

15. Thirteen verses of a work. Peri physeds kosmou, attributed to Linus, have survived.
It is conceded that the first Linus verse here is a Jewish forgery, though not necessarily by
Aristobulus. See Walter, Der Thoraausleger Aristobulus, 158-65. The Linus verses are attrib-
uted to Callimachus by Clement.
16. Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora, 156.
17. Aristobulus, Fragment 5d; Eusebius, Praep. Evang. 13.13.34-35; Holladay, Frag-
ments, 3:187.
18. Dawson, Allegorical Readers, 81, followed by Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean
Diaspora, 156.
19. For the verses, see A. M. Denis, Fragmenta Pseudepigraphorum quae supersunt
Graeca (PVTG 3; Leiden: Brill, 1970) 161-74; for discussion, see Walter, Der Thoraausleger
Aristobulus, 172-84.
20. E. Schiirer, Geschichte des jiidischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi (4th ed.; Leip-
zig: Hinrichs, 1909) 3:454-55.
 PHILOSOPHICAL JUDAISM 191

knowledge about Pseudo-Heeataeus.'^' It is not possible to specify the

sources of these fragments, except to say that they are before Clement. There
is nothing to indicate Christian authorship. The content of the verses is
mainly concerned to denounce idolatry and affirm monotheism. In this they
resemble the pseudo-Justinian recension of the Orphic verses and Sib. Or.
3:1-45. The fragments of Pseudo-Menander are largely taken up with ethical
issues and resemble Pseudo-Phocylides. Pseudo-Diphilus discourses on the
two ways and the question of justice after death. Pseudo-Sophocles, in one
passage, describes a final conflagration in terms influenced by Stoicism. All
of these focus attention on the aspects of Judaism with which Greek philoso-
phers were sympathetic. The extent of the common ground may be illustrated
by the epistles of Heraclitus. Since the work of Bernays, it has been common
to assume that some of these epistles were Jewish forgeries (at least epistles 4
and 7). However, Attridge has shown that even the most "Jewish" motifs in
these epistles can be paralleled in the popular, especially Cynic, philoso-
phers.^^ It is to this popular philosophy that the Jewish forgers appealed.
Their appeal did not rest on any claim to revelation or to a special covenant
of Judaism with God, but to the ethical and theistic convictions themselves,
which were found to a higher degree in Judaism.

Pseudo-Aristeas

A second representative of philosophical Judaism from the second century

B.C.E. is the Letter of Aristeas, which we have already encountered in Chap-
ter 2 above. In considering the view of Judaism in the Letter of Aristeas, two
factors are of major importance. First, the prime expression of Judaism is the
Mosaic law. This is what Demetrius wants for the library, and this is the basis
of the high priest's exposition. The sanctity of the law is emphasized in the
passage explaining why it has not previously been known to the Greek
world: when a historian or a tragic poet attempts to draw on it, they are smit-
ten with afflictions (312-16). We may contrast here the bold claim of
Aristobulus that Plato, Pythagoras, and others had in fact drawn on Moses.
Pseudo-Aristeas's comment would seem to cast doubt on the validity of the
enterprise of Jewish writers such as Ezekiel the Tragedian. The law is not to
be paraphrased but is to be exactly translated and interpreted. This, of course,
brings us to the second point. The law needs interpretation. Its sense is not

21. So also Goodman in the revised edition of Schiirer, Tfie History of tfie Jewisti Peo-
ple. 3.1:657.
22. H. W. Attridge, First-Century Cynicism in tiie Epistles of Heraclitus (HTS 29;
Missoula, Mont.; Scholars Press, 1976) 3-39.
192 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

plain or obvious. Further, it needs to be complemented with the wisdom pro-

vided by a Greek education.
Perhaps the most striking and fundamental assertion in the endre work
is found in a statement of Aristeas in secdon 16: "God, the overseer and cre-
ator of all things, whom they worship, is He whom all men worship, and we
too. Your Majesty, though we address Him differently, as Zeus and Dis; by
these names men of old not unsuitably signified that He through whom all
creatures receive life and come into being is the guide and lord of all." The
claim is not only that the God of the Jews is the creator of all, but that the
same deity has been recognized by Greeks under different names. That the
passage is attributed to a Greek does not change the fact that it Is composed
by a Jewish author and reflects the theology of the work as a whole.^^ We
have seen an almost identical sendment expressed by the Jewish author
Aristobulus in his own name: the inherent meaning of the names Dis and
Zeus in the Greek poets refers to God.-^"* This statement in Pseudo-Aristeas is
not contradicted by the later exposition of the high priest Eleazar, which con-
demns polytheism and idolatry. Pseudo-Aristeas was not suggesting the com-
plete equivalence of Greek and Jewish religion by any means, only that the
Greeks, too, had a place for the worship of a supreme god.
While the law is important, and Pseudo-Aristeas is concerned with the
observation of the detailed dietary laws, Judaism is not a covenantal nomism.
In the words of Hadas: "The theology premised is applicable to all mankind,
not to the Jews alone, and God's providence is universal. It is not suggested
that God will show special consideration for the Jews simply by virtue of
their being Jews, nor is there any hint of proselytization.... The Jews follow
their own traditional usage to attain a religious end; the same end may be at-
tained by others by a different path."^^ Not all paths followed by Gentiles are
approved, and some, such as Egyptian theriolatry, are viewed with contempt,
but Aristeas also affirms that Gentiles can arrive at the recognition of "the
only God omnipotent over all creation."
The understanding of the law is the subject of the high priest's dis-
course in 130-68. There are obvious affinities with Aristobulus. Nothing in
the law has been set down heedlessly or in the spirit of myth {mythodos,
168), and the interpretation is based on the physike dianoia. Moses, the law-
giver, is presented as a philosopher proceeding from principles. The first
principle is that God is one and that his power is made manifest throughout

23. Pace Barclay. Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora, 143, who claims that "the attri-
bution of this statement to a Greek gives it less significance than if it were from a Jew." On the
contrary, the status of Jewish religion is established in the work precisely by the recognition of
authoritative Gentiles.
24. Aristobulus, Fragment 4; Praep. Evang. 13.12.7; Holladay, Fragments, 3:173.
25. M. Hadas, Aristeas to Philocrates (New York: Harper, 1951) 62.
 PHILOSOPHICAL JUDAISM 193

creation. Thus, an evildoer cannot escape notice, and the commandments are
effectively enforced. This is followed by an attack on idolatry and polythe-
ism, from an explicitly euhemeristic point of view. It should be noted that
nothing in this attack could offend an enlightened p a g a n . I t does, however,
provide a reason why Moses "fenced us about with impregnable palisades
and with walls of iron, to the end that we should mingle in no way with any
of the other nations" (130). Idolatry was undeniably prevalent in the Gentile
world, and the fabricators of myths, such as Homer, were commonly held to
be the wisest of the Greeks (137).^^ Many Greek philosophers would have
said as much. The "universalism" of the Hellenistic Jewish authors was
never indiscriminate. It always involved a distinction between the higher
ideals of Hellenism and popular paganism.^^ Eleazar is exceptional only in-
sofar as he uses the critique of idolatry to justify the Jewish food laws and the
barrier they created between Jew and Gentile.
Yet it becomes apparent that, while Pseudo-Aristeas is prepared to de-
fend the full law, he does not understand it in a nationalistic sense. What the
Jews really refuse to mingle with are "vain opinions," not other nations as
such. Enlightened pagans, such as the Egyptian priests, can appreciate the
Jewish position,2^ The significant distinction is not between Jews and
Gentiles, but between "men of God, a title applicable to none others but only
to him who reveres the true God" and "men of food and drink and raiment"
(140). So the particular, concrete commandments are reinterpreted allegori-
cally to apply to universal human virtues. The birds forbidden by the dietary
laws symbolize oppression and violence, animals that part the hoof symbol-
ize discrimination, those that chew the cud symbolize memory, and so forth.
The law, in short, is one symbolic expression of the truth which can also be
approached in other ways.^^

26. See the passages listed by Attridge, First-Century Cynicism.

27. M. A. L. Beavis, "Anti-Egyptian Polemic in the Letter of Aristeas 130-165 (The
High Priest's Discourse)," 7S7 18 (1987) 145-51, goes too far in restricting the high priest's po-
lemic to benighted peoples such as the Egyptians, but she is correct that it does not apply to
"enlightened fellow-monotheists." These, however, were always a tiny minority among the
Greeks.
28. Gruen misses this discrimination when he summarizes Eleazar's discourse as "so
much for the Greeks" {Heritage and Hellenism, 216). Consequently, he is left with a paradoxi-
cal picture of an Eleazar who wants to be "free of Gentile taint" and simultaneously a model of
Greek paideia. Contrast C. R. Holladay. "Jewish Responses to Hellenistic Culture in Early
Ptolemaic Egypt," in P. Bilde et al., eds., Ethnicity in Hellenistic Egypt (Aarhus: Aarhus Uni-
versity Press, 1992), 147-48, who notes the pointed critique of pagan religion, but also notes
that it "would have won the assent of sophisticated pagans, including Egyptian priests."
29. The positive appeal to "the leading priests among the Egyptians" (140) is remark-
able in view of the contemptuous dismissal of "very foolish people, Egyptians and those like
them" a few verses earlier.
30. N. Janowitz, "Translating Cult: The Letter of Aristeas and Hellenistic Judaism," So-
ciety of Biblical Literature Seminar Papers {1983) 347-57, argues that the purpose of such alle-
194 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS A N D PIETY

The universalism of Pseudo-Aristeas is further emphasized by the

lengthy table-talk section. The answers of the sages, like the questions to
which they respond, are rather banal and commonplace wisdom. Many
scholars have argued that the section is adapted from a Hellenistic tract.^'
The constant references to God are the only distinguishing f e a t u r e . T h e sig-
nificant point is that the sages are expected to show a mastery of the common
wisdom of the Hellenistic world. The Torah alone is not enough. The sages
are expected to be proficient, not only in the literature of the Jews but also in
that of the Greeks. They are distinguished in paideia (121). They "zealously
cultivated the quality of the mean . . . and eschewing a crude and uncouth dis-
position they likewise avoided conceit and the assumption of superiority
over others" (122). They did not, in short, regard themselves as a chosen peo-
ple. The high priest himself is a model of kalokagathia or "a Greek gentie-
man" (3). The Torah, to be properly appreciated, must be complemented by
Greek culture.
One other aspect of the Judaism of the letter requires comment. The de-
scription of Judea and Jerusalem includes a striking passage on the high
priest (96-99):

We were struck with great astonishment when we beheld Eleazar at

his ministration, and his apparel, and the visible glory conferred by
his being garbed in the coat which he wears and the stones that adorn
his person. . . . The total effect of the whole arouses awe and emo-
tional excitement, so that one would think he had passed to some
other sphere outside the world. I venture to affirm positively that any
man who witnesses the spectacle I have recounted will experience
amazement and astonishment indescribable, and his mind will be
deeply moved at the sanctity attaching to every detail.

gory is not to reconcile two cultures but to retrieve old texts that had lost their meaning. But the
reason the old texts had lost their meaning was the impact of a new, Hellenistic, culture.
31. M. Hengel, "Anonymitat, Pseudepigraphie, und 'Literarische Falschung' in der
judisch-hellenistischen Literatur," in K. von Fritz, ed., Pseudepigrapha I: Pseudopythagorica,
Lettres de Platon, Littirature pseudepigraphique juive (Entretiens sur I'Antiquitfi Classique
18; Geneva: Vandoeuvres, 1972) 299; Hadas, Aristeas, 40-43; W. W. Tarn, The Greeks in
Bactria and India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1938) 414-36. On the Hellenistic
kingship treatises, see E. R. Goodenough, "The Political Philosophy of Philo Judaeus," Yale
Classical Studies J (1928) 53-102; and P Hadot, "Furstenspiegel," RACl (1970) 555-632. See
further O. Murray, "Aristeas and Ptolemaic Kingship," JTS 18 (1967) 337-71; J. J. Lewis, "The
Table-Talk Section in the Letter of Aristeas," NTS 13 (1966) 53-56; Tcherikover, "Ideology,"
65.
32. Gruen's suggestion, that "the dragging of God into every response" shows the au-
thor's sense of humor, is singularly anachronistic (Heritage and Hellenism, 219).
33. See further G. Boccaccini, Middle Judaism: Jewish Thought, 300 BCE to 200 CE
(Minneapolis: Fortress, 1991) 161-85. His comment that the Jewish translators eat the same
food as the Greeks at the final banquet must be qualified, since everything is prepared in accor-
dance with the customs of the Jews (181).
 PHILOSOPHICAL JUDAISM I95

No mention is made of the efficacy of the sacrifices or their effect on the rela-
tions between human beings and God. The liturgy is considered a spectacle
and is admired for its emotional effect on onlookers. This is not how the cult
functions in the context of covenantal nomism. Rather, it is one specimen
among others of the glory of Judaism — ranking with the description of the
land and the order of the state. We are reminded of the praise of Simon the
Just in Ben Sira, where, again, the glory of the priesthood is the issue.
Pseudo-Aristeas goes beyond Ben Sira in suggesting that the cult is an ec-
static experience because of the emotional effect of the solemn rituals. The
concern is not with the mechanism of atonement but with the public impres-
sion of Judaism that is conveyed.

T h e W i s d o m of S o l o m o n

A third representative of philosophical Judaism is found in one of the major

products of the Egyptian Diaspora, the Wisdom of Solomon. The Egyptian
provenance of the work is not seriously in doubt in view of the prominence of
Egypt in chapters 10-19, and the philosophical coloring of the work is most
obviously compatible with an Alexandrian setting.^* The book has been dated
anywhere from the second century B.C.E. to 40 C.E.^^ The strongest arguments
have been adduced by Winston, who sets the book In the time of Caligula.
The theory that idolatry arose from the desire of subjects to flatter a distant
ruler (14:16-20) is most easily explained with reference to the early Roman pe-
riod, and the term kratesis in 6:3 may have a technical reference to the Roman
conquest of Egypt. The atmosphere of persecution in the opening chapters sug-
gests more specifically the time of Caligula, but this should not be pressed, as
these chapters reflect a philosophical and religious debate that does not require
a context of actual persecution. The genre of the book is variously identified as
logos protreptikos or exhortatory discourse, which was "a union of philosophy
and rhetoric" developed originally by the S o p h i s t s , o r as an encomium.

34. For a contrary view, see D. Georgi, Weisheit Salomos (JSHRZ 3.4; Gutersloh: Mohn,
1980) 396.
35. For a summary, see J. Reider, The Book of Wisdom (Dropsie College Series; New
York; Harper, 1957) 12-14. An early date (late second century B . C . E . ) has been defended by
Georgi, Weisheil Salomos, 396.
36. D. Winston, The Book of Wisdom (AB 43; Garden City, N.Y: Doubleday, 1979) 20-
25.
37. Ibid., 18; J. M. Reese, Hellenistic Influence on the Book of Wisdom and Its Conse-
quences (AnBib 41; Rome: Biblical Institute, 1970) 117-21. For a contrary view, see Georgi
(Weisheh Salomos, 394), who emphasizes the book of Wisdom's affinities with Gnostic writ-
ings.
196 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

which is a genre of epideictic rhetoric, demonstradve rather than d i d a c t i c . I n

fact, the different parts of the book have different characters. The hortatory as-
pect is dominant in the so-called "book of eschatology" (1:1-6:21); the "book
of wisdom" (6:22-9:18) is an encomium, and the last part of the book, the
"book of history," is epideictic, demonstrating the works of wisdom.
The Wisdom of Solomon does not attempt to identify the god of the Jews
with Zeus and so posit a common basis of religion for Jews and Gentiles. In-
deed, the central focus of the book is not on the divinity as such but on the fig-
ure of wisdom. While the figure of wisdom had a well-known prehistory in the
Jewish wisdom literature, its presentation here is distinctiy colored by Greek
philosophy.''^ Wisdom is the principle of order which "stretches in might irom
pole to pole and effectively orders all things" (8:1). It can be expressed in phys-
ical terms: "manifold, subde, agile, lucid, unsullied, clear, inviolable . . . more
mobile than any motion, she pervades and permeates all things by reason of her
pureness" (7:22-24). Wisdom is a spirit (pneuma) that loves humanity, which
has "filled the inhabited earth" and "holds all things together." Much of this
conception is evidentiy based on the Stoic Logos/Pneuma as the rational soul
and principle of coherence in the universe, although various nuances are de-
rived from Middle Platonism and from the aretalogies of Isis, in addition, of
course, to the Jewish wisdom literature.*' The author evidentiy found common
basis for Judaism and Greek philosophy in this figure, which carried less dan-
ger of polytheism than Zeus or Dis.
The figure of wisdom has a pivotal role in determining the identity of
the various parties in the book.*^ Wisdom "will not enter a fraudulent mind

38. M. Gilbert, "Wisdom Literature," in M. E. Stone, ed., Jewish Writings of the Second
Temple Period (CRINT 2.2; Assen: Van Gorcum; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984) 307; P Bizzetti,
// Libro della Sapienza (Brescia: Paideia, 1984) 157.
39. See further J. J. Collins, Jewish Wisdom in the Hellenistic Age (Louisville: Westmin-
ster John Knox, 1997) 182. On the division of the book, see A. G. Wright, "The Structure of the
Book of Wisdom," Bib 48 (1967) 165-84; M. Kolarcik, The Ambiguity of Death in the Book of
Wisdom 1-6 (AnBib 127; Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1991) 1-28.
40. Winston, The Book of Wisdom. 33-40; C. Larcher, Etudes sur le Livre de la Sagesse
(Paris: Gabalda, 1969) 181-236; E. des Places, "Epithetes et attributs de la 'Sagesse' (Sg 7, 22-
23 et SVF 1 557 Arnim)," Bib 57 (1976) 414-19; H. Engel, "'Was Weisheit ist und wie sie
entstand, will ich verkiinden': Weish 7,22-8,1 innerhalb des egkomiun tes sophias (6,22-11,1)
als Starkung der Plausibilitat des Judentums angesichts hellenistischer Philosophic und
Religiositat," in G. Hentschel and E. Zenger, eds., Lehrerin der Gerechtigkeit (Leipzig: Benno,
1991) 67-102; H, Htibner, "Die Sapientia Salomonis und die antike Philosophie," in idem, ed..
Die Weisheit Salomos in Horizont Biblischer Theologie (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener
Verlag, 1993) 55-81.
41. See the parallels adduced by Winston, The Book of Wisdom, 159-218, and the litera-
ture there cited. The philosophical context of the book is properiy recognized as Middle Platon-
ism. See Collins, Jewish Wisdom, 200-202.
42. J. J. Collins, "Cosmos and Salvation: Jewish Wisdom and Apocalyptic in the Helle-
nistic Age," HR 17 (1977) 123-27, reprinted in J. J. Collins, Seers, Sibyls and Sages in Helle-
nistic-Roman Judaism (Leiden: Brill, 1997) 317-38.
 PHILOSOPHICAL JUDAISM 197

nor make her home in a body mortgaged to sin" (1:4). By implieation, it will
enter into a righteous soul and abide in a sinless body, or. In the formulation
of 7:27, "generation by generation she enters into holy souls and renders
them friends of God and prophets."*^ While 1:4 implies that the recipient of
wisdom must already be righteous, 7:27 suggests that it is wisdom which
makes them righteous. We should not regard these statements as opposed.
The point is that the presence of wisdom is an identifying mark of the righ-
teous. The presence or absence of wisdom determines the eschatological fate
of the individual. In the famous sorites'^* of 6:17-20:

The true beginning of wisdom is the desire to learn,

and a concern for learning is love of her;
love for her means the keeping of her laws,
attention to the law is a surety of immortality,
and immortality makes one near to God.

The actual eschatological conceptions, which are developed mainly in the

"book of eschatology" (chaps. 1-5), are heavily dependent on Jewish apoca-
lyptic traditions (especially in the judgment scene in 5:5: "How was he reck-
oned among the sons of God and how is his portion among the holy
ones?").*^ Yet, these notions are combined with a distinctly Greek concep-
tion of the immortality of the soul, with a suggestion of preexistence, and
they avoid any reference to resurrection of the body,*^ The fate of both righ-
teous and wicked is determined by their understanding of God and the world.
The impious are those who "reasoned not rightly" (2:1) and "knew not the
mysteries of God" (2:22). Consequently, they resolve to "let our strength be
the rule of our righteousness, for weakness is proved to be unprofitable"
(2:11). When judgment comes, they realize their mistake: "we erred from the

43. For parallels on the notion "friends of God," see Winston, The Wisdom of Solomon,
188-89. On the understanding of prophets in Egyptian Judaism, see H. A. Wolfson, Philo:
Foundations of Religious Philosophy in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam (2 vols.; Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1947) 2:3-72.
44. The sorites is imperfect, since it should conclude by joining the beginning and end:
"the beginning of wisdom makes one near to God." See A. T. S. Goodrick, The Book of Wisdom
(Oxford Church Bible Commentary; London: Rivingtons, 1913) 175.
45. See P. Grelot, "L'Eschatologie de la Sagesse et les Apocalypses Juives," in A la
Rencontre de Dieu: Memorial Albert Gelin (Le Puy: Xavier Mappus, 1961) 165-78,
L. Ruppert, Der leidende Gerechte (Forschung zur Bibel 5; Wiirzburg: Echter, 1972) 70-105;
idem, "Gerechte und Frevler (Gottlose) in Sap 1,1-6,21: Zum Neuverstandnis und zur
Aklualisierung alttestamentlicher Traditionen in der Sapientia Salomonis," in Hiibner, ed.. Die
Weisheit Salomos, 1-54; G. W. E, Nickelsburg, Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life in
Intertestamental Judaism (HTS 26; Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University, 1972) 58-62;
M. Delcor, "LTmmortalite de I'ame dans le Livre de la Sagesse et dans les documents de
Qumran." NRTh 11 (1955) 614-30; Collins, Jewish Wisdom, 183-85.
46. Collins, Jewish Wisdom, 185-87; Winston, The Book of Wisdom, 25-32.
198 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS A N D PIETY

path of truth . . . and we did not know the way of the Lord" (5:6-7). By con-
trast, the righteous individual "professes to have knowledge of God" and
"declares the end of the righteous blessed" (2:13, 16). Consequently, such
people are not seduced by the short-term gains of wickedness, for their hope
is full of immortality (3:4). Those who understand and appreciate the role of
righteousness In the world order can benefit from its fruits: "the righteous
live forever" (5:15). Even the cosmos joins in the rejection of the wicked,
since God "will make all creation his weapons for the repulse of his foes"
(5:17). The wisdom of the righteous is fully grounded in an understanding of
the universe. It involves "unerring knowledge of existent being, to know the
structure of the universe and the operation of the elements; the beginning,
and end, and middle of times" (7:17-18).
The major illustration of the workings of wisdom is provided by the so-
called "book of history" in chapters 10-19. These chapters consist of a brief
review of the history recorded in the book of Genesis (chap. 10) and a
lengthy reflection on the Exodus (chaps. 11-19).*^ The material is not treated
as a recitation of "salvation history" as the unique and exceptional history of
Israel. In chapter 10, the events in question are not ascribed to the direct in-
tervention of God but to the constant activity of wisdom in the world. Subse-
quently, wisdom fades from the scene and the author speaks more directly of
God, probably because he is adapting traditional material. Nonetheless, the
experience of Israel and its enemies is expressed as an experience of the cos-
mos rather than a direct encounter with God.*^ Idolaters are punished "by
means of those very creatures whom they esteemed as gods" (12:27). The
plagues of Egypt and the crossing of the sea reveal that "nature fights for the
righteous" (15:17) and that "creation, ministering to thee its maker, strains it-
self against the unrighteous for punishment and slackens for beneficence on
behalf of those that trust in you [God]" (16:24). Even when "the whole cre-
ation in its particular nature was fashioned again anew complying with your
commands so that your servants might be kept unharmed," this miraculous
transformation does not require a direct intervention of God. Instead, it is
brought about by an inner mutation of the universe, prompted only by God's
command: "the elements, being changed in order among themselves, as in a
psaltery the notes vary the character of the tune, yet always adhering to the
sound." In the words of A. T. S. Goodrick: "Even miracles are regarded by
'Wisdom' not as a derangement of the universe, but as a rearrangement of the

47. See R Enns, Exodus Retold (HSM 57; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997); S, Cheon, The
Exodus Story in the Wisdom of Solomoti: A Study in Biblical Interpretation (JSPSup 23; Shef-
field: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997).
48. P. Beauchamp, "Le salut corporel des justes et la conclusion du livre de la Sagesse,"
Bib 45 (1964) 491-526; G. Ziener, Die theologische Begriffsprache im Buche der Weisheit
(BBB II; Bonn: Hanstein, 1956) 135-36.
 PHILOSOPHICAL JUDAISM 199

harmony of it."*^ The understanding of history is grounded in a consistent

understanding of the workings of the cosmos.
The hand of God can, of course, be discerned in the workings of the
cosmos. It is precisely from the greatness and beauty of creation that the cre-
ator is recognized {13:1). Wisdom involves the recognition of God through
the works of creation, since this is required for a full understanding of the
world. It is the wisdom which recognizes God that leads to righteousness and
immortality: "For to know thee is perfect righteousness and to know thy
might is the root of immortality." Yet this knowledge is indirect, mediated by
wisdom, through the cosmos. It is not given directly by the prophetic "word
of the LORD" or by ecstatic revelation.
The Wisdom of Solomon has often been said to be law-oriented in its
p i e t y . T h e righteous man reproaches the wicked with sins against the law
(2:12),^' and the kings of the earth are condemned because they have not
kept the law (6:4). While the "law" In question may be presumed to corre-
spond substantially with the Mosaic law, the two cannot be simply identified.
As in the other Jewish Hellenistic literature, those elements of the law which
are peculiarly Jewish are ignored, and emphasis is placed on elements in ac-
cordance with natural law. The list of sins in 14:22-29 covers the ethical in-
terests of the book rather completely: "All is confusion — bloody murder,
deceitful theft, corruption, treachery, tumult, perjury, agitation of decent
men, ingratitude, soul defilement, interchange of sex roles, irregular mar-
riages, adultery and debauchery. For the worship of the unspeakable idols is
the beginning, cause, and end of every evil." The basic sin is idolatry, which
is denounced repeatedly throughout the book.^^ This is said to lead to a vari-
ety of other sins. Of these, adultery is most frequendy mentioned.Surpris-
ingly, homosexuality is not prominent (a reference to interchange of sex roles
in 14:26 is the closest allusion). Infanticide is naturally enough singled out in
the account of the oppression of the Hebrews in Egypt (18:5). There is also a
reference to "secret mysteries or frenzied revels connected with strange
laws" (14:23), which were also frowned on by classical authors on occa-
sion.Otherwise, the wrongdoing of the wicked is of the type suggested in

49. Goodrick, The Book of Wisdom. 251. See further J, P M. Sweet, "The Theory of
Miracles in the Wisdom of Solomon," in C. F. D. Moule, ed.. Miracles (London: Mowbray,
1965) 115-26.
50. So U. Breitenstein, Beobachtungen zu Sprache Stil und Gedankengut des vierlen
Makkabderbuchs (Basel and Stuttgart: Schwabe, 1978) 19.
51. The identity of the wicked is much disputed, but they are probably renegade Jews.
See Collins, Jewish Wisdom, 193-95.
52. Especially chaps. 13-15. For an extended treatment, see M. Gilbert, La Critique des
Dieux dans le livre de la Sagesse (AnBib 53; Rome: Biblical Institute, 1973).
53. Cf, the comments on the children of adulterers in 3:16 and 4:3.
54. Winston ( The Book of Wisdom 238) aptly cites Livy, History of Rome 39.8-19.
200 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

2:10: "Let us tyrannize the poor honest man, let us not spare the widow nor
reverence the elder's hair long grey." Such actions were anathema in any cul-
ture. It is significant that, when the righteous is said to reproach the wicked
with sins against the law, the parallel verse reads, "and charges us with false-
ness to our training" (2:12). Similarly in 6:4, not keeping the law is paral-
leled by the more general charges of not judging rightly and not walking ac-
cording to the will of God. There is no reference in the book to such specific
Jewish laws as circumcision, Sabbath observance, or the dietary laws. There
is one reference to sacrifice in the story of the Exodus (18:9), but sacrifice
was not, in any case, distincdve. The law menUoned in the Wisdom of Solo-
mon might in practice be equated with the natural law known to all.^^
The thought of the Wisdom of Solomon on this subject is most vividly
illustrated in 13:1-9. On the subject of the basic sin of idolatry, we read that
all people should know God from his works: "For from the greatness and
beauty of created things is their author correspondingly perceived." The ar-
gument is similar to that of Paul in Romans 1 .^^ Despite his sympathy for the
weakness of human nature, the author concludes that idolaters are, after all,
culpable, not because they failed to follow the law of Moses but because they
did not apply their resourcefulness to the knowledge of God. He offers a
lengthy and varied critique of idolatry. The polemic against wooden images
in 13:10-19 draws its inspiration from Isa. 44:9-20. In 14:12-31, however, we
find a euhemeristic explanation of I d o l s . S o m e idols were images of dead
loved ones, now honored as gods. Others were images of absent rulers, hon-
ored in lieu of the actual monarchs. Animal worship is singled out for special
contempt (15:18-19).
This critique of idolatry has been described as "one of the most sus-
tained attacks on Gentile religiosity that we have from the pen of a Diaspora
Jew" and has been taken as evidence that the predominant theme in the Wis-
dom of Solomon is "the social conflict and cultural antagonism between
Jews and non-Jews."^^ But this conclusion overlooks the fact that much of
this polemic can be paralleled in the writings of Stoic and Cynic philoso-
phers. Many Greeks could be expected to share the contempt for Egyptian

55. The identity of the Law of Moses with the Law of Nature is impHcit in Sirach 24 and
explicit in Philo, De Opificio Mitndi 1 §3 and Josephus, Antiquities Proem 1.4 §24. On the idea
of natural law in antiquity, see H. Koester, "Nomos Physeos: The Concept of Natural Law in
Greek Thought," in J. Neusner, ed.. Religions in Antiquity: Essays in Memory of E. R.
Goodenough (Leiden: Brill, 1968) 521-41; and R. A. Horsley, "The Law of Nature in Philo and
Cicero," HTR 71 (1978) 35-39.
56. J. J. Collins, "Natural Theology and Biblical Tradition: The Case of Hellenistic Ju-
daism," CBQ 60 (1998) 1-15.
57. Euhemerus of Messene, who wrote about 300 B . C . E . , claimed that Cronos and Zeus
were great kings of the past who were worshipped as gods by grateful people.
58. Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora, 186, 184.
 PHILOSOPHICAL JUDAISM 201

animal worship and other erass forms of superstition.^^ Philo, the primary ex-
ample of "cultural convergence" in Hellenistic Judaism, has a very similar
polemic against idolatry in his treatise on the Decalogue.^'' The similarities
suggest that much of this polemic was traditional in the synagogues of Alex-
andria. Both in the book of Wisdom and In Philo the polemic must be seen in
the context of attempted rapprochement between Greek and Jewish wisdom.
This rapprochement was never uncritical. Some elements of pagan religios-
ity were profoundly offensive even to the most Hellenized Jews. But these
elements were also offensive to enlightened Greek philosophers. They did
not require "cultural antagonism" toward the entire Gentile world.
In the review of Israel's history, no individual names are used. Each of
the biblical characters illustrates a type, the "righteous" — in 10:4, Noah; in
10:5, Abraham; in 10:6, Lot; in 10:10, Jacob; and so forth.^' The history of
Israel provides a paradigmatic example of the experience of righteous indi-
viduals or a righteous people, but it is only an illustration of the workings of
the universe. In practice, the author appears to equate the righteous with his-
torical Israel and the unrighteous with Israel's enemies. While Israel is never
mentioned by name, it is clearly referred to as "a holy people and blameless
race" (10:15), "your people" (12:19; 16:2, 3, 5; etc.), "your children" (16:10,
21, 26; 18:24), "the holy nation" (16:2), "your holy ones" (18:2), "the holy
children" (18:9), and even "the son of God" (18:13). The last characteriza-
tion is derived from Exod. 4:22-23, but it associates the whole people of Is-
rael with the righteous man, who claims that God is his father (2:13-20). In
18:6 the Israelites of the Exodus are called "our ancestors." In view of the
clear identification of Israel in these chapters, some commentators speak of
"undisguised particularism" and find that God is "partial to the Jews and in-
imical to their enemies."^^
There is, in fact, a fundamental tension between universalism and
particularism in the Wisdom of Solomon.^^ On the one hand, God "does not de-
light in the destruction of the living, for he created all things that they might
have being" (1:13-14) and has compassion over all, "because you can do all,

59. M. GOrg, "Die Religionslcritiit in Weish 13,If.: Beobachtungen zur Entstehung der
Sapientia-Salomonis im spathellenistischen Alexandria," in G. Hentscliel and E. Zenger, eds.,
Lehrerin der Gerechtigkeit (Leipzig; Benno, 1991) 13-25, argues that the polemic is mainly di-
rected against Egyptian religion.
60. Philo, De Decalogo 52-81; De Vita Conlemplativa 3-9; De Specialibus Legibus
1.13-29; 2.255; Larcher, Etudes, 162-66.
61. B. L. Mack, "Imitatio Mosis: Patterns of Cosmology and Soteriology in the Helle-
nistic Synagogue," Studia Philonica 1 (1972) 30-31. This usage cannot be adequately under-
stood as "riddling speech" such as we find in the Alexandra of Lycophron (Winston, The Wis-
dom of Solomon, 139). The sty]t of the Alexandra is pseudo-prophetic, like that of the Sibylline
Oracles. The Wisdom of Solomon is explicitly referring to past events.
62. Reider, The Book of Wisdom, 41.
63. Collins, "Natural Theology and Biblical Tradition," 11-14.
202 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS A N D PIETY

and you overlook the sins of men with a view to their repentance, for you love
all that exists and loathe nothing which you have created, for if you had hated
anything you would never have fashioned it" (11:23-24). The high priest can
intercede for all humanity, "for on his long robe the whole world was depicted"
(18:24).^* While Israel is presented as the paradigm of the righteous, it is not
necessarily an exclusive paradigm. Wisdom is characterized as philanthropon
(1:6; 7:23), a Stoic term with broad universalist implications. On the other
hand, we are told that God hated "those who lived long ago in your holy land"
because of their abominable practices (12:3-4), and the author has nothing
good to say about the ancient Canaanites and Egyptians. The author wanted to
affirm simultaneously a universalist doctrine of divine philanthropia and the
bibhcal tradition of the election of Israel. The two ideas are not easily compati-
ble.^^ The strain was no doubt magnified because of the social tensions in Al-
exandria in the early Roman p e r i o d . T h e Egyptians, we are told, "practiced a
more bitter hatred of strangers" and "made slaves of guests who were their
benefactors" (19:13-14). It is not difficult to hear in these lines echoes of the
conflicts in Alexandria in the first century C.E.
Despite the polemical cast of chapters 11-19, the dominant tone of the
Wisdom of Solomon is one of convergence with Greek culture, typified by
the portrayal of wisdom in Greek philosophical terms in the middle section
of the book. The spirit of philanthropia came under strain in the Roman pe-
riod because of the "bitter hatred of strangers" on the part of the Alexandrian
Greeks. The ancient story of the Exodus, with its unabashed ethnic par-
ticularism, spoke to this situation more effectively than the doctrine of wis-
dom as a universal spirit. Yet the author still tries to see this story as a mani-
festation of the working of wisdom and of cosmic principles, and he still
affirms that the knowledge of God is possible for Gentiles, even if they sel-
dom attain it. Like Philo, he still believes in the ultimate compatibility of
Jewish revelation and Greek philosophy. The polemic against idolatry and
the critique of pagan religion must be seen in that context.

Fourth Maccabees

As a final example of philosophical Judaism apart from Philo, we now turn

to 4 Maccabees, which is presented as a philosophdtaton logon. Most schol-

64. Compare Philo, De Specialibus Legibus 1.66-97, where the truest temple of God is
the whole universe.
65. For a similar tension in the thought of Philo see A. Mendelson, Philo's Jewish Iden-
tity (BJS 161; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988) 115-38.
66. Winston, The Book of Wisdom, 45.
 PHILOSOPHICAL JUDAISM 203

ars have dated the work in the mid-first century C.E., but recently Brei-
tenstein has revived the view of Dupont-Sommer that it was written in the
early second century C.E.^^ The same data have been adduced in support of
the different positions. Bickerman, followed by Hadas, claimed that "every
unprejudiced reader of IV Maccabees cannot but be impressed by the fact
that the Temple and its service are regarded as existent in the book,"^^ but the
passages he mentions (4:20; 14:9) do not bear out the claim. On the other
hand, Breitenstein notes that 4 Maccabees avoids reference to sacrifice and
the cult in cases where they are mentioned in 2 Maccabees, and he concludes
that the book was written after the fall of the temple.^^ This argument is
equally inconclusive. The work of Jason of Cyrene was exceptional in its in-
terest in the temple. Lack of interest in sacrifice is not surprising in a work
written in the Diaspora. On the other hand, the interest of Sib. Or. 5 in the
temple is not diminished several decades after 70 C.E. In short, the attitude of
4 Maccabees to the temple and its cult is not a reliable guide to its date.
Linguistic considerations are a little more helpful. Bickerman argued
that the term nomikos (4 Mace. 5:4) in place of grammateus (2 Mace. 6:18)
pointed to the Christian era, as also the term threskeia for "religion."^"
Breitenstein has underlined the degree to which the vocabulary of
4 Maccabees differs from that of the Septuagint and is paralleled in later
Christian writings. This consideration does not establish a precise date, but it
favors the late first or early second century over an earlier period.^'
The decisive consideration for Bickerman (and Hadas) lies in the title
given to Apollonius in 4 Mace. 4:9, where he is strategos of Syria, Phoenicia,
and Cilicia. In 2 Mace. 3:5 he is called strategos of Coele-Syria and Phoeni-
cia. Cilicia was associated with Syria for administrative purposes only for a
short period between 20 and 54 C.E. (approximately). Bickerman concludes
that 4 Maccabees was written in this p e r i o d . I t now appears, however, that
this union was only dissolved around 72 C.E.,^^ and in any case this datum

67. Breitenstein, Beobaciitungen, 1:75; A. Duponl-Soinmer, Le quatrieme livre des

Machabees: Introduction, Traduction et Notes (Paris: Champion, 1939).
68. E. J. Bickerman, "The Date of Fourth Maccabees," in Studies in Jewish and Chris-
tian History, 1:277; M. Hadas, The Third and Fourth Books of Maccabees (Dropsie College Se-
ries; New York: Harper, 1953) 95.
69. Breitenstein, Beobachtungen, 171-74. That 4 Maccabees is dependent on 2 Mac-
cabees seems clear enough (ibid., 19), despite the hesitation of U. Fischer, Eschatologie und
Jenseitserwarlung im Hellenistischen Diasporajudentum (BZNW 44; Berlin: de Gruyter,
1978) 87.
70. Bickerman, "The Date of Fourth Maccabees," 276-77.
71. Breitenstein, Beobachtungen, 13-29. See also J. W. van Henten, The Maccabean
Martyrs as Saviors of the Jewish People: A Study of 2 and 4 Maccabees (Leiden: Brill, 1997)
77-78.
72. Bickerman, "The Date of Fourth Maccabees," 279-80.
73. So van Henten, The Maccabean Martyrs, 74. See also idem, "Datierung und
Herkunft des Vierten Makkabaerbuches," in J. W. van Henten, H. J. de Jonge, P. T. van Rooden,
204 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS A N D PIETY

only gives the terminus post quern; an author may have alluded to that ad-
ministrative arrangement when it was no longer in existence.'''* Bickerman
sdll commands a considerable foUowing,^^ but the balance of opinion has
generally shifted to a date in the late first or early second century C.E.^^
There is general agreement that the book was composed in the Dias-
pora, but it gives no clear indicadon of the particular place. Freudenthal had
already raised objections against Alexandria,^^ and, indeed, the perspective
of 4 Maccabees is very different from that of any of the Egyptian Jewish
works we have considered. Hadas has argued at some length for Andoch as
the place of origin, mainly because of the immediate presence of Andochus
at the t o r t u r e s . T h i s , however, may be only a dramatic technique, without
regard for geographical probability. It is true that church tradition localized
the graves of the martyrs at Andoch.''^ This consideration certainly does not
prove that all variants of the legend were developed in Antioch, but it pro-
vides some reason for suggesting Antioch as the place of origin.^*' The evi-
dence for this tradidon, however, is no older than the fourth century C.E.^'
Eduard Norden argued for a city in Asia Minor, on the basis of the book's
style and philosophical affinities.There is no conclusive evidence, but ei-
ther Syria or Asia Minor seems more probable than Alexandria or Palestine.
4 Maccabees is an example of epideictic r h e t o r i c . I t begins with an

and J. W. Wesselius, eds., Tradition and Re-interpretation in Jewish and Early Christian Liter-
ature: Essays in Honour of JUrgen C. H. Lebratn (Leiden: Brill, 1986) 136-49.
74. H. J. Klauck, 4 Makkabderbuch (JSHRZ 3.6; Gutersloh: Mohn, 1989) 668.
75. Goodman, in Schiirer, The History of the Jewish People, 3.1:591; H. Anderson,
"4 Maccabees," in OTP, 2:534; S. K. Stowers, "4 Maccabees," in J. L. Mays, ed., Harper's Bi-
ble Commentary (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1988) 923.
76. Klauck, 4 Makkabderbuch, 669, suggests a date between 90 and 100 C . E . Van
Henten, The Maccabean Martyrs, 78, opts for a date around 100 C . E . , but allows that the last
decades of the first century and the early decades of the second cannot be excluded. Barclay,
Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora, 449, follows van Henten without the qualification.
77. J. Freudenthal, Die Flavius Josephus beigelegte Schrift iiber die Herrschaft der
Vernunft (IV Makkabderbuch) (Breslau: Skutsch, 1869) 112.
78. Hadas, The Third attd Fourth Books, 109-13.
79. See U. Kellermann, Auferstanden in den Himmel, 2 Makkabder 7 und die Aufer-
stehung der Mdrtyrer (SBS 95; Stuttgart: KathoHsches Bibelwerk, 1979) 17, and the literature
there cited, especially Cardinal Rampolla, "Manyre et sepulture des Machabees," RAC 48
(1899) 290-305, 377-92, 457-65.
80. Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora, 379-80, suggests that the apostasy of
the Jew Antiochus during the first Jewish revolt, and his attempt to make others renounce their
Judaism (Josephus, Jewish War 7.50-53) may have revived memories of Maccabean times.
This suggestion is ingenious but not compelling. Klauck, 4 Makkabderbuch, 667, and Ander-
son, "4 Maccabees," 535, also opt for Antioch as the place of composition.
81. Van Henten, The Maccabean Martyrs, 79.
82. E. Norden, Die antike Kunstprosa vom VL Jahrhundert v. Chr. bis in die Zeit der
Renaissaissance (1898; reprint, Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1974) 419. So
also van Henten, The Maccabean Martyrs, 80-81.
83. Klauck, 4 Makkabderbuch, 659; van Henten, The Maccabean Martyrs, 63.
 PHILOSOPHICAL JUDAISM 205

exordium (1:1-12), sets forth a thesis (1:13-3:18), and illustrates it with ex-
amples from the stories of the martyrs.^* Lebram argued that the latter part of
the book has the form of an Epitaphios Logos or commemorative speech, a
genre developed in classical A t h e n s . T h e r e are indeed notable correspon-
dences. 4 Maccabees can be taken as praise of people who have died heroic
deaths. 4 Maccabees 17:8 refers to an epitaph. But the classical orations have
no parallels for the gruesome accounts of the deaths of the martyrs or for the
speeches attributed to them.^^ There has been widespread debate as to
whether this speech was actually delivered on the occasion of a commemora-
tion or was a fictive discourse which was meant to be read, like the speeches
of Isocrates.^'' Decisive criteria are hard to find. Hadas has noted a number of
features suggestive of oral delivery (e.g., "at this season" In 1:10 and 3:19),^^
but these could easily have been imitated by an author. It seems better to re-
gard 4 Maccabees as the exposition of a philosophical theme, and to regard
the correspondences with funeral orations as incidental. It is unlikely that the
book was composed for synagogue preaching, since it is not based on a bibli-
cal text.^^
There has also been considerable discussion on the philosophical affili-
ation of 4 Maccabees. Heinemann thought it was S t o i c , a position recendy
modified by Renehan, who finds in it "Koine" philosophy with Stoic fea-
tures.^' Hadas emphasized its debt to Plato.Breitenstein has quite correctly
insisted that 4 Maccabees cannot be assigned to any philosophical school.
The author was not a philosopher but a rhetorician who used philosophical
ideas eclectically to embellish his case. The philosophical pronouncements
are not consistently thought through. The story of the martyrs is not well in-
tegrated with its philosophical framework. "Reason" is virtually equated
with keeping the law. Yet, Breitenstein's judgment that the author's "philoso-

84. Klauck, 4 Makkabaerbuch. 651-53.

85. J. H. C. Lebram, "Die literarische Form des vierten Makkabaerbuches," VC 28
(1974) 81-96.
86. Klauck. 4 Makkabderbuch, 661. The speeches suggest analogies with Hellenistic
historiography.
87. For a review of the debate, see H. Thyen, Der Stil der jiidisch-hellenistischen Homi-
lie (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1955) 12-14. Hadas, The Third and Fourth Books of
Maccabees, 104-5, argued that it was a real address, delivered at the supposed burial site.
88. Hadas, The Third and Fourth Books, 102.
89. The synagogue setting was proposed by Freudenthal but has been rejected by all re-
cent authors.
90.1. Heinemann, Posidonios'Metaphysische Schriften (Breslau: Marcus, 1921) 1:154-
59; idem, "Makkabaerbucher, Buch IV," PWRE 14/1 (1928) 800-805.
91. R. Renehan, "The Greek Philosophic Background of Fourth Maccabees," Rhei-
nisches Museum fiir Philologie 115 (1972) 223-38. Stowers, "4 Maccabees," regards 4 Macca-
bees as very close to the middle Stoicism of Posidonius.
92. Hadas, The Third and Fourth Books, 116.
93. Breitenstein, Beobachtungen. 132-33. Klauck, 4 Makkabderbuch, 665-66.
206 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

phy" shows him not only to lack originality but to be a recht verstdndnis-
losen Kopp'^ seems too severe. While 4 Maccabees is scarcely convincing as
a philosophical argument that reason is master of the emotions, it provides an
unusual and interesdng specimen of Jewish apologetic rhetoric.
As Breitenstein and others have observed, "reason" in 4 Maccabees is
virtually equated with obedience to the law. Specifically: "Reason, then, is
the intellect choosing with correct judgment the life of wisdom, and wisdom
is knowledge of things human and divine and of their cause. Such wisdom is
education in the law" (1:15-17). The reasonableness of the law is simply as-
serted. Furthermore, the law in question is not the broadly acceptable natural
law of Pseudo-Phocylides or the Wisdom of Solomon, but the Jewish law in
all its particularity: "How is it that when we are drawn to forbidden foods we
turn away from the pleasures they afford? . . . When we crave sea food or
fowl or quadrupeds or any sort of food which is forbidden to us according to
the law, it is due to the mastery of reason that we abstain" (1:33-34). There is
no attempt here to allegorize the dietary laws, as in Pseudo-Aristeas, in an ef-
fort to make them appear more reasonable. It is sufficient that they are com-
manded.^^ Further, in the story of the persecution and martyrdoms, the issue
is precisely fideUty to the law, specifically in the matters of circumcision and
food laws (4:25-26). What the stories show is that it is possible to be faithful
to the full law, even in the face of the most extreme tortures.
The reasonableness of such conduct is suggested by 4 Maccabees in
two ways. First, there is the doctrine of retribution.^^ The martyrs can look
forward to "the life of eternal blessedness" (17:18; cf. 15:3), "ranged in the
choir of their fathers; having received souls pure and deathless from God"
(18:23). By contrast, Antiochus "will endure at the hand of divine justice the
punishment of eternal torment by fire" (9:9). There is no reference in
4 Maccabees to bodily resurrection (in contrast to its prototype in 2 Mac-
cabees). There is an apparent exception to this in the mother's last speech in
18:6-19, where she cites Ezekiel 37, "Shall these dry bones live?"; this
speech, though, has the appearance of an addition, after the conclusion of the
narrative and the departure of Antiochus in 18:5.^'' While the exact nature of

94. Breitenstein, Beobachtungen. 179.

95. P L. Redditt, "The Concept of Nomos in Fourth Maccabees," CBQ 45 (1983) 249-
70: "While the author's arguments followed Greek patterns at times and employed widely
known Greek (especially Stoic) terms, on the point of nomos the author argued consistently in a
Jewish fashion, holding to his Jewish understanding of nomos and the demands for a lifestyle
compatible with the nomos" (262).
96. Fischer, Eschatologie und Jenseitserwartung. 85-105, rightly notes that the refer-
ences to afterlife are in the service of retribution.
97. See Klauck, 4 Makkabderbuch, 657-58. Van Henten, The Maccabean Martyrs. 184,
accepts the authenticity of this passage and concludes that the author has combined different
views of the afterlife.
 PHILOSOPHICAL JUDAISM 207

the afterlife is not discussed in the main body of the work, it is certainly com-
patible with the immortality of the soul. 4 Maccabees does not exploit the
support of Greek philosophy (especially Plato) on this point. Naturally, in
Greek philosophy retribution after death was not related to the Jewish law,
but the philosophical pedigree of the idea lent credibility to the argument of
4 Maccabees.
The hope for the afterlife does not dominate 4 Maccabees. In this it
contrasts sharply with 2 Maccabees 7, where the martyrs are repeatedly sus-
tained by the hope of resurrection. In 4 Maccabees the main motivating fac-
tor is the inherent nobility of virtue. So the second brother taunts the king:
"Do you not perceive, tyrant most cruel of all, that you are being tormented
more than I, when you see that your arrogant reasoning of tyranny is van-
quished by our endurance in the cause of religion? In my case I lighten my
pain by the joys which virtue brings" (9:30). The virtue in question is primar-
ily mastery of the passions and emotions. It is attained by "religious reason"
(eusebes logismos) and by religious fidelity: "Those who take thought for re-
ligion with their whole heart, they alone are able to dominate the passions of
the flesh" (7:18). The author assumes throughout that such self-control is a
good in itself. This idea had ample precedent in Greek philosophy, from
Plato's famous image of the charioteer and his two horses in the Phaedrus to
the more severe attitudes of the S t o i c s . I n 4 Maccabees this virtue is an ex-
ample for others (7:9; 5:33-36; 6:18-21; 16:16). It enables the brothers to
overcome the tyrant by their endurance and to effect the purification of the
fatherland (1:11). Yet, the appreciation of virtue is not dependent on these
secondary effects but is a good in itself.
The second way, then, in which 4 Maccabees contrives to make the
conduct of the martyrs appear reasonable and praiseworthy is by using it as
an example of the control of the passions, which was widely recognized as a
virtue. Strict fidelity to the law can be presented as a virtue by Greek stan-
dards. The line of argument depends on the tacit assumption that conformity
with the Jewish law is indeed in accordance with reason. 4 Maccabees does
not attempt to establish this point. The weight of the argument is devoted to
showing how conformity with the law involves mastery over the passions.
Both reason and the law require mastery over the emotions. This does not
warrant a logical identification of reason and obedience to the law, but It Is
sufficient basis for a rhetorical identification which builds an association in
the mind of the listener or reader. This kind of identification may not have

98. See A. H. Armstrong, An Introduction to Ancient Pfiilosopfiy (3d ed.; London;

Methuen, 1957) 42-43, 54-55 (on Plato); 126 (on the Stoics). For the Stoics, see also the texts
assembled in C. J. de Vogel, Greeli Philosophy III: The Hellenistic-Roman Period (Leiden:
Brill, 1959) 168-76, and A. A. Long and D. N. Sedley, The Hellenistic Philosophers (Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987) 1:410-23.
208 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

persuaded many Gentiles, but it assured the Hellenized Jews that strict Torah
piety was compatible with advanced Hellenization. The attempt to assure the
Jewish audience that such fidelity is the very best way to impress the
Gentiles is reflected in the blatant fiction whereby Antiochus is said to have
set up the martyrs as models for his troops (17:17-24).
In addition to the claim to philosophical virtue, 4 Maccabees could also
effect a rapprochement with Hellenistic culture through the use of the agon
motif. The device of presenting the pursuit of virtue as a struggle or contest
was well known in Greek popular philosophy. It was widely exploited by
Philo'^'' and plays a prominent part in the Testament of Job. It was also uti-
lized to great effect by Paul. The agon of 4 Maccabees is clearly stated in
17:11-14: "Divine indeed was the contest of which they were the issue. Of
that contest virtue was the umpire, and its score was for constancy. Victory
was incorruptibility in a life of long duration. . . . The tyrant was the adver-
sary and humanity were the spectators" (17:11-14).'^' The use of this popular
device of the philosophers enabled 4 Maccabees to be thoroughly Hellenistic
even while defending the law in an uncompromising manner.
The apologetic peculiarity of 4 Maccabees lies in its combination of a
rigid, uncompromising obedience to the law, in all its details, with a thorough
command of Greek language and rhetoric and a veneer of philosophical ter-
minology. The entire situation represented is one of conflict. The martyrs are
"responsible for the downfall of the tyranny which beset our nation, over-
coming the tyrant by their fortitude so that through them their own land was
purified" (1:11). But while this situation might suggest an antithesis of Juda-
ism and the Hellenistic world, heroic death on behalf of the nation was a
thoroughly Hellenistic virtue and widely admired in Greek and Latin litera-
ture."^^ Moreover, Judaism is presented here as a philosophy, a category in
which it was often placed by sympathetic G r e e k s . W h i l e its philosophy is
eclectic and confused, by Greek standards, it has its own coherence, if its as-
sumption of the foundational character of the Jewish law be granted. The law
is extolled by reference to virtues, especially eusebeia, or "piety." The vir-
tues are understood within the frame of reference provided by the law, but
the emphasis on virtues is typically Hellenistic. The author, in fact, seems to
be thoroughly imbued with a Hellenistic consciousness but allows no com-

99. See V. C. PCitzner, Paul and the Agon Motif (Uidcn: BriW, 1967) 23-37, for the mo-
tif in Greek philosophy.
100. Ibid., 38-48.
101. The metaphor of the athletic contest is also used in 6:10 and 17:12-16. Pfitzner,
Paul, 57-64.
102. Van Henten, The Maccabean Martyrs, 187-269 ("Dying for the Jewish People");
S. K. Williams, Jesus' Death as a Saving Event (Missoula, Mont.: Scholars Press, 1975) 165-
97.
103. Van Henten, The Maccabean Martyrs, 270-94.
 PHILOSOPHICAL JUDAISM 209

promise in the literal observance of the Jewish law. Such an altitude cannot
be classified simplistically as "cultural convergence" or "cultural antago-
nism." It represents both cultural convergence and religious separatism, and
it attempts to justify distinctive Jewish positions in Hellenistic categories.
Virtually every author we have considered has attempted to strike some such
balance. In 4 Maccabees, the religious separatism is more pronounced than
usual. It is exceptional in the clarity of the conflict it portrays and insofar as it
does not resort to allegory but asserts the virtue of literal observance. The an-
tagonistic situation may be taken as indicative of the situation of Diaspora
Judaism at the end of the first century c.E. There is no retreat, however, from
Greek culture insofar as it does not impinge on Jewish observance.
 CHAPTER 6

The Mysteries of God

We have seen how some strands of Hellenistic Judaism attempted to relate

the Jewish law to the surrounding culture by highlighting shared values and
playing down the most distinctive elements, and others by seeking a common
ground in Greek philosophy. A third strand went beyond these in appealing
to a higher revelation of a transcendent world. This third category is not
sharply distinct from the other two. Rather, it seeks a deeper foundation for
the common ethic and the philosophy, and it overlaps with both.

Mystic J u d a i s m

Mention of a higher revelation inevitably recalls the theory of a mystic Ju-

daism propounded by E. R. Goodenough.' Goodenough's thesis was based
on Philo and also on Jewish art from a slightly later period. The discussion
of mystic Judaism has been complicated by the notorious evasiveness of
"mysticism" and related terms.-^ Etymologically, these terms are derived

1. E. R. Goodenough, By Light, Light: The Mystic Gospel of Hellenistic Judaism (New

Haven: Yale University Press, 1935); idem, Jewish Symbols in the Greco-Roman Period (12
vols,; New York: Random House, 1953-68). For the critical reception of Goodenough's work,
see the incisive review article by Morton Smith, "Goodenough's Jewish Symbols in Retro-
spect," JBL 86 (1967) 53-68; also A. D. Nock, "The Question of Jewish Mysteries," in idem.
Essays on Religion and the Ancient World (ed. Z. Stewart; 2 vols.; Oxford; Clarendon, 1972)
1:459-68; G. Lease, "Jewish Mystery Cults since Goodenough," ANRW II.20.2 (1987) 858-80,
2, See F. C. Happold, Mysticism: A Study and an Anthology (Baltimore: Penguin, 1963)
esp. 35-39; S. Spencer, Mysticism in World Religion (Baltimore: Penguin, 1963), reviews the
major historical manifestations of mysticism and concludes with "A Survey of Tendencies" but
no definition. See also Margaret Smith, "The Nature and Meaning of Mysticism," in R, Woods,

210
 THE MYSTERIES OF GOD 211

from the Greek mysteries, and a mystis is one who had been initiated. As
the word is used in relation to Hellenistic Judaism, several different factors
are involved.

A Mystic Ritual?

The mysteries usually involve rituals, which in some way symbolize the pro-
cess of salvation.^ Whether mysdc rituals were practiced in the Jewish Dias-
pora is doubtful. Goodenough argued that "the evidence seems on the whole
to suggest that they may have had their mystic iniuation, baptism, like the
Chrisdans later, and a 'sacred table' from which the uninitiated were rigor-
ously kept away." Even he, however, had to admit that "the evidence for this
is unsatisfactory, because scanty and not in agreement."^ This evidence is
primarily drawn from Philo's scattered references to food and drink, rites,
and mysteries.^ The difficulty lies in determining whether these allusions are
metaphorical or refer to actual cultic practices. There is also a Roman decree
in Josephus (Ant. 14.10.8 §§213-16) which refers to the practice of common
meals among the Jews of Delos, but there is nothing to indicate that these had
a mystical meaning.
The meal of the Therapeutae, described by Philo in De Vita Contem-
plativa, is indeed a ritual. The food is said to recall the showbread of the tem-
ple, but the ritual does not in itself symbolize the process of salvation. After-
wards, however, two choirs perform, one of men and one of women. Then
"when each choir has separately done its own part in the feast, having drunk
as in the Bacchic rites of the strong wine of God's love, they mix and both to-
gether become a single choir, a copy of the choir set up of old beside the Red
Sea" (85). Philo's comparison with the Bacchic rites and the repeated meta-
phor of drunkenness suggests that this ritual had a mystic character,^ but it is
difficult to say how far he is accurately reporting the Therapeutae and how
far he is intruding his own thought.^ The meal is preceded by an exposition

ed., Understanding Mysticism (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, "1980) 20; B. McGinn, The
Foundations of Mysticism: Origins to the Fifth Century (New York: Crossroad, 1991) xiii-xx.
3. On the Greek mysteries, see M. Nilsson, Geschichte der Griechischen Religion (Mu-
nich: Beck, 1950) 2:85-96; 329-53; 651-72; W. Burkert, Ancient Mystery Cults (Cambridge,
Mass.; Harvard University Press, 1987); M. W. Meyer, The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook
(San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1987).
4. Goodenough, By Light, Light, 8.
5. Ibid., 260-61. The (inconclusive) evidence of the symbols can be found in Good-
enough, Jewish Symbols, passim.
6. Lease, "Jewish Mystery Cults," 873, categorizes this as "a quite humdrum weekly
gathering," disregarding the analogy with the Bacchic rites.
7. On the reliabihty of Philo's account, see D. M. Hay, "Things Philo Said and Did Not
Say about the Therapeutae," in SBL 1992 Seminar Papers (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992) 673-
212 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

of scripture, which, according to Philo, "treats the inner meaning conveyed

in allegory. For to these people the whole law book seems to resemble a liv-
ing creature with the literal ordinances for its body and for its soul the invisi-
ble mind laid up in its wording" (78). In view of this allegorical exegesis, we
might expect that the recollection of the Red Sea would be taken as an alle-
gory of spiritual deliverance, but even Philo does not suggest this. Because
we have no independent evidence about the Therapeutae, we cannot say that
they provide reliable evidence for a mystic ritual, since the mystic character
of their celebration may only be apparent through the filter of Philo's ac-
count.
Goodenough drew further support for his thesis from a series of prayers
in the Apostolic Constitutions which Bousset had claimed were Jewish with
only slight Christian interpolations.^ There is no doubt that these prayers are
Christian in their present form. Accordingly, when we find instructions for
preparation for baptism (Fragment 8, Apost. Const. 7.39.2-4) or for catechu-
mens (Fragment 9, Apost. Const 8.6.5-8), we must be somewhat skeptical of
Goodenough's claim that they are taken "from the rules for instructing a Jew-
ish catechumen in preparation for initiation into the Jewish Mystery,"^ de-
spite the Jewish character of the actual instructions. We may agree with
Goodenough that the theology of these prayers is closely related to Philo
(e.g., "the gnosis of the unbegotten God" and the glorification of the patri-
archs). In most cases, however, we lack reliable indications as to how much
of the material is Jewish and how that material was originally used. Christian
theology was also profoundly influenced by the Platonic tradition in which
Philo stood. A possible exception is found in Fragment 2 {Apost. Const.
7.36.1-6), which Bousset has called a Sabbatgebet. God has "created the
world by Christ, and hast appointed the Sabbath in memory thereof.. . Thou
hast also appointed festivals for the rejoicing of our souls that we might come
into remembrance of that Sophia which was created by thee." Despite the

83; J. E. Taylor and R R. Davies. "The So-Called Therapeutae of De Vita Conlemplativa," HTR
91 (1998) 3-24.
8. W. Bousset, "Eine judische Gebetssammlung im siebenten Buch der apostolischen
Konstitutionen." in Naclihchten von der K. Gesellscliafl der Wissenschaften zu Gottingen,
Phil-Hist Kl. (1915/1916) 435-85; Goodenough, By Liglil, Light. 306-58.
9. Goodenough, By Light, Light, 326. See also K. Kohier, "The Essene Version of the
Seven Benedictions as Preserved in the VII Book of the Apostolic Constitutions," HUCA 1
(1924) 410-25. D. A. Fiensy, Prayers Alleged lo Be Jewish: An Examination of the Constitu-
liones Apostolorum (Chico, Calif.: Scholars Press, 1985), argues that Jewish source material,
whether oral or written, has been incorporated in a Christian compilation. Fiensy provides texts
and translations of the prayers. An English translation can also be found in D. A. Fiensy and
D. R. Darnell, "Hellenistic Synagogai Prayers," in OTP 2:671-97.
10. Fiensy, Prayers Alleged to Be Jewish, 230, notes the affinities of the prayers with the
theology of Theophilus of Antioch, who in turn had considerable affinities with Philo. Fiensy
argues that the form of the prayers is later than 100 C . E . and places the compilation about 300
c . E . in Syria.
 THE MYSTERIES OF GOD 213

patent identification of Christ and Sophia in the following verses, the entire
emphasis on the Sabbath is Jewish, as can be seen from the rather awkward
transition in verse 6 ("All which the Lord's day excels"), which seeks to sub-
ordinate the Sabbath to the Lord's day. It is probable, then, that Christ is sub-
stituted for Logos or Sophia in the creadon of the world in verse 1. What is
suggested by this prayer is not a special set of mystic rituals but an under-
standing of the customary Jewish festivals, including the Sabbath, which
linked them with sophia.
In fact, Goodenough's strongest argument for a mystic liturgy lies not in
the metaphorical allusions to bread and wine but in the application of Philo's
allegorical mentality to the Jewish festivals; "It seems, a priori, incredible that
Philo, who had to see 'something far more deeply interfused' in every word of
Scripture, would then have celebrated Circumcision, the Seder, the Sabbath,
New Year, the Day of Atonement, First Fruits, and the rest on a purely literal
level."^^ The argument is not confined to Philo. Long before him Aristobulus
linked the seventh day with wisdom and the origin of light (Fragment 5, Praep.
Evang. 13.12.9) and added that "all the cosmos of living beings and growing
things revolves in a series of sevens" {Praep. Evang. 13.12.13). For Aris-
tobulus, the Sabbath was evidentiy laden with cosmic allusions. The prayer in
Apost. Const. Fragment 2 shows how a symbolic understanding of the Sabbath
persisted and passed over into Christianity.
The fact that mystically inclined Jews such as Philo would have under-
stood the Sabbath in a mystical sense does not in itself establish the existence
of a mystic liturgy which was specially designed from such an understanding
and from which noninitlates were excluded. Georgi has argued at length that
the Sabbath service was the great forum for propaganda and proselytizing in
the Hellenistic Diaspora.'^ Yet, he also entertains the possibility that part of
the ceremony was set aside as a mystery from which the uninitiated were ex-
cluded. He bases this suggestion on the Pseudo-Orphic fragments and the
fourteenth satire of Juvenal (verses 102-4), which speaks of a secret book of
Moses that was designed only for the circumcised.^'* as well as Philo's use of
mystery language. The suggestion that part of the ritual was esoteric is not in
itself implausible, but neither is it more than a possibility. None of the evi-
dence adduced speaks explicitiy of an esoteric ritual on the Sabbath. No spe-
cial meals were associated with the Sabbath. We will return to the question of

11. Goodenough, Jewish Symbols, 12:21.

12. D. Georgi, The Opponents of Paul in Second Corinthians (Philadelphia: Fortress,
1986), 83-117.
13. Ibid., 115.
14. "Whatsoever Moses hath delivered in the secret volume.
Not to show the ways, unless to one observing the same rites.
To lead the circumcised only to a sought for fountain."
214 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS A N D PIETY

a mystic meal in connection with Joseph and Aseneth, but there again we
will find no firm evidence for a special mystic ritual.

Mystic Philosophy

Goodenough readily admitted that the evidence for a mystic ritual was unsat-
isfactory, but added that "however much or little the Jewish Mystery may
have developed Its own cult practices. It seems as a mystic philosophy, to
have been the heart and core of Greek Judaism."'^ The use of mystery lan-
guage in connection with philosophy, or rather the understanding of philoso-
phy as a mystery, is clearly exemplified already in P l a t o . T h e conception is
clearly formulated in the words attributed to Socrates in the Phaedo 80d:

And those who founded the mysteries seem not to be bad fellows at
all, but in reality to have long ago hinted that an uninitiated man who
comes into Hades would lie in the mud, but that the purified and ini-
tiated man would on his arrival there dwell with the gods. So then
there are, as those who have to do with the mysteries say, "Many who
bear the wand, but few Bacchi." These latter are, in my opinion, none
other than those who have rightly pursued philosophy.

Similarly, in the Symposium philosophy is presented as the true mystery.

While Plato's "mysticism" is rather different in kind from that of the mystery
cults, its authenticity should not be discounted. In the history of Christian
mysticism, a distinction between mystical theology and mystical experience
is difficult to maintain. In the words of Bernard McGinn: "Rather than being
something added on to the mystical experience, mystical theory in most
cases precedes and guides the mystic's whole way of life."'^
There is no dispute that Philo freely used the language of the myster-
ies.'^ Moses is said to have initiated the Israelites into the mysteries by the
covenant. Within the mysteries of Moses, greater and lesser mysteries are
distinguished. Moses, the high priest, and others are at various times de-
scribed as hierophants. The mysteries in question are not primarily rituals.

15. Goodenough, By Light, Light, 8.

16. Goodenough, "Literal Mystery in Hellenistic Judaism," in R. P. Casey, S. Lake, and
A. Lake, eds., Quantulacumque: Studies Presented to Kirsopp Lake (London: Christophers,
1937) 227-41; G. Bornkamm, "Mysterion," TDNT A (1967) 808-10; McGinn, The Foundations
of Mysticism, 23-61.
17. McGinn, The Foundations of Mysticism, xiv.
18. See H. A. Wolfson, Philo: Foundations of Religious Philosophy in Judaism, Chris-
tianity, and Islam (2 vols.; Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. 1947) 1:43-55. On
Philo's mystical philosophy, see especially D. Winston, Logos and Mystical Philosophy in
Philo of Alexandria (Cincinnati: Hebrew IJnion College Press, 1985).
 THE MYSTERIES OF GOD 215

When Moses initiates people into the mysteries, he exhorts them "to prac-
tice sincerity and reject vanity, to embrace truth and simplicity as vital nec-
essaries and to rise in rebellion against the mythical fables impressed on
their souls from their earliest years" (De Virtutibus 33, 178). The lesser
mysteries involve "the passage from the life of the passions to the practice
of virtue" {De Sacrificiis 17, 63) and the acquisition of the knowledge of
God. The higher mysteries involve a more direct knowledge of God.
Throughout, the true mysteries are contained in the Jewish law. Accord-
ingly, Wolfson rather minimalisdcally concludes that the use of mystery
language is only a veneer on a religion which is thoroughly dominated by
the Mosaic law. Goodenough, however, has rightly insisted that "the ques-
tion whether Philo's use of mystic terms made his religion a true 'Mystery'
depends on what Philo thought was a true mystery, not upon our defini-
tions. . . . As Plato scorned those who only carried the thyrsus, while he
looked for salvation through philosophic contemplation which would lead
to the vision of the forms, Philo felt that the true mystery, the one which
actually purified and elevated the soul, was revealed in the Torah as alle-
goricaily interpreted."^^ In short, that which is conceived to be the supreme
mystery is ipso facto a real (Goodenough says "literal") mystery, whether
it involves a mystery ritual or not.-^^
Goodenough claimed that "by Philo's dme and long before, Judaism in
the Greek-speaking world, especially in Egypt, had been transformed into a
Mystery"^^ in the sense that it was imbued with a mystical philosophy.
Goodenough outlined that philosophy as follows:

The objective of this Judaism was salvation in a mystical sense. God

was no longer only the God presented in the Old Testament: He was
the Absolute, connected with phenomena by His Light-Stream, the
Logos or Sophia. The hope and aim of man was to leave created
things with their sordid complicadons, and to rise to incorruption,
immortality, life, by climbing the mystic ladder, traversing the Royal
Road of the Light-Stream.^^

To Goodenough's mind, the mysdcism of the Light-Stream was a widespread

feature of Hellenistic religion. Accordingly, when Goodenough looked for
Jewish mysticism he looked primarily for references to the Light-Stream,

19. Goodenough, Jewish Symbols, 12:20.

20. See further D. Winston, "Was Philo a Mystic?" in J. Dan and F. Talmage, eds..
Studies in Jewish Mysticism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982) 15-39; idem,
"Philo's Mysticism," The Studia Philonica Annual 8 (1996) 74-82. Winston argues that Philo
can lay claim to being a mystic in a qualified sense.
21. Goodenough, By Light, Light, 7.
22. Ibid.
216 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS A N D PIETY

Logos, and Sophia. It was through these that salvation was mediated in the
Jewish mystery. Yet the hieros logos of the mystery remained the Jewish To-
rah, interpreted allegorically as a wellspring of sophia. The mystery envis-
aged by Philo, then, could be described as a philosophical mystery, but
Goodenough defended the "literal" reality of such a mystery and kept open
the possibility that it also involved a cultic ritual.
Outside of Philo, the best evidence for this philosophical mysticism is
found in Aristobulus and more especially the Wisdom of S o l o m o n . O v e r
and above his allegorical interpretation, Aristobulus briefly refers to the cos-
mic priority of wisdom, "for all light has its origin in it" (Praep. Evang.
13.12.9). The further connection of wisdom with the number seven and the
Sabbath also hints that wisdom has a pivotal place in Aristobulus's view of
the cosmos, but what remains of his work is too fragmentary to support any
reconstruction of a Sophia-mysticism from his work. Ultimately, Aristobu-
lus's greatest contribution to our understanding of mystic Judaism was
through the preservation of the Orphic fragments, which will be discussed
below.
The Wisdom of Solomon provides the most substantial evidence for
Philonic Judaism outside of Philo. We have noted above the pivotal place of
Sophia/Logos In that work. The relevance of its conceptions for mystic Juda-
ism is evident from two references to mysteria. In 2:22, the wicked are mis-
led because they did not know "the mysteries of God," which are equated
with "the reward of holiness" — in effect, the fate of souls after death. The
second is in 6:22: "But what wisdom is, and how she came into being, I will
declare, and will not conceal from you mysteries." In short, the nature of wis-
dom is itself a mystery, which is penetrated only by the gift of God, who is
the guide of wisdom and director of the wise (7:15). Wisdom is an emanation
of the glory of the Almighty and a reflection of eternal light and even supe-
rior to light (7:25-29). It forms the bridge between human and divine by en-
tering into holy souls. She is initiated (mystis) into the knowledge of God.
Solomon "takes her to live with him and through her he will have immortal-
ity" (8:13). In all of this, wisdom appears as an active agent which has been
initiated into the mysteries of God and can be a mystagogue for others, just
as, conversely, God is the mystagogue for the mysteries of wisdom. The way
in which wisdom serves as guide to salvation is illustrated in the resume of
the exodus in chapters 10-19. In all of this, wisdom is the focus of a mystical
philosophy. Despite the famous allusion to the cosmic significance of the
high priest's garments, there is nothing to suggest a mystery cult focused on
wisdom — only that the cult of the Jewish temple, whether known from pil-
grimages or only from scripture, was interpreted with mystic symbolism by

23. Ibid., 268-82.

 THE MYSTERIES OF GOD 217

those who shared this p h i l o s o p h y . T h e soteriology of the book fits well

enough with Goodenough's oudine of the mystery, although the atdtude to
"created things with their sordid complicadons" is ambiguous. On the one
hand, nature provides the stepping stones to the knowledge of God. On the
other, the perishable body weighs down the soul, and the uUimate salvation is
immortality with God.^^
Goodenough claimed another witness to this philosophical mysticism
in the Oratio ad Graecos attributed to Jusdn Martyr.^^ This document is an
apologia for abandoning traditional Greek religion in favor of the Logos. The
first four chapters are devoted to denunciations of the immoralides of Greek
gods and heroes. This kind of polemic was traditional in popular Hellenistic
philosophy and "might have been written by a Greek scepdc or rhetorician at
any time after the Third Century B.C."^^ The fifth chapter invites the Greeks
to "come and partake of incomparable Sophia, and be instructed by the di-
vine Logos and learn the Incorruptible King" (basilea aphtharton). It goes on
to speak of the soul "permeated with the power of the Logos" and claims
that, while this instrucdon does not make philosophers or rhetoricians, "it
makes mortals become immortals, human beings gods, and from the earth
leads to the realms beyond Olympus." The Logos "drives from the recesses
of the soul the terrible sensual affections," especially lust, and so enables the
soul to return to him who made It. Goodenough righdy points out the absence
of any distinctively Christian references and the abundance of parallels to
Philo. His conclusion, that it is the work of a proselyte to Hellenistic Juda-
ism, is possible, but remains very hypothetical. Whatever its origin, the
Oratio provides a striking parallel to the philosophical mysticism of Philo.

Esotericism

A major aspect of the religion of the mysteries was their esoteric character.
Esotericism may take different forms. In its simplest form it entails a secret
knowledge or experience which is reserved for the initiates and may not be
divulged to others. The secrecy was respected with the utmost seriousness in
antiquity. Livy (31.14) tells how two youths who unwittingly intruded on the
Eleusinian mysteries in 200 B.C.E. were punished by d e a t h . W i t h i n Judaism,

24. Cf. the description of the Jerusalem cult in the Letter of Aristeas 99, where again the
point at issue is how the ceremonies are perceived.
25. See J. J. Collins, "The Root of Immortality: Death in the Context of Jewish Wis-
dom," HTR 71 (1979) 177-92, reprinted in idem. Seers, Sibyls and Sages in Hellenistic-Roman
Judaism (Leiden: Bnll, 1997) 351-67.
26. Goodenough, By Light. Light, 298-305.
27. Ibid., 299.
28. Nilsson, Geschichte, 2:86.
218 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS A N D PIETY

Josephus says that the Essenes were obliged by oath to keep secret the books
of the sect and the names of the angels.Juvenal {Satires 14:102-4) refers to
the "secret volume" of Moses and secret ways for the circumcised. Occa-
sional passages in Philo are also susceptible to the interpretation that some
Jewish teaching was secret. The full knowledge of Sophia "cannot be told to
all since he who reveals the Secret to the imprudent and unworthy destroys
and overthrows the law of perfection of the holy Mysteries" {Questions on
Genesis 4.8). One of the fragments says explicitly that "It is not permitted to
speak out the sacred mysteries to the uninitiated until they shall have been
purified with the perfect purification"; another passage warns, "One must not
share everything with everyone, that is, not teachings and practices which are
especially sacred. For there are many prerequisites which must be satisfied
by people who aspire to share in these things . . . in order that they may not,
like intemperate youths, get drunk from surfeit and superabundance when
they partake at the sacred table and so be changed for the worse: to such peo-
ple it is not permitted." Even if we understand the sacred table metaphori-
cally as instruction, these passages state clearly that not all the teachings of
Judaism should be immediately available to Gentiles. Of course, Philo stops
far short of the sworn secrecy of the mysteries, and it is difficult to know
whether his opinion on these matters is representative of the practice of the
Hellenistic synagogue.
Only one other passage in the Hellenistic Jewish Diaspora writings
clearly suggests a secret teaching. That is the opening verse of the Orphic
fragment: "I will speak to those for whom It is lawful; profane ones, close the
doors." The opening injunction may be no more than a literary imitation of
the mysteries, but at least it reflects a desire to present Judaism as a religion
whose most important doctrines were secret.
Esotericism may also be used in a broader sense, which does not re-
quire an intention to conceal, but only de facto mysteriousness. If the true
meaning of the Jewish law is known only through allegorical interpretation,
then an outsider can scarcely hope to discover it without special instruction.
In this sense, the entire corpus of allegorical interpretation posits an esoteric
revelation, even though it is devoted to divulging the mystery. Similarly, rev-
elation gained through dreams, visions, and the like is not publicly accessi-
ble, and so is de facto esoteric. Neither of these broader uses implies deliber-
ate secrecy, but they do underline the supernatural character of the religion
and claim that it involves more than can be directly known from nature with-
out special revelation.

29. J.W. 2.8.7 §142.

 THE MYSTERIES OF GOD 219

Heavenly Revelations

This brings us to the broader use of the term mystical for wisdom through
revelations of a heavenly world leading to an otherworldly salvation. In this
broader use, mysdcism does not necessarily involve a ritual or deliberate se-
crecy, and the mystical philosophy is not necessarily related to Logos or
Sophia. It does, of course, involve de facto esotericism. The mysdcal quality
lies in the (alleged) direct experience of the supernatural and the transcen-
dent nature of salvadon. Whether one wishes to use the word mystical for
these revelations or prefers to restrict it to more narrowly defined phenom-
ena, what is important is to recognize their affinities with the mysteries and
their difference over against the other writings we have been reviewing. The
locus of reveladon has been moved from this world to a higher one. The me-
dium of salvadon is no longer human wisdom, philosophical or tradidonal,
nor even the Jewish law in its literal form, but rather the reveladon gained by
excepdonal experiences of particular individuals. It is, of course, understood
that such higher revelation is not opposed to the Jewish law, or even to Induc-
tive reason, but it adds something over and above them which contributes di-
rectly to salvadon and is the main focus of attention. We will find this kind of
mysticism in the Hellenistic Jewish apocalypses, but also in narraUves such
as Joseph and Aseneth and the Testament of Job.
The appeal to higher revelation does not abandon the consistent at-
tempt of Diaspora Judaism to find a common basis with Hellenistic culture.
Such appeal to higher revelation was characteristic of the Hellenlsdc world,
as evidenced by, for example, the popularity of the mysteries.^" The "mysd-
cal" Jewish writings continue to preach the common ethic of Hellenistic Ju-
daism. No firm line can be drawn between the philosophical and the mystical
in Philo or the Wisdom of Solomon, where the grace of revelation is ulti-
mately seen as the fulfillment, not the negation, of human nature. Mystical
experiences were not peculiar to the Jews. It is significant that one of the ear-
liest mystical Jewish works is ascribed pseudonymously to Orpheus.

The Pseudo-Orphic Fragments

The question of a Jewish mystery in the earliest stage of Hellenistic Judaism

is raised most directly by the Pseudo-Orphic fragments. According to
Eusebius {Praep. Evang. 13.12), Aristobulus claims that Orpheus, like Py-

30. See M. Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism {2 vols.; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1974)
1:210-18; H. W. Attridge, "Greek and Latin Apocalypses," Semeia 14 (1979) 159-86.
220 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

thagoias, Socrates, and Plato, imitates Moses, in verses on the hieros logos,
for "He expresses thus concerning the maintaining of all things by divine
power, their being generated and God's being over all things" and proceeds
to cite a poem of forty-one hexameters. A shorter form of this poem, consist-
ing of twenty-one hexameters, is found in two works falsely attributed to
Justin Martyr, De Monorchia chap. 2 and Cohortatio ad Gentiles chap. 15.
Further, there are several short quotations in Clement's Protrepticus and
Stromateis. Most of these coincide with the Justinian text, but some in
Stromateis 5.123-24 are found in Eusebius and not in Pseudo-Justin. Finally,
the late Tubingen Theosophy offers a compilation of the older witnesses and
runs to forty-six lines. The recensions are outlined as follows by Carl
Holladay, following Nikolaus Walter:
Recension A, the shortest recension, is reflected in Pseudo-Justin and
portions of Clement's quotations.
Recension B, reflected primarily in Clement, is distinguished from
Recension A by the addition of a section about a "Chaldean" astrologer,
which is commonly designated the "Abraham" section (vss. 27-31), and con-
cluding material about God (vss. 38-40; 43-44).
Recension C is distinguished by the addition of the "Moses" portions
(vss. 2, 41-42, possibly 25) and some other redactional expansions (15, 18-
20, 25-26, 32, 44b-46). It is found primarily in the citation of Aristobulus in
Eusebius.
Recension D, found in the Tubingen Theosophy, is the longest form of
the poem and contains Christian redactional elements.3'
The textual history of the Orphic poem is extremely complicated. The
consensus of scholarship is that the short recension, A, Is the oldest. The later
recensions are directly developed from this in a number of stages. Schiirer
thought it possible that all three Christian authors selected different material
from a large pool of Pseudo-Orphic verses, but this view has found little sup-
port in recent y e a r s . S o m e scholars defend a theory of two recensions, a
short one found in Pseudo-Justin and a long one found in Eusebius, with
Clement in a mediating position reflecting knowledge of both.^^ The devel-

31. C. R. Holladay, Fragments from Hellenistic Jewish Authors. Volume IV: Orphica
(Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1996) 49; cf. N. Walter, Der Thoraausleger Aristobulus (TU 86;
Berlin: Akademie, 1964) 103-15; 202-61; "Pseudo-Orpheus," in idem, Fragmente jiidisch-
hellenistisclie Dichtung: Pseudo-Phokylides, Pseudo-Orpheus, Gefdlschte Verse auf Namen
griechischer Dichter (JSHRZ 4.3; Gutersloh: Mohn, 1983) 173-278.
32. See M. Goodman, in E, Schiirer, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Je-
sus Christ (175 B.C.-A.D. 135) (rev. and ed. G. Vermes, F. Millar, and M. Goodman; 3 vols.; Ed-
inburgh: Clark, 1973-87) 3.1:664, who allows this as a possibility but regards the priority of the
pseudo-Justin text as more probable.
33. A.-M, Denis, Fragmenta Pseudepigraphorum quae supersunt Graeca (Leiden:
Brill, 1970) 163-67; M. LaFargue, "Orphica," in OTP 2:795-801. A slightly different two-
recension theory is held by C. Riedweg, Jiidisch-hellenistische Imitation eines orphischen
 THE MYSTERIES OF GOD 221

opmenta! theory developed by Walter and elaborated by Holladay remains,

however, the most persuasive view.
The judgment that the earliest form of the poem is that found in
Pseudo-Justin rests on a number of arguments.^'* Clement demonstrably
knew and used Aristobulus, in the immediate context of the latter's Orphic
quotation. Yet, he cites the verses that seem to refer to Abraham, but never
those that clearly refer to Moses. Since the "Mosaic recension" is found only
in Eusebius and the Theosophy, Walter concludes that these verses at least
were inserted after the time of Clement and before Eusebius, since Clement
presumably would not have passed over an "Orphic" testimony to Moses.
Further, R. Keller argued that the Eusebian form of the hymn does not corre-
spond to the introductory comments of Aristobulus, which are concerned
with the role of God in creation. By contrast, Aristobulus fails to underline
the explicit reference to Moses. Keller infers that the poem cited by
Aristobulus corresponded to that found in Pseudo-Justin.Walter admits
this as a possibility but argues that it is more likely that Aristobulus cited a
completely different passage, perhaps Fragment 168 or Fragment 169, 1-5 or
Fragment 298 of the Orphic fragments edited by Kern,^'' any of which would
fit the context better, or perhaps a passage that is simply lost. This radical
conclusion is not required by the texts. All the recensions provide some state-
ment which corresponds to the introductory comments on God's role in cre-
ation (e.g., line 10). The fact that this is not the sole theme of the poem can-
not disallow the quotation. There is no reason to deny that Aristobulus
quoted some variant of the Orphic hymn we have.
It is possible that the hymn quoted by Aristobulus included not only the
Justinian verses but all the verses known to Clement. While lines 41 and 42,
the Mosaic r e c e n s i o n , a r e not found in Clement and would not have been
passed over, the case for the so-called Abrahamic recension is different. The
claim that Abraham saw God might have been suppressed in the Justinian
version for reasons of orthodoxy. From a stylistic viewpoint, however, the
Justinian text reads more smoothly without the Abrahamic verses, which

Hieros Logos: Beobachtungen zu OF 245 und 247 (sog. Testament des Orpheus) (Tubingen:
Narr, 1993). See C. R. Holladay, "The Textual Tradition of Pseudo-Orpheus: Walter or
Riedweg?" in P. Schafer, ed., Geschichte — Tradition — Reflexion: Festschrift fiir Martin
Hengel sum 70. Geburtstag. 1: Judentum (Ttibingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1996) 159-80.
34. LaFargue, "Orphica," 795-96, is exceptional in holding that "J [Pseudo-Justinl is a
cleaned-up, orthodoxizing version of an originally longer text more adequately represented by
E lEusebius] and T [Tubingen Theosophyl."
35. Walter, Der Thoraausleger Aristobulus, 104-8.
36. R. Keller, "De Aristobulo Judaeo" (Phil. Diss., Bonn, 1948), summanzed by Walter,
Der Thoraausleger Aristobulus, 109.
37. O. Kern, Orphicorum Fragmenta (Berlin: Weidmann, 1922).
38. These verses refer to a "water-born" one (hydogenes, an emendation for hylogenes)
who received a twofold law from God.
222 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS A N D PIETY

cause an awkward transition from line 32 to 33. We may accept the consen-
sus that the text found in Pseudo-Justin is prior.
There is a significant difference between the view of Judaism in the
Justinian recension and in the Abrahamlc one. The theme of the shorter
recension is monotheism and the invisibility of God. It Is closely paralleled
in Sib. Or. 3:1-45, a passage of uncertain provenance prefixed to the Third
Sibyl. The Orphic dress here has the usual apologetic effect of placing a testi-
mony to Jewish beliefs on the lips of a figure revered by the Greeks. Yet, the
choice of pseudonym is always significant. The emphasis on monotheism
and invisibility was most likely to appeal to people of a philosophical bent,
and it reflects a similar disposition in the Jewish authors. Whether or not the
Jusfinian version reflects the original poem cited by Aristobulus, there is no
doubt, in view of the sibylline parallel, that it represents a strand of Hellenis-
tic Judaism. It makes no mention of the law but bases its religion on a philo-
sophical conception of spiritual purity. Understanding of the singleness of
God is the heart of this religion, and it might be attained by various means. It
should be said that this kind of religion is especially close to what we find in
Aristobulus and Philo.
The Abrahamic recension differs pointedly from this by asserting that
there is an excepfion to the human inability to see God — a single man from
the Chaldean race. This individual was idendfied as "Abraham or his son" by
Clement.^^ The idenfification with Abraham is supported by Sib. OK 3:218,
which refers to the origins of the Jewish race in Ur of the Chaldees. We
should note, however, that Philo refers to Moses as a Chaldean, and the same
reference is possible here too."**" In any case, the Chaldean is said to be
knowledgeable in the astral w o r l d . I n the Eusebian recension, he surpasses
Orpheus, who can only point out the traces of God on earth.^^ We are re-
minded of Philo's explanation of Israel as "one who sees God.'"*^ It does not,
of course, follow that all Jews see God directly, but they can at least contem-
plate the description of the divine throne, which is guaranteed by Abraham's
experience. This passage, then, lends a new dimension to the understanding
of the poem. In view of the parallel in the Exagoge of Ezekiel, we may confi-

39. Stromateis 5.14.123.

40. Philo, De Vita Mosis 1.5. He also refers to Abraham as a Chaldean, De Virtutibus 39,
212.
41. Cf. the tradition of Abraham's ascent, which is often repeated in the Pseudepigrapha.
most obviously in the Apocalypse of Abrafiam and the Testament of Abraiiam, but also in
4 Ezra 3:13-14; 2 Baruch 4:5; Pseudo-Philo, Biblical Antiquities 18:5.
42. Lines 19-20. See Georgi, The Opponents of Paul, 54. Georgi emends line 25 to read:
lepton emoi, pasin de dekaptychon anthropoisln. Orpheus says that a cloud blocks the vision of
God. It is a light one for him, but a tenfold one for all humanity. So also LaFargue.
43. Goodenough. By Light, Light, 177. Philo. De Praemiis et Poenis 43-46. See
E. Birnbaum. "What Does Philo Mean by 'Seeing God': Some Methodological Consider-
ations," in SBL 1995 Seminar Papers (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995) 532-55.
 THE MYSTERIES OF GOD 223

dently claim that the Abrahamic hymn also represents a strand of Judaism
which dates back to the second century B.C.E. or possibly even to the late
third.'*^
Finally, the Mosaic recension rather resembles Sirach 24:23 ("all this is
the book of the law of the Lord") in attempdng to bring diverse material un-
der the aegis of the Torah (cf. also the reference to divine laws in line 2,
which is found only in recensions C and D).'*^ The effect of the addition is
ambiguous, as is also the case in Sirach: does the law now take precedence
over the heavenly experience of the Chaldean, or is that experience precisely
what is significant about the law? While Judaism is more clearly related to
the Torah, the hymn could be taken as an invitation to interpret the Torah in
the light of Abraham's experience. The dominant image of the poem is still
that of God seated on his throne. The Torah is no more than the mediator of
that vision. Whether we should further think of two levels of Torah interpre-
tation, as Georgi suggests,^^ Is not certain. It is not required by the expression
kata diplaka nomon, which may simply refer to the two tablets. However,
such an interpretation is encouraged by the prominence of allegorical inter-
pretation in Aristobulus and the later Alexandrian tradition, and is quite com-
patible with the view that what is important in the Torah is the vision of God.
If the final recension is understood in this way, then the "Mosaic recension"
may have only been making explicit the dependence of Orpheus on Moses
which was already presumed by Aristobulus.
The "mystical" character of these Orphic fragments lies in their explicit
esotericism and, in the Abrahamic recension, the higher revelation of Abra-
ham's vision. The pseudonym of Orpheus lent itself readily to esotericism.
While the older elaborate reconstructions of Orphism are now viewed with
skepticism,"*^ Orphika are linked with Bacchika, or Bacchic rituals, as early as
Herodotus, and Orpheus is linked with Bacchic behavior (haccheuein) in Eu-
ripides.*^ While the name of Orpheus need not in all circumstances evoke the

44. Holladay, Fragments. 4:63, finds it quite likely that this recension goes back to the
time of Aristobulus and that Recension A dates from the early second century or late third.
45. The word dekaptychon in line 25 has often been taken as a reference to the
Decalogue but may simply mean "manifold," as a counterpart to lepton, following Georgi's
reading of the line.
46. Georgi, The Opponents of Paul, 55.
47. For a succinct statement of the status quaestionis, see W. Burkert, Orphism and
Bacchic Mysteries: New Evidence and Old Problems of Interpretation (Berkeley: Center for
Hermeneutical Studies, 1977). For older reconstructions, see E. Rohde, Psyche: The Cult of
Souls and Belief in Immortality among the Greeks (New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co,, 1925);
A. Dieterich, Nekyia: Beitrdge zur Erkldrung der neuentdeckten Petrusapokalypse (Leipzig:
Teubner, 1893). See further W. K. C. Guthrie, Orpheus and Greek Religion: A Study of the Or-
phic Movement (2d ed,; London: Methuen, 1952), and, on the Hellenistic period, Nilsson,
Geschichte. 2:232-37.
48. Herodotus 2,81; Euripides, Hippolytus 952-54; Burkert, Orphism, 4.
224 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

Bacchic mysteries, it was widely associated with them. The Bacchic mysteries
are associated with the hope for an afterlife already in the classical period.*^
Such a concern is also implied in the view that the body is a tomb, which Plato
attributes to "Orpheus and his followers" in the Cratylus (400c). Surprisingly,
the Jewish Orphic fragments do not touch at all on the subject of the afterlife,
although the divine throne is often associated with the rewards and punish-
ments of the afterlife in the Jewish apocalyptic literature. The Jewish Orphic
fragments exploit the connection with Orpheus only in presenting the mono-
theistic teaching as a mystery from which the profane are excluded. Judaism is
set above Orphism by the claim that Abraham enjoyed the vision of God.

Ezekiel the IVagedian

Another early specimen of "mystical" Judaism is found in the drama on the

Exodus by Ezekiel, which, at 269 lines, is the most extensive remnant of the
Greco-Jewish poets apart from the Sibylline Oracles.^^ Ezekiel is described
as a writer of tragedies in Eusebius and Clement, but no fragments of any
other work have survived. He is usually assumed to have written in Alexan-
dria, although there is no explicit e v i d e n c e . T h e upper and lower hmits of
his date are provided by the translation of the Septuagint, in the third century,
and by the fact that the text was known to Alexander Polyhistor in the mid-
first century B.C.E. A possible clue to his date has been sought in the descrip-
tion of the phoenix (Praep. Evang. 9.29.254-69), which goes beyond the bib-
lical text and may have been prompted by the appearance of the bird in Egypt
in the third century B.C.E., in the reign of Ptolemy III Euergetes I.^^ Howard

49. See now the gold plate from Hipponion in southern Italy (ca. 400 B . C . E . ) , which re-
lates the way of the dead to that of the mystai and bacchoi. See further Burkert, Orphism, 2-4,
for evidence from inscriptions and art.
50. Praep. Evang. 9.28; 29.4-16. A passage in Epiphanius, Adversus Haereses 64.29.6,
on the serpent, was attributed to Ezekiel by J. Scaliger in 1658; see A. M. Denis, Introduction
aux Pseudepigraphes Grecs d'Ancien Testament (SVTP 1; Leiden: Brill, 1970) 275. The text is
printed by Denis with the undisputed fragments, but there is no solid basis for the attribution.
See now the edition and commentary by C. R. Holladay, Fragments from Hellenistic Jewish
Authors. Volume II: Poets (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1989)301-529- Other commentaries can be
found in H. Jacobson, The Exagoge of Ezekiel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1983); R. G. Robertson, "Ezekiel the Tragedian," in OTP, 2:803-19; E. Vogt, Tragiker Ezechiel
(JSHRZ 4.3; Gutersloh: Mohn, 1983) 113-33.
51. R M. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria (2 vols.; Oxford: Clarendon, 1972) 1:707;
J. Wieneke, Ezechielis ludaei poetae Alexandrini fabulae quae inscribitur Exagoge fragmenta
(Munster; Monasterii Westfalorum, 1931) 124-26.
52. K. Kuiper, "Le poete juif Ezechiel," REJ 46 (1903) 171; Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexan-
dria, 1:708; Wieneke, Ezechielis ludaei, 121. On the appearance of the phoenix in the time of
Euergetes I, see Tacitus, Annals 6.28.
 THE MYSTERIES OF GOD 225

Jacobson, however, has noted that there is also a detailed description of the
phoenix in the Ladn author Manilius, which was written at the very begin-
ning of the first century B.C.E., and concluded that "at the beginning of the
first century B.C. there was a heightened interest in the Phoenix and his sym-
bolic value for momentous events."^^ He suggests a date for Ezekiel in the
late second century. In fact, however, any time from the late third to the early
first century B.C.E. IS possible.^'*
While Ezekiel was not a great poet, he constructed a competent drama in
accordance with the classical conventions,^^ and his vocabulary "attests a full
knowledge of tragic and particularly Euripidean usage."^^ The use of such a
typically Greek form does not necessarily require that the work was written
with a Gendle audience in mind.^'' It may equally have served to reassure Hel-
lenized Jews that their tradidon was capable of expression in a Greek form.^^
Ezekiel follows the biblical story rather closely,^^ but his occasional
departures are significant. So, in his treatment of the Passover, he neglects to
mendon the requirement of circumcision.^*' Judaism for Ezekiel is not consd-
tuted by its disdnctive markings.^' It can compete with other traditions on a
common stage. The treatment of Moses' marriage to Zipporah has also been

53. Jacobson, The Exagoge of Ezekiel, 12. Jacobson provides a thorough review of the
arguments for dating.
54. So Goodman, in Schiirer, The History of the Jewish People, 3.1:565; E. Gruen, Heri-
tage and Hellenism: The Reinvention of Jewish Tradition (Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1998) 128. Holladay, Fragments, 2:311-12, .specifies only the second century B . C . E . Rob-
ertson, "Ezekiel the Tragedian," 804, opts for the first part of the second century B . C . E .
55. A. Kappelmacher, "Zur Tragodie der hellenistischen Zeit," Wietier Studien 44
(1924-25) 69-86; I. Trencsenyi-Waldapfel, "Une Tragedie Grecque a Sujet Biblique," Acta
Orientalia 2 (1952) 143-63; B. Snell, "Ezechiels Moses-Drama," Antike und Abendland 13
(1967) 150-64; J. Strugneil, "Notes on the Text and Metre of Ezekiel the Tragedian's 'Exa-
goge,'" HTR 50 (1967) 449-57. The fragments of Ezekiel are the most extensive remnants of
Hellenistic tragedy.
56. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 1:708. Jacobson, The Exagoge of Ezekiel. 23-28, also
demonstrates the influence of Sophocles and especially Aeschylus.
57. Contra C. R. Holladay, "The Portrait of Moses in Ezekiel the Tragedian," SBLASP
10 (1976) 447-52.
58. Trencsenyi-Waldapfel, "Une Tragedie," 160-61, saw a polemic against Ezekiel in
the Letter of Aristeas 136, where a tragic poet named Theodektes was afflicted with a cataract
when he was about to use a biblical theme. However, Pseudo-Aristeas is primarily concerned to
show why the Jewish Torah is not better known to the Greeks, and does not necessarily disap-
prove of Jewish use of tragedy as a means of expression.
59. The exegetical and midrashic aspects of Ezekiel's work are well documented in Ja-
cobson's commentary.
60. J. B. Segal, The Hebrew Passover from the Earliest Times (Oxford: Oxford Univer-
sity Press, 1963) 24; Wieneke, Ezechielis ludaei, 124.
61. J. M. G. Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora from Alexander to Trajan
(323 BCE-117 CE) (Edinburgh: Clark, 1996) 137, demurs but grants that "Ezekiel may have
been loath to draw attention to a rite which associated Jews and Egyptians but appeared absurd
to Greeks." So too Jacobson, The Exagoge, 135, who also allows that Ezekiel did not want to
offend non-Jews in the audience.
226 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS A N D PIETY

taken to reflect a universalistic attitude. Only two lines refer to this episode,
but they note that Zipporah was given "to a stranger." Such a statement must
be taken to imply a positive attitude towards mixed marriages.^^
The two major departures from the biblical text concern the dream of
Moses and the description of the phoenix. The dream has attracted more
scholarly attention than any other aspect of the play and has been taken by
Cerfaux and Goodenough as evidence for a Jewish mystery cult.^^ The dream
begins with a vision of a great throne above Mt. Sinai. Then the figure on the
throne beckons to Moses, gives him a scepter and crown, and enthrones him.
The figure himself vacates his throne. Moses enjoys a view of the entire earth
round about and also the regions above the heaven and below the earth. A
multitude of stars fall at his feet. Then Raguel interprets the dream, saying
that Moses will overthrow (or set up?) a great throne (megan tina exana-
steseis thronon)^* and will be judge and leader, and will see "what is, what
was before and is to come."
The use of a dream is a familiar element of Greek tragedy, and the
dreams of Joseph provide a biblical precedent. Holladay has suggested that
the installation of Moses on the throne establishes him as a Greek mantis by
analogy with Apollo, who is installed on a throne by Zeus.^^ However, Zeus
does not vacate his throne for Apollo, and the "mantle throne" is not de-
scribed in royal terms, as is the case in Ezekiel. The most striking aspect of
the dream is that the figure who initially occupies the throne (presumably
God) vacates it. This element goes far beyond what we find in such visions
as Testament of Levi 8, which may be fairly close to it in time.^^ The nearest
parallel is perhaps the Similitudes of Enoch, where "that son of man" is in-
stalled on a throne and given the function of judge.^^ The parallel with Enoch
is all the more striking, because in the present form of the Similitudes "that
son of man" is idenfified as Enoch, the seer who is given knowledge of what
is above the heaven, what is and is to come in the course of his visions.

62. So also Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 129-30; pace Barclay, Jews in the Mediter-
ranean Diaspora, 138.
63. L. Cerfaux, "Influence des Mystferes sur le Judaisme Alexandrin avant Philon,"
Receuil L. Cerfaux [BETL 6; Gembloux: Duculot, 1954] 1:81-85; Goodenough, By Light,
Light, 288-91.
64. See Jacobson, The Exagoge of Ezekiel, 93. If the sense is "overthrow," the reference
is presumably to Pharaoh. In any case, there is a discrepancy between the dream and the inter-
pretation.
65. Holladay, "The Portrait," 451-52. Cf. esp. Aeschylus's Eumenides 17-19; also 609-
21, where Apollo functions in a judicial role.
66. For Jewish traditions of enthronement, see J. J. Collins, "A Throne in the Heavens:
Apotheosis in Pre-Christian Judaism," in J. J. Collins and M. Fishbane, eds.. Death, Ecstasy,
and Otherworldly Journeys (Albany: State University of New York, 1995) 41-58.
67. J. Theisohn, Der auserwahlte Richter (SUNT 12; Gottingen: Vandenhoeck &
Ruprecht, 1975) 38-99; J. J. Collins, "The Son of Man in First Century Judaism," NTS 38
(1992) 448-66.
 THE MYSTERIES OF GOD 227

The tradition of a vision on Mt. Sinai in which Moses was made Idng is
found several times in later writings, most notably in Philo but also in the
midrashim.^^ There is litde doubt that the tradidon was inspired by midrashic
reflection on such scriptural passages as Exod. 7:1 ("I have made you a god
to P h a r a o h " ) . T h i s exegetical basis is not evident in Ezekiel, so he quite
probably drew on a tradition which was already current.^'* Ezekiel's vision
has rightly been recognized as an early witness to the emerging tradidon of
merkabah mysdcism, which is attested in the apocalypdc literature and con-
dnues in the Hekalot writings of the Rabbinic period.^*
More important than the source of the imagery in the dream is its func-
tion and significance. Meeks has suggested that "the most common function
of ascension stories in literature of the period and milieu we are considering
is as a guarantee of esoteric tradition,"''^ but he admits that Moses' kingship
is scarcely related to this function. Yet, the kingship of Moses is evidently of
central importance in Ezekiel. The particular combination of motifs which
we find here must be understood within the context of the drama itself.
In view of the fragmentary state of the text, it is of course difficult to
propose a view of the whole. Trencsenyi-Waldapfel has offered a plausible
reconstruction, according to which the drama consisted of five acts and was
confined to the first fifteen chapters of E x o d u s . A c t One introduces Moses
in Midian, where he meets the maiden at the well. Act Two is set at the house
of Raguel, where Moses recounts his dream to Raguel and is given Zipporah
in marriage. Act Three describes the encounter with God on Mt. Sinai and
gives a description of the plagues in advance. Act Four involves the actual
departure from Egypt and the report of the incident at the sea. Act Five corre-
sponds to Exod. 15:23-25 and concludes with the arrival at Elim.^* Whether

68, W. Meeks, "Moses as God and King," in J. Neusner, ed.. Religions in Antiquity: Es-
says in Memoiy of E. R. Goodenough {Leiden: Brill, 1968) 354-59,
69, Ibid., 355.
70, For traditions of enthronement, see further F. T. Fallon, The Enthronement of Saba-
oth (Leiden: Brill, 1978).
71, P. van der Horst, "Moses' Throne Vision in Ezekiel the Dramatist," JJS 34 (1983)
21-29, reprinted in idem. Essays on the Jewish World of Early Christianity (Gottingen:
Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1990) 63-71. On the merkabah tradition, see I. Gruenwald, Apoca-
lyptic and Merkavah Mysticism (Leiden: Brill, 1980); and M, Mach, "From Apocalypticism to
Early Jewish Mysticism," in J. J. Collins, ed.. The Encyclopedia of Apocalypticism. Volume 1:
The Origins of Apocalypticism in Judaism and Christianity (New York: Continuum, 1998)
229-64,
72, Meeks, "Moses as God and King," 367.
73, Trencsenyi-Waldapfel, "Une Tragedie Grecque." Cf. Holladay, Fragments, 2:307.
Jacobson, The Exagoge of Ezekiel. 28-36, argues for additional scenes such as a confrontation
of Moses and Pharaoh.
74, Trencsenyi-Waldapfel, "Une Tragedie Grecque," 154-55; Kuiper ("Le poete juif,"
166-67), followed by Kappelmacher ("Zur Tragodie," 82), would extend the drama to allow for
the reunion of Moses and Zipporah.
228 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS A N D PIETY

or not the details of this reconstruction are accepted, it is clear that Moses'
dream is recounted early in the drama and has a decisive role in the develop-
ment of the action since it wins the support of Raguel. The function of the
dream is indeed to guarantee knowledge that could not otherwise be avail-
able. The knowledge so revealed is the kingship of Moses but also, in Ra-
guel's interpretation, the fact that Moses is endowed with all-encompassing
vision. The exact significance of what is promised to Moses is disputed. Ja-
cobson minimizes the mystical elements; the enthronement of Moses is only
a dream, an imaginary event.''^ Consequently Raguel's interpretation is taken
to undercut the mystical implications of the v i s i o n . V a n der Horst, in con-
trast, sees the dream as "nothing else than a vision of Moses' future exalta-
tion to cosmic rulership, to be exercised from God's throne."^'' Much de-
pends on the understanding of the "throne" to which Moses succeeds. It is
hard to see, however, why Ezekiel should have introduced a dream that had
no biblical basis only to undercut its implications. The cosmic dimension of
Moses' rule cannot be denied.
The dream is fulfilled in the story of the Exodus, where Moses leads his
people out of Egypt and Pharaoh is overthrown. The tragic climax comes
with the destruction of the Egyptians at the sea. Then the drama concludes
with a peaceful scene at Elim. Significantly, the story is not extended to Mt.
Sinai, although the giving of the law would have provided a satisfactory dra-
matic finale.Instead, the concluding scene is marked by the second devia-
tion from the biblical text, the description of the phoenix.
The introduction of the phoenix into the story of the Exodus is most im-
mediately prompted by the reference to the palm trees at Elim. Since the
Greek word phoenix, which means both "phoenix" and "palm tree," is used
in the Septuagint, it provides the obvious point of contact. However, the
phoenix (bennu) had ancient symbolic significance in Egypt, where it was
associated with the creator god and the renewal of life, but also with Osiris
and with the renewal of life through death.^*^ In Ezekiel's drama it is coupled

75. Jacobson, "Mysticism and Apocalyptic in Ezekiel the Tragedian," Illinois Classical
Studies 6 (1981) 272-93.
76. So also Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 134, although he says that Jacobson's "min-
imalist interpretation is excessive."
77. Van der Horst, "Some Notes on Ezekiel the Tragedian," in idem. Essays on the Jew-
ish World of Early Christianity, 84.
78. In view of this, Trencsenyi-Waldapfel's view, that the kingship of Moses is realized
in the law, must be rejected ("Une Trag^die Grecque," 156).
79. The identification of the bird in Ezekiel as the phoenix is based on the repetition of
the entire passage in Pseudo-Euslathius (PG, vol. 18, col. 729), where it is stated to be a de-
scription of the phoenix. The identification is guaranteed by the similarity to the description in
Herodotus 2.73 and the obvious play on the word for "palm tree."
80. M. Walla, Der Vogel Phoenix in der antiken Literatur und in der Dichtung des
Laktanz (Vienna: Notring, 1969) 1-50, esp. 16 and 30. The legend of the phoenix rising from its
 THE MYSTERIES OF GOD 229

with the biblical imagery of the twelve springs of Elim, which suggest abun-
dance and life. This scene is presented as the report of a scout. It is not yet
present, but it suggests a promised land of renewed life and possibly of im-
mortality.^'
The symbolism of the phoenix opens the possibility that the Exodus
may be understood allegorlcally as a journey, not to Canaan but to eternal
life, which Is completed under the guidance of Moses. Such an allegorical
understanding would, of course, be in keeping with the thought of Philo
some centuries later. Yet there is no explicit allegory in Ezekiel; the symbols
are not interpreted. It is possible that the phoenix only symbolizes the rebirth
of the Israelite people out of slavery and the vitality of the promised land of
Israel.However, in view of Moses' dream-vision, which grounds Moses'
authority in his supernatural knowledge, we should not exclude the possibil-
ity that a transcendent salvation is envisaged.
We may now return to the theories of Cerfaux and Goodenough that
Ezekiel's drama is representative of a Jewish mystery. There is no warrant
for any assumption that the drama was performed in a ritual c o n t e x t . F u r -
ther, we cannot say that Moses' ascent had a paradigmatic significance for
his followers, in the sense that Philo's Moses was paradigmatic.^* However,
we have seen that there is some reason to believe that the entire story had
symbolic significance and dramatized in a veiled way the process of salva-
tion. Further, the authority of Moses, at least in the fragments we have, is re-
lated not to the law but to his ascent to the divine throne. One might, then,
speak of a Jewish mystery in the extended sense that Judaism here is based
on knowledge which is accessible only by revelation and on a spiritual or
deeper understanding of events. Moses is the leader of such a religion be-
cause of the special knowledge given to him by God.
The Judaism of Ezekiel Is different from the other fragments pre-
served by Alexander Polyhistor. It is not primarily a national romance — it
does littie to show, in the manner of Eupolemus or Artapanus, that Israel
outshines its neighbors. Again, it is not explicitly centered on the law. It is
based on an acceptance of Moses as the authoritative leader because of his
knowledge, but the association of Moses with the law is not noted. The

own ashes is attested only in later Roman writings (Walla, Der VogeI Phoenix, 62-81). See also
R. van den Broek, The Myth of the Phoenix according to Classical and Early Christian Tradi-
tions (Leiden: Brill, 1971).
81. Barclay's flat assertion that there is "no indication that the phoenix is a symbol of re-
newal or immortality" (Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora, 138) simply ignores the symbolic
associations of the phoenix in antiquity.
82. So Jacobson, The Exagoge of Ezekiel, 159.
83. Wieneke (Ezechielis Iiidaci, 119) argues that the tragedy was probably never per-
formed because there were too many changes of scene.
84. De Vita Mosis 1.158; Meeks, "Moses as God and King," 355.
230 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

only specific Jewish custom noted is the celebration of the Passover, and
there the requirement of circumcision is omitted. Moses' dream is inter-
preted by a foreigner in direct reversal of the biblical custom (contrast Jo-
seph and Daniel). The fact that Raguel gives his daughter to a stranger
(Moses!) has obvious implications for marriage customs in the Diaspora.
The Exodus evokes a confession from the Egyptian messenger. While
Ezekiel holds to the superiority of Judaism, it is not understood as an ex-
clusive religion. It is accessible to anyone guided by the heavenly knowl-
edge of Moses. For want of a better label, we may call this religion the
Jewish mystery, with the understanding that no ritual practice is necessar-
ily implied.

Joseph and Aseneth

Among the most intriguing documents relevant to the question of mysdc Ju-
daism is Joseph andAseneth. The questions of date and provenance have al-
ready been discussed in Chapter 2 above. The book consists of two disdnct
though related stories, the conversion of Aseneth (chaps. 1-21) and the jeal-
ousy of Pharaoh's son. The second story has also been discussed above in
Chapter 2. Each story has a point of departure in scripture.^^ The first re-
sponds to the problem of Joseph's marriage to an Egyptian woman. The sec-
ond, less clearly, explains how Joseph came to be ruler over all the land of
Egypt (Gen. 45:26), although it goes beyond the biblical account in actually
making Joseph sovereign for a dme after the pharaoh's death. This exegedcal
aspect of the genesis of the story is, naturally, important; but it is by no
means the only key to the meaning of the work. While the language of Jo-
seph andAseneth is heavily dependent on the Septuagint,^^ the structure and
many motifs are drawn from the Hellenlsdc romances.^'' This widely ac-
knowledged fact has two important consequences for our understanding of
Joseph andAseneth. First, despite the ubiquity of biblical phrases, we cannot

85. See R. S. Kraemer, When Asenath Met Joseph: A Late Antique Tale of the Biblical
Patriarch and His Egyptian Wife (New York: Oxford, 1998) 19-49, for the use of midrashic
techniques and biblical motifs.
86. M. Philonenko, Joseph et Aseneth: Introduction, Texte Critique et Notes (Studia
Post-Biblica 13; Leiden: Brill, 1968), 28; G. Delling "Einwirkungen der Sprache der
Septuaginta in 'Joseph und Aseneth,'" JSJ 9 (1978) 29-56.
87. Philonenko, Joseph et Aseneth. 43-48; C. Burchard, "Joseph and Aseneth," 183-85;
S. West, "Joseph and Asenath: ANeglected Greek Romance," CQ 24 (1974) 70-81; R. I. Pervo,
"Joseph and Aseneth and the Greek Novel," in SBL 1976 Seminar Papers (Missoula, Mont.:
Scholars Press, 1976) 171-82; L. M. Wills, The Jewish Novel in the Ancient World (Ithaca,
N.Y.; Cornell University Press, 1995) 170-84.
 THE MYSTERIES OF GOD 231

agree that Aseneth has a purely Jewish p r o f i l e . A t the very least, she is also
a character in a Hellenistic romance. Second, while we must be skeptical of
claims that the romance genre is inherently related to the mystery religions,^^
the fact remains that Aseneth's conversion to Judaism is simultaneously her
romantic attraction to Joseph and climactic marriage to him.^° The homology
of these two strands of the story cannot be denied. Just as the quest for philo-
sophical truth is depicted by the analogy of love in Plato's Symposium, so the
quest for religious truth is depicted here.
The question of Jewish identity arises with unusual directness in the
story of Aseneth's conversion. As Philonenko has outlined well, there is a
fundamental antithesis between Jews and Egyptians, despite the mediating
presence of sympathizers and proselytes.^' The antithesis is most clearly
marked by Joseph's refusal to eat with the Egyptians and to kiss Aseneth be-
cause she worshipped idols. The prohibition of intermarriage is evidently im-
plied in Joseph's initial rejection of Aseneth. In both the matter of table fel-
lowship and of kissing, the decisive point is the worship of idols,

for it is not fitting that a pious man who worships with his mouth the
living God and eats the blessed bread of life and drinks the blessed
cup of immortality and is anointed with the blessed ointment of
incorruption, should kiss an alien woman, who blesses with her
mouth dead, dumb idols and eats from their table bread of strangling,
drinks from their libations a cup of treachery and anoints herself with
the ointment of perdition. (8:5)

Again in Aseneth's prayer the major fault acknowledged, before her personal
sin of pride, is that of idolatry, and her mouth is defiled from eafing the sacri-
fices of the idols. It would seem, then, that Judaism is primarily a strict
monotheism which rejects idol worship.^^

88. Contra D. Sanger, "Bekehrung und Exodus: Zum jUdischen Traditionshintergrund

von 'Joseph und Aseneth,'" JSJ 10 (1979) 11-36, esp. 31. Sanger's study is too narrowly fo-
cused on the prayer in chap. 12.
89. This claim is made esp. by R. Merkelbach, Roman und Mysterium in der Antike
(Munich: Beck, 1962); also K. Kerenyi, Die griechisch-orientaltsche Romanliteratur (Tii-
bingen: Mohr, 1927). It has been sharply rejected by R. Turcan, "I^ roman 'initiatique': A
propos d'un livre recent," RHR 163 (1963) 149-99; B. E. Perry, The Ancient Romances: A Lit-
erary-Historical Account of Their Origins (Berkeley: University of Califomia Press, 1967) 336
n. 17; also A. D. Nock, review of Kerenyi in Gnomon 4 (1928) 485-92. For a thorough critique
of the alleged affinities of Joseph and Aseneth with mystery initiation rituals, see D. Sanger,
Antikes Judentum und die Mysterien (WUNT 2.5; Tiibingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1980).
90. On the (sublimated) erotic aspects of the story, see Wills, The Jewish Novel, 174-75.
91. Philonenko, Joseph et Aseneth, 48.
92. R. Chesnutt, From Death to Life: Conversion in Joseph and Aseneth (Sheffield:
Sheffield Academic Press, 1995) 171-72, notes parallels to this idea in Rabbinic Judaism: "For
anyone who repudiates idolatry is called 'a Jew'" {b. Megillah 13a).
232 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS A N D PIETY

The sharp antithesis between Jews and Egyptians is mediated by the

presence of sympathizers and proselytes. Pentephres, father of Aseneth, and
Pharaoh are both sympathizers in the sense that they are well disposed to Jo-
seph and his religion.They are not necessarily "God-fearers" in any techni-
cal sense, although they respect the God of Joseph, as there is nothing to indi-
cate that they follow any Jewish laws. Their sympathy for Judaism does not
exempt them from Joseph's separation in table fellowship, as they still wor-
ship the gods of the Egyptians. Aseneth, by contrast, definitively breaks with
her ancestral religion and becomes a proselyte. Thereafter, she, like Joseph,
can claim Jacob as father (22:3), Once she has rejected the idols of the Egyp-
tians, the impediments to her union with Joseph are overcome.
The conversion of Aseneth involves none of the rituals later associated
with proselytism — circumcision, baptism, or the offering of a sacrifice in
the temple.^* Circumcision was not relevant in the case of Aseneth, but we
have noted its near absence in the literature of the Hellenistic Diaspora. Sac-
rifice in the Jerusalem temple was, again, scarcely relevant in a Diaspora set-
ting, especially in view of the fictional setting of the story before the time of
Solomon. Proselyte baptism is never attested in Hellenistic Judaism.^^ The
question then arises whether conversion to Judaism was simply conceived as
the repudiation of idolatry or whether it still involved some ritual elements.

Ritual Elements in Joseph and Aseneth?

The question of ritual is raised by two passages in Joseph andAseneth. The

first is the formulaic reference to eating the bread of life, drinking the cup of
immortality, and anointing with the oil of incorruption, which occurs In 8:5-
6, 15:4, and 16:16 (cf. 19:5; 21:21). The second is the mysterious honey-
comb in chapters 16-17. The formulaic character of the references to the
bread, wine, and oil has been taken by some as sufficient evidence that they
refer to a r i t u a l . Y e t , attempts to elucidate the references by analogies with
the Christian Eucharist, the Qumran meal, or the meal of the Therapeutae
have been unsuccessful.^^ The inclusion of the anointing is problematic since

93. Philonenko {Joseph et Aseneth, 51) regards Pentephres and Pharaoh as sympathizers.
94. G. F. Moore, Judaism in the First Centuries of the Christian Era: The Age of the
Tannaim (3 vols.; Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1927-30) 1:331. See Chesnutt,
From Death to Life, 155-65.
95. Sib. OK 4:165 is often regarded as a reference, but incorrectly so.
96. Philonenko, Joseph et Asineth, 91.
97. Ibid., 91-92. See further G. D. Kilpatrick, "The Last Supper," ETM (1952/53) 4-8;
J. Jeremias, "The Last Supper," £ 7 6 4 (1952/53) 91-92; K. G. Kuhn, "The Lord's Supper and
the Eschatological Meal at Qumran," in K. Stendhal, ed.. The Scrolls and the New Testament
(New York: Harper, 1957) 65-93. Kuhn defends a relation with Qumran.
 THE MYSTERIES OF GOD 233

it seems to come after the blessing of the bread and the wine.^^ Conse-
quently, Philonenko is forced to posit a ritual which has no exact parallel in
ancient Judaism, but which he then relates to initiation into Judaism as a
mystery.^^ Burchard, by contrast, abandons the idea of a ritual meal and sug-
gests that the formula refers to the entire Jewish way of life.'^''
The context in which the formula is first introduced in chapter 8 is sig-
nificant at this point. Joseph explains his rejection of Aseneth by reference to
their respective food, drink, and ointment. Since the eating, drinking, and
anointing are predicated of Joseph as a pious man, they are evidently not, or
at least not only, elements of an initiation ritual. Rather, they are the habitual
practice of the pious.
The possibility remains that the formula refers to a recurring ritual
practice. There is an inescapable analogy with 1 Corinthians: "are not those
who eat the sacrifices partakers in the altar. . . . you cannot drink the cup of
the Lord and the cup of demons; you cannot partake of the table of the Lord
and the table of demons" (1 Cor. 10:18, 20-21). The table of the Lord for Paul
is, of course, the Eucharist. Joseph and Aseneth does not refer to the table of
the Lord, but the contrast with the table of idols suggests that a cultic meal is
involved. However, there is no known example of a ritual meal in which
anointing comes after the bread and the cup. It is possible that Joseph and
Aseneth is the unique witness to such a ritual, but it is also possible that the
formula doesn't reflect a ritual, but is rather, like the Old Testament formula
"the grain, the wine and the oil,"^*'^ a summary of the staples of life. Even in
this case, special significance is attached to eating, drinking, and anointing as
the representative actions. Joseph's separatism in table fellowship lends sup-
port to the idea that meals have a special significance. The formula in Joseph
and Aseneth gives a sacramental significance to eating, drinking, and anoint-
ing in any Jewish meal where a blessing is p r o n o u n c e d . T h e use of oil for
cleaning the hands at the end of a meal is attested, though not widely, in Rab-
binic Judaism, so the anointing has at least possible significance in this con-
text.^"** In all, then, Joseph and Aseneth does not provide adequate reason for
positing an otherwise unknown mystic ritual, since the formulaic language
can be referred to the everyday rituals of Jewish life.

98. T. Levi 8:4-5 mentions bread, wine, and anointing, among other elements, in the in-
vestiture of Levi, but the anointing comes before the bread and wine.
99. Philonenko, Joseph et Aseneth, 93,
100. C. Burchard, Untersuchungen zu Joseph und Aseneth (WUNT 8; Tiibingen: Mohr
Siebeck, 1965) 126-33.
101. So also Chesnutt, From Death to Life. 130.
102. Hosea2:8,22. See further Burchard, Untersuchungen zu Joseph und Aseneth, 128-29.
103. See already Jeremias, 'The Last Supper," 91-92.
104. So b. Beralihot 53b; 42a; 43b; Burchard, Untersuchungen zu Joseph und Aseneth,
128; Philonenko, Joseph et Aseneth, 93.
234 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

Group Membership

The bread, the wine, and the oil are presented in Joseph andAseneth as sym-
bols of immortality and incorrupdon. Participadon in the rituals of Jewish
life, however understood, is the key to salvadon, which is immortality. Table
fellowship and group membership are of the utmost importance here. A pious
man may embrace his mother, his sister from the same tribe, and his wife,
who bless with their mouth the living God. E. P. Sanders concludes that "out-
side of Judaism there is no salvadon.""'^ Yet it is important to note how the
group membership is defined. The basic requirement is acknowledgment of
the living God, not ethnic descent. In the idiom of the story, one may marry
into the family of Jacob, provided that one rejects the idols of the Egyptians.
The second story, in Joseph andAseneth 22-29, shows that ethnic member-
ship does not guarantee right conduct. Further, it is not clear that observance
of the full Jewish law is required. In practice, the law Is reduced to monothe-
ism, rejection of idolatry, chastity before marriage, and avoidance of social
or sexual intimacy with "aliens" — that is, people who worship other gods. It
is noteworthy that even before her conversion Aseneth is devoted to chastity
and shuns aliens. It would seem that the author regards "ethnic purity" as a
virtue in its own right even when practiced by an Egyptian, except that Jo-
seph and his family transcend the usual distinctions of race and are defined
rather by worship of the true God. In short, true religion is equated with wor-
ship of the living God and avoidance of idols. This confers the right to table
fellowship and group membership with Joseph and his family, and also the
ultimate salvation of immortality. In 13:10 Aseneth confesses that she had
not known that Joseph was God's son, for she had been told that he was the
son of a shepherd from Canaan. Jacob's significance is not his ethnic origin.
Aseneth feels kinship with Joseph's kin because Joseph is a son of God. The
traditional criteria for Jewish identity, descent or circumcision (which is here
conveniently avoided because of Aseneth's sex), are no longer decisive. The
label Judaism is not in use. While the religion of Joseph and Aseneth pre-
serves sharp boundaries over against polytheism, these boundaries are not
identical with the boundaries of ethnic descent. ^"^^

105. E. p. Sanders, "The Covenant as a Soteriological Category and the Nature of Salva-
tion in Palestinian and Hellenistic Judaism," in R. Hamerton-Kelly and R. Scroggs, eds., Jews,
Greeks, and Christians: Religious Cultures in Late Antiquity: Essays in Honor of W. D. Davies
(Leiden: Brill, 1976) 23.
106. This point is not negated by the persistence of ethnic pride in such matters as the
beauty of the Hebrew matriarchs (1:5), pace Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora,
214.
 THE MYSTERIES OF GOD 235

The Episode of the Honeycomb

We have argued that the bread, eup, and anointing refer to the ongoing life of
the "pious" rather than to an initiation ritual. In fact, Aseneth's conversion is
not marked by a ritual meal. Instead, it involves an encounter with "a man
from heaven"^*"^ and a honeycomb. The man tells her that the mysteries of
God {ta aporreta tou theou, 16:7) have been revealed to her. Those who turn
to the Lord in metanoia will eat from this honeycomb, for it is made by the
bees in paradise; the angels of God eat from it, and whoever eats from it will
never die. Then the man eats some of the honey and gives some to Aseneth.
The symboUsm of the honey is not entirely clear. Philonenko relates it to the
manna, which tasted like honey (Exod. 16:31).^"^ It may also be associated
with the goddess Neith, whose symbols included the bee.^''^ Its significance
in its present context is quite explicit: it is the food of the angels which gives
immortality. Philonenko and Burchard rightly interpret this as the revelation
of the true significance of the bread, wine, and oil which Aseneth will share
after her conversion."" The episode with the honey shows that the food of
the pious is really the food of angels. Therein lies the mystery. This food con-
fers immortality like the bread from heaven in John 6. Such food imagery is
often used to symboUze wisdom."^ In Joseph and Aseneth the revealed un-
derstanding lies not only in the knowledge that those who convert in
metanoia will never die, but also In the true significance of "the bread of
blessing and cup of immortality."
The salvation attained by Aseneth is immortaUty. The full realization of
this salvation is presumably still future, but it has a strong present compo-

107. Philonenko {Joseph et Aseneth, 97) relates this figure to the daimon paredros of the
magical papyri. The more obvious parallels are with the ubiquitous angelophanies of the Jew-
ish literature of this period, but the fact that the angel shares heavenly food with Aseneth is ex-
ceptional in the Jewish literature. E. M. Humphrey, The Ladies and the Cities: Transformation
and Apocalyptic Identity in Joseph and Aseneth, 4 Ezra, the Apocalypse, and The Shepherd of
Hernias (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995) 30-56, regards chaps. 14-17 as an apoca-
lypse. For parallels with magical and mystical literature, see further Kraemer, When Aseneth
Met Joseph, 89-154.
108. Philonenko, Joseph et Asineth, 96. So also Burchard, Untersuchungen zu Joseph
und Aseneth, 130. See also Philonenko, "Initiation et Mystfere dans Joseph et Aseneth," in C. J.
Bleeker, ed.. Initiation (NumenSup 10; Leiden: Brill, 1965) 147-53. Kraemer, When Aseneth
Met Joseph, 169, tries to explain the bees and honey as Neoplatonist symbolism. G. Bohak, Jo-
seph and Aseneth and the Jewish Temple in Heliopolis (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1996) 8-14,
takes the bees as allegorical representation of priests.
109. Philonenko, Joseph et Asdneth, 65-66.
110. Philonenko, Joseph et Aseneth, 96; Burchard, Untersuchungen zu Joseph und
Aseneth, 129.
111. E.g., Sirach 24:19-22 (wisdom's inheritance is sweeter than the honeycomb); Prov.
9:2-5 ("eat of my bread, drink of the wine I have mixed"). Note that in Burchard's reconstruc-
tion of the text of Aseneth's prayer she thanks God for giving her the bread of life and the cup
of wisdom. Burchard, Untersuchungen zu Joseph und Aseneth, 86, 90.
236 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS A N D PIETY

nent. Joseph is already a "son of God" and Aseneth now becomes a "daugh-
ter of God" (21:3). The similarity in appearance between Joseph and the an-
gel (14:8), and the knowledge that the pious share the food of angels,
indicates that those who worship the living God are already living an angelic
life. This concepdon is strikingly similar to what we find in the Qumran
HodayoO^^ The assertion that those who eat of the honeycomb will never
die is reminiscent of the Wisdom of Solomon (3:2), where the righteous only
seem to die. The mysteries of God In Joseph andAseneth are the way to im-
mortality, as also in the Wisdom of Solomon. Just as Joseph is a "son of God"
and resembles the angel In appearance, so also the righteous man in the Wis-
dom of Solomon Is a son of God (2:13, 16, 18) and is numbered among the
holy ones (5:5). The symbolism of the honeycomb in Joseph and Aseneth re-
calls the symbolism of wisdom, which is sweeter than the honeycomb
(Sirach 24:20), and suggests that the transformation to the quasi-angelic state
is due to the nourishment of wisdom. The main difference between Joseph
and Aseneth and the Wisdom of Solomon is that the latter uses a philosophi-
cal idiom while Joseph and Aseneth relies on narrative symbolism.

The Representative Roles of Joseph and Aseneth

Joseph and Aseneth has an evident allegorical quality which has repeatedly
been noted by scholars. The attempts to construe the work as a specifically
Christian allegory, taking Joseph as Christ, have been rightly r e j e c t e d . Y e t ,
Joseph has an obvious representative role as the embodiment of the true
(Jewish) religion, who is uncompromising on the matter of idolatry but is in
all respects virtuous, admired by the leading men of Egypt, and desired by
the women. The representative role of Aseneth is more explicitly stated In
15:6, where she is told that in the future she will be called city of refuge, that
many nations will take refuge in her, and that those who attach themselves to
the Lord through repentance will be protected by her "wall.""* This passage
applies to Aseneth a constellation of biblical prophecies — those to Abraham
in Genesis, and to Zion in Zech. 2:15 (LXX) and Isa. 62:4. Burchard con-
cludes that Aseneth is "das Zion der Proselyten," although he insists that she
is not an allegory for the proselytes.''^ Burchard is quite right that Aseneth

112. See H. W. Kuhn, Enderwarlung und Gegenwdrtiges Heil (SUNT 4; Gottingen:

Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1966); G. W. E. Nickelsburg, Resurrection. Immortality, and Eter-
nal Life in Intertestamental Judaism (HTS 26; Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
1972) 146-56.
113. See Burchard, Vntersuchungen zu Joseph und Aseneth, 112-17.
114. On the transformation of Aseneth, see Humphrey, The Ladies and the Cities, 51-53.
115. Burchard, Untersuchungen zu Joseph und Aseneth, 119.
 THE MYSTERIES OF GOD 237

does not lose her own individuality in the story to beeome a mere cipher, but
she is, nonetheless, the representative proselyte. By illustrating a model pros-
elyte experience, she becomes a paradigm for proselytes who can take hope
and reassurance from her story.

A Corpus Permixtum

The conversion of Aseneth is described throughout in strongly biblical

terms, which invoke the language of creation, emergence from darkness to
light, and from death to life (10:18-20; 12:2-3).''^ Dieter Sanger has argued
that it is an actualization of the Exodus, but his argument rests on the pre-
sumed technical sense of the verb exagein}^^ A Jewish reader might well
correlate the exodus of Aseneth from idolatry with that of Israel from Egypt,
but the correlation is not highlighted in the text. Rather, the main biblical
analogies are with the process of creation — evidently a more immediately
acceptable conception in an Egyptian context.
Nonetheless, the conversion of Aseneth is an exodus of sorts, not
only spiritually by the repudiation of idolatry but also socially, by her tran-
sition from the community of the Egyptians to that of the Hebrews. The
transition is completed in chapter 22 when she goes to see Jacob, greets
him as a father, and is accepted as a daughter. Her relationship with her
own parents is more ambiguous. In her prayer in chapters 12-13, she pro-
claims herself desolate "because my father and my mother disowned me
and said, 'Aseneth is not our daughter,' because I have destroyed and
ground (to pieces) their gods, and have come to hate them" (12:11). Hence
she is an orphan. In the narrative, however, her parents are very far from
disowning her. Even before she has laid eyes on Joseph, her father Pen-
tephres proposes to give her to him in marriage, since "Joseph is a man
powerful in wisdom and experience, and the spirit of God is upon him, and

116. U. Fischer, Eschatologie und Jetiseitserwartung im Hellenistischen Diaspora-

judentum (BZNW 44; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1978) 115-23, argues that Aseneth is identified with
the heavenly Jerusalem. The argument is based on parallels with 4 Ezra 9:38-10:56 and esp.
Revelation 21, and on the imagery of walls and foundations (some of which is poorly attested
textually; see Fischer, 118). It is true that the salvation which Aseneth attains is heavenly, but it
is significant that there is no explicit reference to Jerusalem. The Zion/Jerusalem imagery, both
earthly and heavenly, is transferred to Aseneth. She represents a form of salvation which re-
places that traditionally associated with Jerusalem. So the traditional imagery lacks the specific
concrete reference to Jerusalem which Fischer posits.
117. Chesnutt, From Death to Life, 172-76.
118. Sanger, "Bekehrung und Exodus," 26. Sanger argues that 12:1-2, the beginning of
Aseneth's psalm, is a Lobpsalm and that the Lobpsaltn is often used with reference to the Exo-
dus. It does not, however, follow that the imagery necessarily implies a reference to the Exodus
here.
238 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

the grace of the Lord is with him" (L9). After Aseneth's conversion, Pen-
tephres is similarly eager, and the Pharaoh also "rejoiced with great joy."
In view of this happy conclusion, it makes little sense to speak of "cultural
antagonism" in Joseph and Aseneth.^^^ Jews and Egyptians are not undif-
ferentiated wholes. There is indeed antagonism between Pharaoh's son and
some of Joseph's brothers, in the story in chapters 23-29, but even this an-
tagonism is overcome. The only consistent antagonism in Joseph and
Aseneth is directed towards idolatry. Howard Kee has rightly insisted that
the book has "an open attitude toward Gentiles."'^*' It affirms not only the
acceptability of converts but the possibility of intermarriage.^^' To be sure,
intermarriage is only acceptable on condition of conversion. There is no
compromise on the matter of idolatry. But the story expresses confidence
(whether historically warranted or not) that Gentiles, even Egyptians, are
capable of such conversion.
Joseph andAseneth can scarcely be described as missionary literature.
Its main readership was most probably Jewish. Only Jews would have fully
appreciated the biblical allusions that run throughout. But the story is surely
also meant to encourage proselytes, both those who have not yet converted
and those who have. It is addressed to all interested parties, both Jewish and
Gentile. It affirms the superiority of Judaism as a monotheistic religion, but
not necessarily that of all ethnic Jews. In die phrase of Dieter Sanger, Juda-
ism is recognized as a corpuspermixtum.^^^ Adherence to monotheism and
spiritual purity are prized more than ethnic descent.

Lack of Sectarian Character

A final question concerns the precise milieu within Judaism In which Joseph
andAseneth was composed. The mystical character of the work has led many
scholars to posit a sectarian origin. The hypotheses of Essene or Therapeutae
authorship have been widely rejected because of the lack of correspondence
on points of central importance. Philonenko's hypothesis of an unknown
mystic sect rests on the assumption that a peculiar ritual is attested in Joseph

119. Pace Barclay, Jews in th6 Mediterranean Diaspora, 204-16.

120. H. C. Kee, "The Socio-Religious Setting and Aims of 'Joseph and Aseneth,'" in
SBL 1976 Seminar Papers (Missoula, Mont.: Scholars Press, 1976) 183-92.
121. Barclay nonetheless finds "an evident concern to discourage exogamy" in this story
of the marriage of an Israelite and an Egyptian (Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora, 215)!
122. Sanger, "Bekehrung und Exodus," 35.
123. Joseph and Aseneth has been attributed to the Therapeutae by M. Delcor, "Un ro-
man d'amour d'origine therapeute: Le Livre de Joseph et Aseneth," Bulletin de Litterature
Ecclesiastique 63 (1962) 3-27. See Burchard, Untersuchungen zu Joseph und Aseneth, 107-12;
Philonenko, Joseph et Aseneth, 102-8; Kee, "The Socio-Religious Setting," 183-92.
 THE MYSTERIES OF GOD 239

and Aseneth, which we have seen reason to d o u b t . I n fact, Joseph and

Aseneth gives no more impression of sectarian provenance than does Philo.
The strong interest in the conversion of Gentiles, but not of Jews, and the
lack of distinctive laws apart from table fellowship weigh against a sectarian
origin. To be sure, not all Jews would have shared the mystical view of Juda-
ism embodied in this work, but it does not posit any significant division
within the Jewish community.

The Prayer of Joseph

Joseph and Aseneth is restrained in its allusions to the heavenly or spiritual

world. The "man from heaven" in chapters 14-17 is exceptional in the story
and is also deliberately mysterious. Other documents of Hellenistic Judaism
are more explicitly mythological. One of the most intriguing of such docu-
ments is the fragmentary Prayer of JosephM^
The central point in the main surviving fragment of the Prayer of Jo-
seph is that Israel is an angel of God:

I, Jacob, who am speaking to you, am also Israel, an angel of God and

a ruling spirit. Abraham and Isaac were created before any work. But
I, Jacob, whom men call Jacob but whose name is Israel, am he whom
God called Israel, i.e., a man seeing God, because I am the firstborn of
every living thing to whom God gives light. (Fragment 1)

Jacob goes on to interpret the struggle with the angel of Genesis 32 as a conflict
with Uriel, who told him "that I had descended to earth and I had tabernacled
among men and that I had been called by the name Jacob." Uriel envied Israel
and disputed his rank, but "I told him his name, and what rank he held among
the sons of God: 'Are you not Uriel, the eighth after me, and I, Israel, the arch-
angel of the power of the Lord and the chief captain among the sons of God?"
The paraphrase in Philocalia 23.19 says that Israel recognizes his true identity
while doing service in the body, being reminded of it by the archangel Uriel.
We do not know the full extent of the Prayer of Joseph. The second

124. Philonenko, Joseph et Aseneth, 105. H. C. Kee, "The Socio-Cultural Setting of Jo-
seph and Aseneth," NTS 29 (1983) 394-413, ascribes the text to "an esoteric group of upper-
middle class Jews and converts."
125. J. Z. Smith, "The Prayer of Joseph," in J. Neusner, ed., Religions in Antiquity: Es-
says in Memory of E. R. Goodenough (Leiden: Brill, 1968) 253-94; idem, "The Prayer of Jo-
seph," in 077^ 2:699-714. There are two fragments preserved by Origen, Commentary on John
2.31 (Fragment 1) and Philocalia 23.15 (Fragment 2). There is also a quotation from the sec-
ond fragment and a paraphrase of the first in Philocalia 23.19.
240 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

fragment would seem to indicate that the book had an apocalypdc compo-
nent: "For I have read in the tablets of heaven all that shall befall you and
your sons." Further, it is questionable whether Origen's paraphrase in the
Philocalia accurately reflects his source when he suggests that Israel was un-
aware of his heavenly origin until he was reminded of it by Uriel. In view of
the brevity of the surviving fragments, any interpretation must be tentative.
J. Z. Smith has proposed on the basis of religio-historical parallels that "the
myth may be ritually appropriated by Its believers, that the 'objective' narra-
tive has a 'subjective' correlative. That which is accomplished by the para-
digmatic figure of the Patriarch Jacob-Israel may, presumably, also be
achieved by the 'sons of Jacob'" by a mystical ascent to the vision of God.'^^
He finds confirmation of this in the Prayer of Jacob, which prays: "Fill my
heart with good things. Master, because I am an angel on earth, because I
have become immortal, because I have received the gift from thee"'^^ and in
2 Enoch, where Enoch returns to earth after he has ascended to heaven and
become an angel. The case of Israel is especially important because of the
natural paradigmatic extension of the role of Israel to the people of Israel.
What, then, does the Prayer of Joseph say about Jewish identity? While
any conclusion is tentative, it would appear that the true Israelite is an em-
bodiment or representative of the angelic Israel, whose true rank and destiny
are in heavenly glory. This is not to say that every Israelite is a preexistent
angel, but that he participates in Jacob In the way that the righteous man par-
ticipates in wisdom when she "tabernacles among men" (Sirach 24:8-12).
The "sons of Israel" in this mystical sense are not necessarily identical with
the sons of Israel according to the flesh, but the Prayer of Joseph is too frag-
mentary to permit us to elaborate on their identity. The conceptions of the
Prayer of Joseph are remarkable but have enough in common with those of
Philo and other documents from the turn of the era to support Smith's thesis
that the work Is indeed a product of Hellenistic Judaism.

The Testament of Job

The supernatural world is also given explicit mythological expression in the

Testament of Job. There is now general agreement that this work was com-

126. Smith, "The Prayer of Joseph," in Neusner, ed., Religions in Antiquity, 288.
127. Ibid., 290. The Prayer of Jacob is found in Berlin P gr. 13895; available in
Preisendanz, PGM, 2:148-49. See also Goodenough, Jewish Symbols, 2:203.
128. For text and translation, see R. A. Kraft, The Testament of Job {Texts and Transla-
tions 5; Pseudepigrapha Series 5, Missoula, Mont.: Scholars Press, 1974). See also R. P.
Spittler, "Testament of Job," in OTP 1:829-68; R. Thornhili, "The Testament of Job," in
 THE MYSTERIES OF GOD 241

posed in Greek, as is evident from the use of the Septuagint.'^^ The Egyptian
provenance can scarcely be doubted, since Job is said to be king of all Egypt
(28:8).^^" The Jewish origin of the work is now generally granted in view of
the lack of specifically Christian e l e m e n t s , b u t Spittler argues that chap-
ters 46-53 (about Job's daughters) were added by a Montanist in the late sec-
ond century C.E.'^-^ There is little agreement about the date. A terminus a quo
of about 100 B.C.E. is suggested by dependence on LXX Job, but a terminus
ad quem is difficult to find. General similarity to such works as Joseph and
Aseneth and the Testament of Abraham support the common view that the
work was composed in the broad period between 100 B.C.E. and 150 C.E., but
a precise dating is not possible.^^^
The Testament of Job is a retelling of the story of Job but involves con-
siderable development over and above the biblical text.^^^ The story is pre-
sented as the deathbed discourse of Job to his c h i l d r e n . M o s t significant is
the new understanding of Job's sufferings. Satan is no longer a neutral figure,
as in the biblical book of Job, but a prince of evil whom Job has infuriated.
Moreover, Job is aware from the outset of the reason for his suffering.

H. F. D. sparks, ed., The Apocryphal Old Testament (Oxford: Clarendon, 1984) 617-48. For the
history of interpretation, see R. P. Spittler, 'The Testament of Job: A History of Research and
Interpretation," in M. A. Knibb and P. W. van der Horst, eds.. Studies on the Testament of Job
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989) 7-32.
129. B. Schaller, Das Testament Hiobs (JSHRZ 3.3; Gutersloh: Mohn, 1979) 307.
130. The hesitation of Schaller (Das Testament Hiobs, 311) seems unwanranted. Good-
man, in Schiirer, The History of the Jewish People, 3.1:553, grants that this datum favors Egyp-
tian provenance but does not regard it as decisive.
131. Schaller, Das Testament Hiobs, 311, with references to the earlier debate. M. R.
James regarded the Testament of Job as the work of a Jewish Christian {Apocrypha Anecdota 2
[Texts and Studies 5.1; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1897]).
/'^ 132. Spittler, "Testament of Job," 834. See the incisive critique of this position by P. W.
van der Horst, "Images of Women in the Testament of Job," in Knibb and van der Horst, eds..
Studies on the Testament of Job, 108-9. (Van der Horst's essay is reprinted in his Essays on the
Jewish World of Early Christianity, 94-110. The original publication is cited here).
133. M. Delcor ("Le Testament de Job, la priere de Nabonide et les traditions targou-
miques," in S. Wagner, ed., Bibel und Qumran [Berlin: Evangelische Hauptbibelgesellschaft,
1968] 72-73), argued for a date about 40 B . C . E . , taking the "king of the Persians" in 17:1 as a
reference to Pacorus, but the negative connotations of this title were traditional in Egypt. See
J. J. Collins, "Structure and Meaning in the Testament of Job," in SBL 1974 Seminar Papers
(Cambridge, Mass.: Society of Biblical Literature, 1974) 1:50. Schaller prefers a date in the
early second century c . E .
134. Hence the common but loose designation "midrash"; see, e.g., K. Kohier, 'The
Testament of Job: An Essene Midrash on the Book of Job," in G. A. Kohut, ed., Semitic Studies
in Memory of A. Kohut (Berlin: Calvary, 1897) 264-338; D. RahnenfUhrer, "Des Testament
Hiobs und das NT," ZNW 62 (1971) 68-69.
135. On the testament form in the Testament of Job, see Collins, "Structure and Mean-
ing," 37-39; idem, "Testaments," in M. E. Stone, ed., Jewish Writings of the Second Temple Pe-
riod (CRINT 2.2; Assen: Van Gorcum; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984) 349-54; E. von Nordheim,
Die Lehre der Alten: Das Testament als Gliedgattung im Judentum der Hellenistisch-
Romischen Zeit (2 vols.; Leiden: Brill, 1980) 1:119-35.
242 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS A N D PIETY

The Struggle with Satan

Like Joseph and Aseneth, the Testament of Job involves a conversion to the
worship of the one true God. Job, called Jobab, used to live near a venerated
idol and had come to question whether this was the God who made heaven
and e a r t h . O n e night "a voice in a great light" informed him that the idol
was not God but the "power of the devil by which human nature is deceived."
Job immediately asks for authority to raze the shrine, but he is warned:

If you attempt to destroy and you destroy the place of Satan

he will angrily rise up against you for battle
except that he will not be able to bring death upon you. . . .
But if you endure, I shall make your name renowned
in all earthly generations until the consummation of the age.
And you will be raised up in the resurrection
and you will be like an athlete who spars and endures hard
labors and wins the crown [4:4-9].'^''

Job proceeds to raze the temple anyhow, and so the drama of Job's suffering
is set in motion.
The introductory story of Job's conversion in chapters 2-5 provides the
framework for the rest of the book and points clearly to one aspect of the
book's message. Job is an exemplary athlete of virtue who wins a crown by
endurance. This motif is a common one in Hellenistic J u d a i s m . W e have
seen in Chapter 4 above that the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs typi-
cally inculcate specific virtues. The virtue of endurance Is highlighted in the
first part of the book (chaps. 2-27), where Job is directly involved in conflict
with Satan. In 1:3 Job introduces himself as one who exhibits complete en-
durance. Again in chapter 27 Satan repeats the athletic image in acknowledg-
ing his defeat by Job. Job draws the moral in 27:10 by exhorting his children
to padence.
However, endurance is not an end in itself. Job describes himself in 18:6-
7 as a merchant at sea who is prepared to lose all he has if only he can reach a
certain city and share in its riches. So, says Job, "I also now considered my pos-
sessions as nothing compared to approaching the city about which the angel
had spoken to me." In fact, the angel had not told Job of a city but had promised

136. Cf. the conversion of Abraham in Jubilees 12:12 and in the Apocalypse of Abra-
ham.
137. The resurrection of Job is found already in LXX Job 42:17a.
138. V. C. Pfitzner, Paul and the Agon Mon/(Leiden: Brill, 1967) 38-72. See also
I. Jacobs, "Literary Motifs in the Testament of Job," JJS 21 (1970) 1-3; C. Haas, "Job's Perse-
verance in the Testament of Job," in Knibb and van der Horst, eds., Studies on the Testament of
Job, 117-54.
 THE MYSTERIES OF GOD 243

retribution, fame, and a share in the resurrection, all of which are given to Job
in the Septuagint. The author of the Testament of Job feels free to substitute the
heavenly Jerusalem for these more traditional rewards.
It is clear from chapter 18 that Job's endurance is based on the knowl-
edge, imparted to him by the angel, of the future hope and heavenly reality of
the "city." The athletic metaphor for the conflict between Job and Satan re-
fers, on a deeper level, to the conflict between revealed knowledge and Sa-
tanic deception, which was already implied in the initial situation. So Satan
repeatedly takes on disguises in an effort to deceive Job, first as a beggar
(chap. 7), then as king of the Persians (chap. 17), then as a great storm (20:5),
and finally as a seller of bread (chap. 23). Job is able to penetrate the dis-
guises. His knowledge gives rise to endurance and so he triumphs.

The Confrontation with the Friends

The second part of the Testament of Job (chaps. 2 8 ^ 4 ) describes Job's con-
frontation with his friends (which makes up nearly all the biblical book). The
(nonbiblical) lament of the kings for Job (chap. 32) introduces the major mo-
tif of the second half of the book by its refrain: "where now is the glory of
your throne?" Job replies that his throne and his glory are in heaven and that
earthly kings and their glory will pass away. We have, then, a twofold con-
trast. First, there is a contrast between Job's misery and his former prosper-
ity; second, between the fragility of the earthly kingdom and the heavenly
throne.
The real issue between Job and his friends is awareness of heavenly re-
ality. Job has insight into heavenly things while the friends do not. This point
is well illustrated by the extraordinary exchange between Baldad and Job In
chapters 35-38. Job's assertion that he has a throne in heaven raises a very
natural problem for Baldad. Has Job, as a result of his prolonged suffering,
gone mad? The response to his first question must have increased his doubt
— Job says that his heart (mind) is not on earth but in heaven. This prompts
Baldad to ask hirh about heavenly realities. Why does this God in whom Job
trusts allow a faithful servant to suffer? And how does the sun which sets in
the west proceed to rise in the east again?
The correlation between the two questions is not immediately evident.
Baldad might be thought to have answered his own first question. However,
in both questions Baldad is challenging Job's claim to know heavenly reali-
ties. His remarks on the impossibiUty of judging the ways of God indicate his
own belief that heavenly knowledge is impossible. Job's reply seems to im-
ply that he agrees with Baldad, but is ironic. He by no means retracts his
claim to heavenly knowledge, but that knowledge Is not natural to man. It re-
244 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

quires special revelation and Is certainly not accessible to one so earthly

minded as Baldad. Job proceeds to reaffirm his knowledge of heavenly reali-
ties with another vision in chapter 40.
Elihu, in chapter 41, goes beyond the others in seeking to expose Job's
"nonexistent portion." He is said to be "filled with Satan." The struggle is still
between Job and Satan, and the issue is faith in the heavenly reward of Job.
Job's confrontation with his friends is resolved by the theophany,
which is dealt with very briefly here. The three friends are reconciled to God
through the mediation of Job. This is in accordance with the biblical story,
but it now carries the implication that those who lack heavenly revelation de-
pend on the intercession of those who enjoy it.
Elihu, however, as the representative of Satan, is condemned to perma-
nent destruction. His fate Is spelled out in a hymn on the lips of Eliphaz in
chapter 43. Elihu now becomes the counterpart of Job. Even as Job is re-
stored, Elihu's "kingdom has passed away, his throne has decayed, and the
honor of his pretense is in Hades" (43:5).

The Role of the Women

Job's insight into heavenly realides is shown also through a series of con-
trasts with women. In chapter 7, Job's servant fails to recognize Satan and
thereby highlights Job's ability to recognize him. In chapters 24-26, Job's
wife, who has given the hair of her head to buy food for Job, fails to see the
Devil standing behind her undl Job calls him forth. In chapter 39, Job's wife
again shows her lack of Insight by asking the kings to recover the bones of
her children. Job opposes her, saying that the children have been taken up to
heaven. Both his wife and the kings then see the children in heaven. The
women are not evil. Like the three kings, but not Elihu, they are victims
rather than agents of deception. Neither Job's wife nor his servant defini-
tively transcends the state of deception (although Job's wife sees her children
in heaven and then dies In peace). After the theophany, however, we find a
remarkable account of the inheritance of Job's daughters (chaps. 46-50). The
daughters are given the bands which God gave to Job when he bade him gird
up his loins like a man. When they gird themselves, their hearts are changed
so that they no longer think earthly thoughts but speak the language of the
angels. Further, their inheritance causes them to "live in heaven" (47:3). In
the Testament of Job, womankind symbolizes, like the three kings, the hu-
man state of ignorance,^^^ which is transformed at the end through the media-

139. The portrayal of women in the Testament of Job as lacking heavenly insight is in
accordance with Philo's use of female imagery for the irrational soul. See R. A. Baer, Philo's
 THE MYSTERIES OF GOD 245

tion of Job into heavenly knowledge and heavenly life. Job's own soul is car-
ried up to heaven on a chariot at the end.^'*''

The Religion of the Testament of Job

Salvation for the Testament of Job is immortality in heaven, and it is attained

through endurance, which is made possible by heavenly knowledge such as
is given to Job. Since this knowledge is not generally accessible, it is in effect
a mystery. The Testament of Job does contain some advice that is not mys-
terious. The account of Job's good deeds in chapters 9-15 is evidently exem-
plary. The main emphasis falls on generosity to the poor. The endurance and
patience of Job are also exemplary. Finally, in chapter 45, Job exhorts his
children before his death:

Above all, do not forget the Lord.

Do good to the poor; do not overlook the helpless.
Do not take wives for yourselves from foreigners.

Apart from devotion to God and the general attitude of generosity to the
poor, the only specific conduct prescribed in the Testament of Job is the
avoidance of intermarriage.
The lack of more specific instructions is all the more noteworthy since
Job is presented as a Gentile king who is converted to the worship of the true
God. There is no ritual of conversion and no reference to circumcision. Job is
never called an Israelite or a Jew, and such a designation would be implausi-
ble for a ruler of Egypt. What, then. Is the group identity protected by the
prohibition of intermarriage? It would appear to be the fellowship of those
who worship the true God. Ethnic considerations are less prominent in the
Testament of Job than in Joseph and Aseneth. It is not clear that the Testa-
ment of Job distinguishes between Jews and God-fearers, provided that the

Use of the Categories Male and Female (Leiden: Brill, 1970) 40-53; also D. Sly. Philo's Per-
ception of Women (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1990).
140. Van der Horst. "Images of Women." 104, argues that there is a marked difference
between the portrayal of the daughters and that of Job's wife and servant, since they do not ob-
tain lasting insight. He regards chapters 46-53 as an appendage. See, however, the rejoinder of
S. R. Garrett, "The 'Weaker Sex' in the Testament of Job," JBL 112 (1993) 55-70. who argues
that the view of women is coherent throughout and defends the unity of the work. Job's second
set of daughters are exempt from the feminine preoccupation with earthly affairs only because
they have been given changed hearts.
141. The affinities of the Testament of Job with merkabah mysticism are emphasized by
H. C. Kee, "Satan. Magic, and Salvation in the Testament of Job," in SBL 1974 Seminar Papers
(Cambridge, Mass.: Society of Biblical Literature, 1974) 1:53-76, but, as van der Horst re-
marks, "the element of 'throne-vision' does not at all play a prominent role in T. Job" ("Images
of Women," 112).
246 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

latter unambiguously reject idolatry. The basis of the religion is not the Mo-
saic law'*^ but the heavenly revelations and the rejection of idolatry. None-
theless, the prohibition of intermarriage shows that the social reality of the
Jewish community was important to the author. In this respect the author was
no different from Philo, who held that the pursuit of spiritual reality should
not lead to the neglect of the literal commandments.
Philonenko has suggested that the Testament of Job originated in a com-
munity of Therapeutae.'*^ The prominence of hymns might be thought to ac-
cord with the singing of the Therapeutae and the ecstatic speech of Job's
daughters with the inclusion of women in the choirs (Vita Contemplativa 80).
Neither of these points of contact is unambiguous, however, and there is no
parallel in the Testament of Job for the meal of the Therapeutae or indeed for
their contemplative life."** Given the paucity of our information on the
Therapeutae, there is not sufficient evidence to attribute the Testament of Job to
that group. Despite the emphasis on mysteries and revealed knowledge, there is
no evidence that the Testament of Job originated in a sectarian context.

T h e B o o k s of A d a m and E v e

Closely related to the Testament of Job are the Apocalypse of Moses and the
Life of Adam and Eve, two recensions of the story of Adam and Eve which
overlap in about half their material. '*^ The shorter of these, the Apocalypse of

142. In this respect the affinities with the apocalypses are noteworthy, especially since
the knowledge given to Job is in large part eschatological.
143. M. Philonenko, "Le Testament de Job et les Therapeutes," Semitica 8 (1958) 41-53;
idem, "Le Testament de Job," Semitica 18 (1968) 9-24. So also Spittler, 'Testament of Job,"
834. Spittler suggests a possible Montanist redaction in view of the ecstatic behavior of Job's
daughters, but this is unnecessary.
144. See the sharp critique of the Therapeutae hypothesis by Schaller, Das Testament
Hiobs, 309-11; also the critique of van der Horst, "Images of Women," 115. Van der Horst sug-
gests that chapters 46-53 adapted a haggadah on Job 42:15 which originated in ecstatic-mysti-
cal circles around the turn of the era.
145. G. A. Anderson and M. E. Stone, A Synopsis of the Books of Adam and Eve (At-
lanta: Scholars Press, 1994); D. A. Bertrand, La vie grecque d'Adam et Eve (Paris: Maison-
neuve, 1987); M. Nagel, "La Vie grecque d'Adam et d'Eve" (Ph.D. Diss., Strasbourg, 1974).
Nagel's text is printed in A.-M. Denis, Concordance grecque des pseud^ptgraphes d'Ancien
Testament: Concordance, corpus des textes. indices (Louvain-la-Neuve: University catholique
de Louvain, 1987) 813-18. For translations and introductions, see L. S. A. Wells, "The Books
of Adam and Eve," in APOT, 2:123-54; M. Whittaker, "The Life of Adam and Eve," in Sparks,
ed.. The Apocryphal Old Testament. 141-67; M. D. Johnson, "Life of Adam and Eve," in OTP,
2:249-95. For a summary of critical discussion, see M. E. Stone, A History of the Literature of
Adam and Eve (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992). Note also the discussion by G. W. E.
Nickelsburg, "Some Related Traditions in the Apocalypse of Adam, the Books of Adam and
Eve, and 1 Enoch," in B. Layton, ed.. The Rediscovery of Gnosticism. Vol. 2: Sethian Gnosti-
 THE MYSTERIES OF GOD
247

Moses, is primarily an account of the death of Adam. Adam, like Job, sum-
mons his children and tells of the crucial events of his life, in this case the
story of the Fall.^'*^ In chapters 15-29 this story is recounted a second time
in far greater detail, by Eve. As in the Testament of Job, Satan appears as a
deceiver. Also as in the Testament of Job, the woman is especially vulnerable
to his deception, and in the Apocalypse of Moses the woman bears the pri-
mary responsibility for the Fall.^*^ Unlike Job, however, Adam succumbed to
the temptation, so that the example provided by Adam and Eve is a negative
pne.^*^ At the end, a chariot comes to Adam. The account of Adam's transla-
tion is much more elaborate than that of Job. God promises to transform him
to his former glory and set him on the throne of his deceiver.^'^^ Adam, and
also Abel and finally Eve, are buried In Paradise, in the third heaven {Apoc.
Moses 37:5), to await the resurrection.
The books of Adam and Eve are unusual insofar as they do not envis-
age the immediate enjoyment of immortality after death. Yet, they do have
many points of contact with the apocalypses, especially 2 Enoch}^^ The af-
finities with the apocalypses are more conspicuous in the Life of Adam and
Eve, which contains an account of the fall of Satan (chaps. 12-17) and an as-
cent of Adam into Paradise, where he is informed of his coming death. He
also eats of the tree of knowledge and so knows and perceives what will
come to pass in this age (chaps. 25-29).'^^
In the books of Adam and Eve the transgression of the commandments
has a central role. Both books devote considerable attention to the repentance
of Adam and Eve.'^'^ The drama of disobedience is given a supernatural
backdrop through the role of the satanic deceiver. The ultimate resolution of
the story lies in the promise of resurrection, and this involves a supernatural
revelation of the fate of Adam. The oil of mercy is denied to Adam for the
present but is promised at the resurrection.'^^ The apocalyptic hope provides

cism (Studies in the History of Religions 41; Leiden: Brill, 1980) 515-39; idem, Jewish Litera-
ture between the Bible and the Mishnah (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1981) 253-57; idem, "The Bi-
ble Rewritten and Expanded," in Stone, ed.. Jewish Writings, 110-18; and G. Vermes and
M. Goodman, in Schiirer, The History of the Jewish People, 3.2:757-61,
146. Apocalypse of Moses 5-8; Life ofAdam and Eve 30-34. The testamentary elements
are stressed by Nickelsburg in his treatments.
147. In Apoc. Moses 21:6. Adam exclaims after eating the fruit: "O wicked woman,
what have 1 done to thee that thou hast deprived me of the glory of God?" In the Life of Adam
and Eve (9-11) Eve is deceived by Satan and abandons her penitence until Adam rebukes her.
148. Apoc. Moses 30:1: "Now then, my children, I have shown you the way in which we
were deceived, and do ye guard yourselves from transgressing against the good."
149. Apoc. Moses 39:2; Life 48:3.
150. Wells ("The Books of Adam and Eve," 126) notes the parallels in the conception of
the tree of life, the sacred oil, the sin of Eve, the lake of purification, the seven heavens, etc.
151. This passage includes a Christian interpolation.
152. Life of Adam and Eve 1-11; Apocalypse of Moses 32.
153. Apocalypse of Moses 13; Life of Adam and Eve 40-42.
248 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS A N D PIETY

the premises for obedience and for repentance. Yet, within their supernatural
framework the books of Adam and Eve conform to a pattern of covenantal
nomism and place less emphasis on the heavenly revelations than the does
Testament of Job or the apocalypses.
The provenance of the Apocalypse of Moses and of the Life of Adam
and Eve is far from clear. Their affinities with such works as the Testament of
Job and 2 Enoch support an origin in the Hellenistic Diaspora.'^* Many
scholars have argued for a Semitic original, or at least for Semitic sources
underlying the G r e e k , b u t these arguments have been shown to be unreli-
able.'^^ The supernatural and apocalyptic elements in these books were
widespread both in Palestine and in the Diaspora. The original date of com-
position is usually put in the first or early second century C.E.,'^'' but specific
evidence is lacking.

T h e Testament of Abraham

Another story of the death of a patriarch is found in the Testament of Abra-

ham. This work is not a testament and is, in fact, characterized by Abraham's
failure to make a testament.'^^ Instead, we have an extended narrative of
Abraham's death, including a full-blown apocalypse in the account of his
ride on the chariot, which puts the narrative in the perspective of the heav-
enly revelation.
The Testament of Abraham survives in two recensions.'^'* There is no
consensus as to which is earlier. Nickelsburg has argued persuasively that
"numerous elements which are simply present in Rec B with no clearly delin-
eated function, are of the essence of the structure and plot of Rec A," and that

154. So Wells, "The Books of Adam and Eve," 129-30.

155. Ibid., esp. the note by Charles on p. 130. So also Johnson, "Life of Adam and Eve,"
252, v/ho consequently suggests a Palestinian origin.
156. Stone, A History, 42-53, with an appendix by Stone and G. Bohak.
157. Vermes and Goodman, in Schiirer, The History of the Jewish People, 3.2:759.
158. A. B. Kolenkow, "The Genre Testament and the Testament of Abraham," in
G. W. E. Nickelsburg, ed.. Studies on the Testament of Abraham (SCS 6; Missoula, Mont.:
Scholars Press, 1976) 139-52.
159. On the Testament of Abraham as an apocalypse, see J. J. Collins, "The Genre Apoc-
alypse in Hellenistic Judaism," in D. Hellholm, ed., Apocalypticism in the Hellenistic World
and the Near East (Ttibingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1983) 531-48; idem. The Apocalyptic Imagina-
tion: An Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic Literature (2d ed.; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998)
251-55.
160. For text and translation, see M. E. Stone, The Testament of Abraham (Missoula,
Mont.: Scholars Press, 1972); F. Schmidt, Le Testament grec d'Abraham (Tubingen: Mohr
Siebeck, 1986). See also E. P Sanders, "Testament of Abraham," in OTP 1:871-902; N. Tur-
ner, "The Testament of Abraham," in Sparks, ed.. The Apocryphal Old Testament, 393-421.
 THE MYSTERIES OF GOD 249

therefore the longer Recension Abetter preserves the outline of the story.
There is wide agreement that the Testament of Abraham is a Jewish work,'^'^
written in Greek.'^^ Egyptian provenance is suggested by several parallels to
Egyptian mythology and to other Egyptian Jewish literature.^^** The date is
usually put in the late first century C.E. on the basis of parallels to other Hel-
lenistic Jewish writings.'^^
Nickelsburg has shown that Recension A is "neatly divided into two
parallel and symmetrical parts," chapters 1-15 and chapters 16-20.^^^ In
the first part, Michael comes to take Abraham; in the second part. Death
comes. In both cases, Abraham refuses to go and asks for a revelation, as a
stalling tactic. In the first part, the revelation is a ride on a chariot "over all
the inhabited world" (10:1). In the second part it is the revelation of the rot-
tenness of Death and the variety of his forms. In both cases, Abraham per-
sists in his refusal, even after the revelation, and in the end he is taken by
deceit.
The Testament of Abraham has rightly been called "a veritable parody
on the biblical and traditional Abraham."^^'' The parody lies not only in
Abraham's refusal to die, but in the ironic treatment of his character. At the
outset, Abraham is characterized by "quietness, gentleness and righteous-
ness," and we are told that "the righteous man was extremely hospitable"
(chap. 1). Yet, his refusal to go with Michael is construed in chapter 8 as set-
ting himself up against God. Abraham denies this but asks to see the whole
inhabited world. The ensuing ride on the chariot brings about the ultimate
revelation of Abraham's character. Whenever Abraham sees people sinning,
he asks God to destroy them by having the earth swallow them or fire devour
them. God himself is moved to protest:

161. G. W. E. Nickelsburg, "Structure and Message in the Testament of Abraham," in

idem, ed.. Studies on the Testament of Abraham, 92. The references here are to Recension A.
162. Christian authorship was defended by a number of older scholars, such as M. R.
James and E. Schiirer, but has found no recent followers. See E. Janssen, Testament Abrahams
(JSHRZ 5.1; Gutersloh: Mohn, 1974) 199; Vermes and Goodman, in Schurer, The History of
the Jewish People. 3.2:763.
163. M. Delcor, U Testament d'Abraham (SVTP 2; Leiden: Brill, 1973) 34; Janssen,
Testament, 198-99. R. A. Martin ("Syntax Criticism of the Testament of Abraham," in
Nickelsburg, ed.. Studies on the Testament of Abraham, 95-101) suggests that "the producer of
Recension A (and probably also the producer of Recension B) is editing a Greek text which was
earlier translated from a Semitic language" but allows that some "additions" may not go back
to a Semitic original.
164. Delcor, Le Testament, 67-68.
165. Delcor (Le Testament, 47-51) emphasizes affinities with the Testament of Job.
Sanders, "Testament of Abraham," in OTP, 1:875-76, relates the Testament of Abraham to
2 Enoch and 3 Baruch. "The Genre Apocalypse."
166. Nickelsburg, "Structure and Message," 85.
167. Ibid., 87.
250 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

O Archistrategos Michael, command the chariot to stop and turn

Abraham aside lest he see the whole inhabited world, for if he sees
all those who act in sin, he would destroy the whole creadon. For be-
hold, Abraham has not sinned and he has no mercy on sinners. I, in
contrast, made the world and I do not wish to destroy any one of
them, but I await the death of the sinner, until he turns and lives,
(chap. 10)i^«

Abraham is then taken up to see the judgment, where he learns the need
for mercy. When a soul is saved by Abraham's prayer, he is moved also to
pray for the sinners who were destroyed at his request, for "now I know that I
sinned before the Lord our God" (chap. 14). God forgives Abraham and re-
calls to life those who were destroyed, because "I do not requite in death
those whom I destroy living upon the earth."
The reveladon of the judgment plays a crucial role in the Testament of
Abraham. It convinces Abraham that excessive zeal for the destrucdon of
sinners is itself a sin. It also underlies the reveladon, in the second part of the
book, of the varieties of Death. Abraham's sin was the destruction of life.
Death boasts that he is the destroyer of the world. The boast of Death puts
Abraham's sin in perspective and shows its alignment with the forces of de-
struction.'^^ However, the judgment scene also undercuts the power of
Death, since we have already been told that God does not wish destruction
and does not further punish those who have been struck down on earth.

The Perspective on Death

The purpose of the Testament of Abraham is to provide perspective on the

perennial menace of death and judgment. The reader is invited to identify all
the more easily with him because he is shown to have his flaws and need for-
giveness and because his reluctance to die persists to the end. Yet, while even
Abraham remains reluctant to die, the heavenly revelation is consoling. The
terror of death is mitigated by the realizadon that, while only one of seventy-
two deaths is just, God does not again destroy those who are struck down on
earth. The terror of the judgment is midgated by the reveladon that God does
not share the severity of "righteous" humans, such as Abraham, and accepts
intercession. The second revelatory passage, on the nature of Death, is reas-
suring rather than terrifying because it is seen in the perspective provided by

168. Cf. Wisd. 1:4; 11:21 -26, on the mercy of God the creator. David Winston has drawn
my attention to a similar story about R. Simeon b. Yohai in b. Shabbat 33b.
169. Kolenkow, "The Genre Testament," 146.
 THE MYSTERIES OF GOD 251

the judgment scene. The judgment scene also determines the book's ethical
message: mercy rather than severity is pleasing to God.

The View of Judaism

The message of the Testament of Abraham Is shaped to a great degree by the

heavenly revelation of the judgment scene. Therein lies the apocalypdc di-
mension of the work. Yet, this revelation is not in the service of an esoteric
view of Judaism. Rather, as E. R Sanders has remarked, It represents "a kind
of lowest common denominator Judaism.""^** The principal characterisdc of
this view of Judaism Is the lack of any disdnction between Jew and Gentile.
The judgment is on the children of Adam, and there is nothing to indicate
that Abraham's intercession is restricted to his own children. The sins which
are mentioned are universal ones, such as murder, fornication, and theft.
There is no mention of circumcision, dietary laws, or Sabbath observance.
The virtue of hospitality was scarcely distinctive to Jews. Sanders has noted
that the work is extreme in its lack of distinctive requirements. There is no
emphasis on group membership, such as we find in Joseph and Aseneth, or
even on the rejection of idolatry which is basic to the Testament of Job. Of
the writings we have considered thus far, only Pseudo-Phocylides shows less
distinctive coloring than the Testament of Abraham, insofar as that work is
ascribed to a Gentile author, while the Testament of Abraham at least presup-
poses a tradition which venerates the patriarchs.
In view of this rather extreme universalism. It is unlikely that the Testa-
ment of Abraham is the product of a sectarian g r o u p . I t represents a partic-
ularly tolerant formulation of what we have called the common ethic of Hel-
lenistic Judaism. The apocalyptic component, which plays a crucial role in
the book, provides a framework for the broadly universalistic ethic. The
framework is itself significant: salvation is located in the life after death, and
the understanding provided by Abraham's revelation Is necessary if we are to
see this life in proper perspective. Yet, Judaism here Is a universal religion In
which little significance could be attached to the distinction between Jews
and God-fearers. Abraham is depicted in such a way as to emphasize that he
is part of sinful humanity. What he learns on his journey is precisely his soli-
darity with the rest of humanity, a solidarity already indicated in the opening
lines of the book.

170. Sanders, "Testament of Abraham," 876.

171. Sanders (ibid.) provides a good critique of the repeated attempts to link the Testa-
ment of Abraham with the Essenes or Therapeutae (e.g.. Delcor, Le Testament, 69-73).
252 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

2 Enoch

A similar universalistic ethic within an apocalyptic framework is found in

2 (Slavonic) Enoch. Despite the arguments of J. T. Milik, who regards it as a
Christian work of the ninth or tenth century,'''^ the majority opinion clearly
favors Jewish authorship and an early date.'''' There is no clearly Christian
element in the shorter Recension B, which has been widely recognized as the
older recension since the edition of Vaillant.^''^ Further, the peculiar require-
ment that the four legs of a sacrificial animal be tied together (2 Enoch 59:3)
would be difficult to explain in a Christian work. In view of its affinities with
Philo and other Hellenistic Jewish writings, and the allusions to Egyptian
mythology in its cosmology, 2 Enoch is widely believed to have originated in
Egyptian Judaism in the first century C.E.^''^
2 Enoch is primarily an account of a heavenly journey. At the begin-
ning of the book, Enoch is weeping and grieving. When he is asleep, two an-
gelic "men" come to escort him on a heavenly tour. Before he departs, Enoch
gives a brief exhortation to his sons, to practice sacrifice and avoid idolatry.
In chapters 3-37 Enoch is guided through the seven heavens in turn.'''^ In the
first he sees the angels who govern the stars and the elements. In the second,
the place of punishment of the angels who rebelled against the Lord. In the
third, the paradise which is at once the original garden of Genesis and the
place prepared for the just. On the north of this heaven, he sees the place of

172. J. T. Milik, Tlie BooLs of Enocli: Aramaic Fragments from Qumran Cave 4 (Ox-
ford: Clarendon, 1976) 107-16.
173. J. C. Greenfield, "Prolegomenon," in H. Odeberg. 3 Enoch or the Hebrew Book of
Enoch (New York: Ktav, 1973) XVIII-XX; Fischer. Eschatologie. 38-41; Vermes and Good-
man, in Schiirer, The History of the Jewish People. 3.2:749, The ter/ninus ante quem is supplied
by Origen (De Principiis 1.3.2), who refers to a book of Enoch a propos of the creation of the
world.
174. A. Vaillani, Le Livre des Secrets d'Henoch: Texte slave et traduction francaise
(Paris: Institiu d'Etudes Slaves, 1952). So also A. Pennington. "2 Enoch," in Sparks, ed.. The
Apocryplml Old Testament. 321-62. The older translations, including that of Charles (in APOT.
2:425-69), presupposed the priority of the longer recension. F. Andersen, "2 Enoch," in OTP.
1:92-94, argues that neither recension can be accepted as the original text. So also C. Biittrich,
Weltweisheit, Menschheitsethik. Urkult: Studien zum slavischen Henochbuch (Tiibingen: Mohr
Siebeck, 1992) 59-144.
175. Charles, in APOT, 2:426; M. Philonenko. "La cosmologie du 'Livre des Secrets
d'Henoch,'" in Religiotis en Egypte Hellenistique et Romaine (Paris: Presses Universitaires de
France, 1969) 109-16; Fischer, Eschatologie, 40. There is a consensus that the book was writ-
ten in Greek. See A. Rubinstein, "Observations on the Slavonic Book of Enoch," 775 13 (1962)
1-21; Pennington, "2 Enoch," 324; Vermes and Goodman, in Schiirer, The History of the Jew-
ish People, 3.2:748. Andersen, "2 Enoch," 94, suspects a Semitic original,
176. On the motif of the seven heavens, see A. Yarbro Collins, "The Seven Heavens in
Jewish and Christian Apocalypses," in eadem. Cosmology and Eschatology in Jewish and
Christian Apocalypticism (Leiden: Brill, 1996) 21-54. For a summary of the contents of the
various heavens, see BoUrich, Weltweisheit, 150.
 THE MYSTERIES OF GOD 253

torture and punishment prepared for sinners. In the fourth heaven he sees the
movements of the light of the sun and the moon and the regulation of time. In
the fifth he encounters the Egrigori or Watchers who are mourning the fall of
their fellow angels. Enoch tells them that he has seen their condemned breth-
ren and exhorts them to resume their service of God. In the sixth heaven he
sees seven angels who supervise the order of the world. Finally, in the sev-
enth heaven he comes into the heavenly court. There he is anointed, given
garments of glory, and becomes like one of the glorious angels.'^^
There follow two episodes in which Enoch is given direct instruction.
First, the angel Vreveil dictates to him "all the works of heaven and earth,"
and Enoch writes them down in 360 books. Second, God tells Enoch how he
created the world. The account is remote from that of Genesis and involves
quasi-mythological creatures, Adoil (from whom the great aeon is born) and
Arouchaz (who becomes the foundation of creation).
At this point, God commands Enoch to return to earth for thirty days to
instruct his children and pass on his writings to them. There follows the in-
struction of Enoch to his sons. This falls into three parts: (1) a lengthy exhor-
tation by Enoch, without introduction (chaps. 39-55); (2) a similar address to
Methusalem and his brothers, which appears directly as Enoch's parting tes-
tament (chaps. 58-63); and finally (3) a similar address to a multitude of two
thousand men who were assembled to see him (chaps. 65-66). Then Enoch Is
taken up to heaven (apparently to the seventh), and Methusalem proceeds to
offer sacrifice. This concludes the story of Enoch. The legend of Melchize-
dek is formally a distinct unit, independent of the apocalypse, whether or not
it was originally juxtaposed with it in a single composition.'''^

The Hortatory Message

The message of 2 Enoch is most clearly formulated in the frequent exhorta-

tions. The apocalyptic heavenly journey provides a supporting framework."^^
In that journey, two kinds of material are emphasized: evidence of the order
of creation and evidence of an eschatological judgment. The first of these is
found in the first, fourth, and sixth heavens. Enoch is shown that the sun and
moon follow a regular orderly course. The elements are not at the mercy of

177. M. Himmelfarb, "Revelation and Rapture: The Transformation of the Visionary in

the Ascent Apocalypses," in J. J. Collins and J. H. Charlesworth, eds., Mysteries and Revela-
tions: Apocalyptic Studies since the Uppsala Colloquium (JSPSup 9; Sheffield: JSOT Press,
1991) 83, notes that the process resembles priestly investiture.
178. The Melchizedek legend is omitted in some manuscripts. See R. H. Charles and
W. R. Morfill, The Book of the Secrets of Enoch (Oxford: Clarendon, 1896) xiii; Fischer,
Eschatologie, 40.
179. Collins, "The Genre Apocalypse in Hellenistic Judaism," 533-37.
254 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS A N D PIETY

chance, but each has an angel directing it, and these in turn are supervised
from the sixth heaven. The uhimate basis for this entire order is the creation,
which God describes to Enoch in chapters 24-30. The implications of this or-
der for human conduct are quite clear. When God is dispatching Enoch to the
earth, he tells him: "Go down onto the earth and tell your sons all that I have
told you, everything that you have seen, from the lowest heavens up to my
throne. All the host I created. There is no one who opposes me or who is in-
subordinate, and all submit themselves to my sole rule" (33:6-7). Humanity,
evidently, should do likewise. God specifies for Enoch the purpose of his
mission: that they may know the creator of all things and know that there is
no other apart from him.
In the course of his exhortations, Enoch frequently refers back to the
created order of the universe. The basis for human respect is that the Lord
made man in his own likeness (44:1). Enoch begins his testament to
Methusalem and his brothers by reminding them of the relations between
man and beast established at creation (chap. 58). His final exhortation to the
assembled multitude begins by recounting how God created everything, in-
cluding humanity (chap. 65). An understanding of the order of the world is
the first underpinning of Enoch's message. In this respect it stands in the tra-
dition of the Hebrew wisdom literature.'^" Some scholars have argued that it
contains an implicit interpretation of the Mosaic law,'^^ but Enoch, who sup-
posedly lived before Moses, seeks a more fundamental, and universal, au-
thority for his teaching.
The exhortations of Enoch are not based solely on the order of creation.
They also appeal to an eschatological judgment. Eschatology figures promi-
nently in the heavenly journey. The third heaven is occupied by Paradise and
the place of punishment. The second heaven is the place of punishment for
the fallen angels, who are paradigmatic for humanity. The sojourn in the fifth
heaven with the Egrigori recalls the fate of the fallen angels as a warning for
others. Finally, the transformation of Enoch into the likeness of the angels in
the seventh heaven has clear eschatological implications. These eschatologi-
cal revelations figure prominently in the exhortations of Enoch. The con-
trasfing places of reward and punishment in the third heaven provide the
main context in which virtues and vices are articulated. Enoch repeatedly re-
fers to a final judgment. The actual content of the exhortadons is remarkably
simple. It is mainly concerned with natural justice — clothing the naked and
feeding the hungry. The basic principle is that whoever offends "the face of
man" offends "the face of God" (44:2). There are warnings to serve and fear

180. Bottrich, Weltweisheit, 162, emphasizes the sapiential character of Enoch's mes-
sage and notes that it envisions a kind of natural law (178-80).
181. E.g., K. W. Niebuhr, Gesetz und Pardnese: Katechismusartige Weisungsreihen in
der friihjUdischen Literatur (Tiibingen; Mohr Siebeck, 1987) 192-94.
 THE MYSTERIES OF GOD 255

the Lord and to avoid idolatry, but there are no allusions to circumcision or
distincdvely Jewish customs. Only one element in the exhortations involves
a highly specific practice. This is the repeated insistence on sacrifice, with
the peculiar requirement that the four legs be tied. Pines has noted that the
practice is declared contrary to usage in Mishnah Tamid, and he suggests that
"it may have been an accepted rite of a sect which repudiated the sacrificial
customs prevailing in Jerusalem."'^^ Yet, there is no attempt in 2 Enoch to
polemicize against other groups and, while monotheism is required, no dis-
tinction is made between Jews and Gentiles.
2 Enoch is far more speculatively inclined than the Testament of Abra-
ham and spends far more time on the description of the heavenly world. The
transformation of Enoch into an angel has evident paradigmatic significance,
and the understanding provided by Enoch's revelation is the necessary aid to-
wards that transformation. The persuasiveness of the message depends on the
acceptance of, or belief in, the reality of the "other world" revealed by
Enoch. Faith, in the sense of insight into the heavenly world, is the basis for
the future hope and present action. Yet, here too the heavenly revelations are
not an end in themselves but provide the basis for an ethical message. That
message does not promote Judaism as a group apart. It promotes monothe-
ism, rejects idolatry, and fosters an attitude of human respect which is based
on the order of creation, not on the history of Israel. Once again, the higher
revelation is in the service of a universalistic message.

3 Baruch

A third Hellenistic Jewish apocalypse, closely related to the Testament of

Abraham and 2 Enoch, is found in 3 Baruch.^^^ The Jewish origin of 5 Ba-
ruch is not in doubt, despite Christian Insertions in chapters 4 and 11-15
which amount to a new. Christian, redaction of the book.'^* There is also a
consensus that it originated in the Hellenistic Diaspora because of its allu-

182. S. Pines, "Eschatology and the Concept of Time in the Slavonic Book of Enoch," in
R. J. Z. Werblowski and J. C, Bleaker, eds.. Types of Redemption (NumenSup 18; Leiden: Brill,
1970)75.
183. J. C. Picard, Apocalypsis Bantchi Graece (PVTG 2; Leiden: Brill, 1967) 75-78;
W. Hage, Die griechische Baruch-Apokalypse (JSHRZ 5.1; Gutersloh: Mohn, 1974) 17-20;
H. M. Hughes, "3 Baruch or the Greek Apocalypse of Baruch," in APOT, 2:527-41; H. E.
Gaylord, "3 (Greek Apocalypse of) Baruch," in OTP, 1:653-79; A. W. Argyle, "The Greek
Apocalypse of Baruch," in Sparks, ed.. The Apocryphal Old Testament. 897-914.
184. For a balanced treatment of both the Jewish Grundschrift and the Christian redac-
tion, see D. C. Harlow, The Greek Apocalypse of Baruch (3 Baruch) in Hellenistic Judaism and
Early Christianity (SVTP 12; Leiden: Brill, 1996).
256 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS A N D PIETY

sions to Egyptian and Greek mythology and its affinities with other products
of Egyptian J u d a i s m . S i n c e the apocalypse begins with Baruch lamenting
the destruction of Jerusalem, a date after 70 C.E., but not too long after, seems
p l a u s i b l e . O r i g e n {De Principiis 2.3.6) refers to a book of Baruch which
treats of seven heavens. 3 Baruch mentions only five. Most scholars assume
that two were lost in transmission, but we cannot be certain that Origen is re-
ferring to the same document, or that he knew it firsthand. Several recent
studies have argued that the five heaven schema is o r i g i n a l . I t may be un-
derstood as a deliberate adaptation of the usual seven heavens, to make the
point that a human being cannot attain full access to the divine throne.'^^
In its present form, 3 Baruch is a shorter and more simple composition
than 2 Enoch, and consists of the heavenly journey, with a brief introduction
and conclusion. The introduction gives the circumstances leading up to the
revelation: Baruch has been grieving over the destruction of Jerusalem. Then
an angel appears to show him "the mysteries of God." In the first heaven he
sees men who have "the faces of oxen, and the horns of stags, and the feet of
goats and the haunches of lambs" (2:3) and who are identified as those "who
built the tower of strife against God" (2:7). In the second heaven are men
whose appearance was like dogs and their feet like those of stags, and are
identified as "they who gave counsel to build the tower" (3:5). The contents
of the third heaven are most complex (chaps. 4-9). They include Hades and a
dragon which devours the bodies of the wicked. They also include the sun
and moon and a phoenix that shields the earth from the sun. In the course of
his tour of this heaven, Baruch inquires about "the tree which led Adam
astray" and thereby occasions a digression on the vine and the dangers of
wine. In the fourth heaven he sees multitudes of birds which sing the praises
of God and is told that this is where the souls of the righteous come. The
birds are generally assumed to represent the souls of the righteous.'^" Finally,
the fifth heaven is marked by a locked gate which is opened by the archangel
Michael. In this heaven the angels bring the merits of humanity in baskets to
Michael, who takes them up to God (presumably in a higher heaven). Hu-

185. Picard, Apocalypsis. 77-78; Fischer, Eschatologie, 75.

186. So also Goodman in Schurer, The History, 3.2:791.
187. J. C. Picard, "Observations sur I'Apocalypse grecque de Baruch I: Cadre historique
et efficacit^ symbolique," Semitica 20 (1970) 77-103; idem, '"Je te montrerai d'autres
mysteres plus grandes que ceux-ci' . . . Notes sur 3 Bar et quelques ecrits apparent^s," in
Histoire et Anthropologie des Communautes Juives el Chretiennes dans les Societes Anciennes
(Canal 8; Paris: Centre de Recherches de I'Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, 1991) 17-40;
Harlow, The Greek Apocalypse of Baruch, 34-76.
188. Harlow, The Greek Apocalypse of Baruch, 75-76.
189. The relation between Hades and the dragon is confused. See Fischer, Eschatologie,
80-82.
190. Hughes (in APOT, 2:539) cites b. Sanhedrin 92b, "And the soul may say: the body
has sinned, for since I separated from it, I fly in the air like a bird."
 THE MYSTERIES OF GOD 257

manity is rewarded for its merits and punished for the lack of them. The
apocalypse ends when Baruch is returned to his place, gives glory to God,
and exhorts his listeners to do likewise. Unlike other apocalypdc visionaries,
he is not transformed into an angelic state.^^*
Unlike Enoch, Baruch does not spell out his message in an explicit ex-
hortation at the end. The work still has a hortatory effect, through the list of
vices associated with the fruit of the vine in 4:17 and another list of sins that
defile the rays of the sun in 8:5. Much of the revelation focuses on rewards
and punishments in the afterlife. So the fate of the animal-like builders of the
tower and their advisers in the first two heavens stands in contrast to that of
the birdlike righteous in the fourth, and the climax of the revelation is the
judgment of the merits of humanity by God. All of this is evidentiy designed
to discourage vice and promote virtue.

The Attitude toward Jerusalem

3 Baruch addresses the problem of Jewish identity more directiy than the
Testament of Abraham or 2 Enoch, The lists of sins are concerned with such
universal matters as murder, fornication, and theft, although idolatry is also
included in 8:5. More significant is the attitude toward Jerusalem. At the be-
ginning of the book Baruch asks God: "Lord, why did you bum your vine-
yard and lay it waste? Why did you do this? And why. Lord, did you not re-
quite us with another punishment but hand us over to such nations as these,
so that they reproach us and say: 'Where is their God?'" The angel's reply is
surprising: "Understand, O man beloved, and do not trouble yourself so
much over the salvation of Jerusalem. The revelations which follow contain
no vision of Jerusalem restored, such as we find in the contemporary Judean
apocalypse 4 Ezra (10:27, 44) or even in the contemporary Egyptian Jewish
Sib. OK 5:420-32. How then does God respond to Baruch's initial question?
George Nickelsburg has pointed out that 3 Baruch 16:2 is "a para-
phrase, verging on a quotation of the LXX of Deuteronomy 32:21," Refer-
ence to punishment at the hands of a "non-nation" and a "foolish nation" re-
sponds to the seer's question in 1:2: "Why did you deliver us to nations such
as these?" The use of the language of Deuteronomy 32 indicates that the scat-
tering of the people and the destruction of Jerusalem are viewed as punish-
ment for the people's sins.'^-^ 3 Baruch 16 does not specify that the "sons of
men" who are to be punished are simply the Jews, and may have a broader

191. M. Himmefarb, Ascent to Heaven in Jewish and Christian Apocalypses (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1993) 87.
192. Nickelsburg, Jewish Literature, 302.
258 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS A N D PIETY

reference in mind. If we do apply this passage to the fate of Jerusalem, how-

ever, it is surprisingly harsh. Baruch has been told not to trouble himself
about the salvation of Jerusalem (1:3), not because that salvation is assured
but because the destruction of Jerusalem is deserved.
J. C. Picard has suggested that the rejection of Jerusalem here goes
even further. In 1:2 Jerusalem is the vineyard of the Lord. In chapter 4, the
vine is the tree that led Adam astray, but was saved from the flood and now
causes all mankind to sin. Picard argues that the vine in chapter 4 symbolizes
Jerusalem, like the vineyard in chapter 1. So the apparent digression on the
, vine is a symbolic condemnation of Jerusalem and responds directly to the
author's problem.'^^ This passage is interrupted by a promise that the fruit of
the vine will become "the blood of God" and that salvadon will come
through Christ, but this Christian passage is an evident interpoladon, since
the chapter concludes with a strong condemnation of the fruit of the vine and
a statement that nothing good Is established by it (4:17). The negative conno-
tadons of the vine in this chapter must be regarded as part of an original Jew-
ish composidon.
Picard's Interpretadon, that the vine in chapter 4 still refers to Jerusa-
lem, is not explicit in the text, and so must be regarded as less than certain.
However, there is no doubt that the apocalypse diminishes the significance of
the fall of Jerusalem. In 1:3 Baruch is told not to worry so much about the
salvation of Jerusalem. His transition from grief to glorifying God involves
no assurance that Jerusalem will be restored. While the apocalypse begins
with an opposition between Jerusalem and the nations, it ends with a contrast
between individuals who have merits and those who do not. The fate of Jeru-
salem is of littie consequence for the judgment of individuals. It is of interest
to note that even the "builders of the tower" and their advisers are not pun-
ished for destroying Jerusalem but for cruelty (in refusing to release a
woman for childbirth) and for attempting to discover the nature of heaven."^*

A System of Individual Rewards

3 Baruch replaces the traditional opposition of Israel and the nations with a
system of individual rewards and punishments. When the archangel Michael
takes up the merits of humanity and brings back their reward, no distinction
is made between Jew and Gentile. The significant division is between good
and bad. Apart from the sin of idolatry, which is mentioned in 8:5, the ethical

193. Picard, "Observations sur I'Apocalypse grecque de Baruch I," 77-103.

194. Nickelsburg (Jewish Literature, 302-3) implies that the builders are the Romans.
Picard ("Observations," 79) sees an allusion to Greek sophists.
 THE MYSTERIES OF GOD 259

code is of a highly general nature. As in 2 Enoch, the ethical message of the

book is given a supporting framework by the revelation of the heavens and
the eschatological judgment. The apocalypse provides an entire systeme du
monde^'^^ which seeks to integrate its eschatology into the order of the uni-
verse. The cosmology of the apocalypse, like its eschatology, requires super-
natural revelation, and therein lies the mystical aspect of 3 Baruch. Supernat-
ural knowledge provides the understanding of the way to salvation. The
actual conduct required by the apocalypse, however, is not esoteric at all but
conforms to the common ethic which would have been acceptable even to
enlightened Gentiles.
The revelation of 3 Baruch puts the fall of Jerusalem in perspective, as
the Testament of Abraham did with the problem of death. It provides an as-
surance, in chapter 16, that the destruction was a just punishment, but the pri-
mary response is that Jerusalem is insignificant in comparison with the
"mysteries of God" — the cosmology of the heavens and the judgment of all
humanity. We are reminded of the book of Job, where God's speech from the
whirlwind does not respond directly to Job's complaint but puts it in perspec-
tive by reciting the mysteries of creation.
3 Baruch, then, resolves the problem of the destruction of Jerusalem by
virtually breaking its connection with Jerusalem. This step was in some re-
spects the logical culmination of the tendency which we have seen in Helle-
nistic Judaism to view Judaism as a religion of ethical monotheism and
downplay its ethnic and particularistic aspects. Yet, we need only contrast 3
Baruch with Sibylline Oracle 5, which was written about the same time and
which sfill subscribed to the "common ethic," to see how radical the solution
of 3 Baruch appears, even within the Egyptian Diaspora. The author of
3 Baruch could have little sympathy with the Diaspora revolt. We may sus-
pect that he came from the upper classes, but there is little in the book to indi-
cate social status. Yet 3 Baruch is more explicitly Jewish than Pseudo-
Phocylides. At least the pseudonym and the angelology presuppose the Jew-
ish tradifion. In abandoning Jerusalem, the author was not abandoning Juda-
ism. He testifies to the range of conceptions of Jewish identity which were
still possible in the Diaspora in the period between the revolts.

Conclusion

The works we have considered in this chapter are diverse in character, rang-
ing from hymns and drama to narratives and apocalypses. What they all have

195. Picard, "Observations," 95-96.

260 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS A N D PIETY

in common is the appeal to higher revelation. The saving acts of God in the
history of Israel no longer provide an adequate basis for religion. True under-
standing depends on some supernatural knowledge which is not accessible to
all.
This appeal to supernatural knowledge does not of Itself determine the
pattern of religion. The books of Adam and Eve sdll represent a pattern of
covenantal nomism. In the great majority of cases, however, the emphasis on
true understanding shifts the focus away from the specific demands of the
law. In virtually all cases, the disdncdve Jewish requirements such as cir-
cumcision and the dietary laws are ignored. Further, the significance of
membership in the actual Jewish community becomes ambiguous. The main
requirement for salvation is the right understanding of wisdom, and in nearly
all cases this explicidy entails the rejection of idolatry. The Jewish authors
may generally have assumed that true wisdom was found primarily within
the Jewish community, as Philo surely did. Yet, in principle, the wise and
righteous do not necessarily correspond exacdy to those who are circum-
cised. So a document like the Testament of Abraham can Ignore the distinc-
tion between Jews and Gendles, and the visionary in 3 Baruch need not trou-
ble himself too much over the salvation of Jerusalem. Where the basic
understanding was derived from supernatural reveladon rather than the tradi-
tional formulation of the covenant, the basis for communal identity had been
altered and had become more elusive.

196. That is, they are not mentioned in the texts. We should not infer that they were no
longer observed or had lost all importance.
 CHAPTER SEVEN

Jews and Gentiles

The literature considered in the preceding chapters shows a hvely attempt by

Diaspora Jews to appropriate Hellenistic culture while maintaining their
Jewish identity, or rather to reconcile the two facets of their identity, which
were in tension, if not incompatible, at some crucial points. Hellenistic cul-
ture was not optional for the authors of these texts. It was the sea in which
they swam and was an integral part of their identity.^ But it was not
unproblematic. Consequently this literature shows a complex attitude toward
the Gentile world and the dominant culture. There is much polemic against
aspects of that culture, such as idolatry, although the culture as such is never
rejected. Moreover, much (not all) of this literature shows a deep concern for
Gentile approval. Hence the use of Gentile pseudonyms such as the sibyl or
Aristeas and the frequency with which Gentile admiration of Jews or Juda-
ism is noted or alleged. This literature has often been designated as apolo-
getic, propagandistic, or proselytizing. These labels have rather different im-
plications. Apologetic literature, which defends the rationality or even the
superiority of Judaism, does not have the conversion of Gentiles as its pri-
mary purpose, and may be primarily addressed to the Jews themselves. The
idea of a Jewish mission, or of active Jewish proselytism, however, which
was a virtual dogma of scholarship in the early twentieth century, has been
widely discredited in recent years.^

1. This point has been made forcefully by E. Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism: The
Reinvention of Jewish Tradition (Berkeley: University of Califomia Press, 1998).
2. S. McKnight, A Liglit among the Gentiles: Jewish Missionary Activity in the Second
Temple Period (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1991); S. J. D. Cohen, "Was Judaism in Antiquity a
Missionary Religion?" in M. Mor, ed., Jewish Assimilation, Acculturatioti, and Accommoda-
tion: Past Traditions, Current Issues, and Future Prospects (Lanham, Md.: University Press of
America, 1992) 14-23; M. Goodman, Mission and Conversion: Proselytizing in the Religious
History of the Roman Empire (Oxford: Clarendon, 1994). For the older literature that assumed

261
262 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS A N D PIETY

A Jewish Mission?

The only evidence for an organized Jewish proselytizing campaign is found

in the policies of Hasmoneans toward the Idumeans and Itureans in the late
second century B.C.E? There is no evidence that Jewish missionaries were
sent out by any central authority to the Greek or Roman world. It is possible,
however, that proselytizing was carried on in a less organized way. In the
words of Salo Baron: "Ahhough there were no professional missionaries, un-
interrupted religious propaganda seems to have gone on throughout the dis-
persion. There must have been Jews among the idnerant preachers and rheto-
ricians who voyaged from city to city, propagandizing for one or another
idea.'"*
There is some evidence for such proselytizing. In 139 B.C.E. the Jews
were allegedly expelled from Rome "because they attempted to transmit their
sacred rites to the Romans."^ Again under Tiberius in 19 C.E. Jews were ex-
pelled because "they were converting many of the natives to their customs."^
The best-known story of an historical conversion to Judaism in the Di-
aspora is the story of the royal house of Adiabene in the first century C.E., re-
counted by Josephus (Ant. 20.2.3-4 §§34-48). A Jewish merchant named
Ananias "visited the king's wives and taught them to worship God after the
manner of the Jewish tradition." Through them he also won over Izates, the
crown prince. In the meantime, his mother Helena had been converted by an-
other Jew. When Izates wished to be circumcised, since he considered that he
would not be genuinely a Jew otherwise, his mother tried to stop him "For,
she said, he was a king; and if his subjects should discover that he was de-

an active and successful Jevk'ish mission, see McKnight, A Light among the Gentiles, 2-3. The
main recent defenders of the Jewish mission are D. Georgi, The Opponents of Paul in Second
Corinthians (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1986) 83-151, and L. H. Feldman, "Was Judaism a Mis-
sionary Religion in Ancient Times?" in Mor, ed., Jewish Assimilation, 24-37; idem, Jew and
Gentile in the Ancient World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993) 288-382.
3. Ant. 13.9.1 §§257-58; 13.11.3 §319. The reliability of Josephus's account is some-
times questioned.
4. S. Baron, A Social and Religious History of the Jews (2d ed.; New York: Columbia
University Press, 1952) 1:173.
5. Valerius Maximus 1.3.3. Three summaries of this text survive, one of which says that
the Jews "attempted to infect the Roman customs with the cuh of Jupiter Sabazius." The sec-
ond does not mention the Jews, and the third does not mention Sabazius. In "Sabazius and the
Jews in Valerius Maximus: A Re-examination," JRS 69 (1979) 35-38, E. N. Lane argues that
the Jews were expelled, but that the association with Sabazius is due to an error in the transmis-
sion of the text.
6. Cassius Dio, Historia Rotnana 57.18.5a; text available in M. Stem, Greek and Latin
Authors on Jews and Judaism (3 vols.; Jerusalem: Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities,
1974-84) 2:365. Josephus blames this episode on four individuals who deceived a proselyte
named Fulvia {Ant. 18.3.4-5 §§65-84). See also Tacitus, Annals 2.85.5; Suetonius, Tiberius
36.1; and E. M, Smallwood, The Jews under Roman Rule (Leiden: Brill, 1976) 201-6.
 JEWS AND GENTILES 263

voted to rites that were strange and foreign to themselves, it would produce
much disaffection and they would not tolerate the rule of a Jew over them."
Ananias supported her, partly out of self-interest, since he feared he would be
blamed if there was a revolt, but also because he held that "he could worship
God (to theion sebein) even without circumcision if he had fully decided to
be devoted to the ancestral customs of the Jews, for this was more important
than circumcision." He added that God would pardon him if, constrained by
necessity and by fear of his subjects, he failed to perform the rite. Izates was
persuaded for the time being, but later another Jew, Eleazar, came from Gali-
lee. He had a reputation for being very strict about the law, and he persuaded
Izates that circumcision was indeed necessary. His mother's fears of rebel-
lion were not realized, and, indeed, Izates enjoyed divine protection. He and
his mother became renowned benefactors of Jerusalem.''
Finally we may note the oft-quoted denunciation of the Pharisees in
Matt. 23:15, "for you cross sea and land to make a single convert." It has
been argued that the converts in question were Jews converted to the Phari-
saic halakah.^ ("To cross sea and land" Is presumably an idiom meaning "to
go to great lengths"). The Matthean reference may well refer to the conver-
sion of non-Jews, but other evidence that is commonly cited in this connec-
tion is not compelling. Horace, Satires 1.4.138-43 ("like Jews, we will com-
pel you to yield to our throng"), does not necessarily refer to proselytizing at
all, but may involve coercion for other purposes.^
This evidence shows that there was some proselytizing activity by Jews
from time to time in the ancient world. It scarcely amounts to a missionary
movement, however. The main argument for such a movement is the alleged
dramatic increase in Jewish population in this period. Baron puts the number
of Jews in the middle of the first century C.E. at eight million, or one eighth of
the population of the Roman Empire.'*^ Hamack estimated half that number,
which would still be considerable.'^ Feldman argues that either figure re-
quires conversion on a massive s c a l e . B u t the only basis for these estimates
is Philo's claim that there were one million Jews in Egypt.'^ This claim was
not based on any reliable data and may be grossly exaggerated. No confident

7. For an analysis of this story, see L. H. Schiffman, "The Conversion of the Royal
House of Adiabene in Josephus and Rabbinic Sources," in L. H. Feldman and G. Hata, eds.,
Josephus, Judaism, and Christianity (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1987) 293-312.
8. Goodman, Conversion, 69-73.
9. "veluti ludaei cogemus in hanc concedere turbam. " See J. Nolland, "Proselytism or
Politics in Horace, Satires 1.4.138-143," VC 33 (1979) 347-55.
10. Baron, A Social and Religious History, 170, 370-72.
11. A. von Harnack, The Mission and Expansion of Christianity in the First Three Cen-
turies (2d ed.; London: Williams and Norgate, 1908) 1-8.
12. Feldman, Jew and Gentile, 293; "Was Judaism a Missionary Religion?" 26-27.
13. In Flaccum 6.23. See Cohen, "Was Judaism in Antiquity a Missionary Rehgion?"
19-20.
264 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

inferences can be based on such conjectural demographics. The evidence at

our disposal suggests that there was no Jewish mission in the Hellenistic
world in the sense in which a Christian mission developed. Jewish prosely-
tism was a sporadic affair. Evidence of proselydsm in Egypt is remarkable by
its absence.
There is, however, evidence of looser forms of attachment to Judaism.
Philo claims that "not only Jews but almost every other people, particularly
those which take more account of virtue, have so far grown in holiness as to
value and honor our laws" (De Vita Mosis 2.17). We may assume some exag-
geration here, but the claim is supported by Seneca's complaint that "the cus-
toms of this accursed race have gained such influence that they are now re-
ceived throughout all the world. The vanquished have given their laws to the
victors."'* Both Philo and Seneca emphasize the observance of the Sabbath.
Philo presents the synagogues as schools of philosophy which stand wide
open in every city on each seventh day, where the law is preached under two
main "heads" of duty to God and to humanity (De Specialibus Legibus
2.62).'^ Josephus claims that the Jews of Andoch "were constantly attracting
to their religious ceremonies multitudes of Greeks, and these they had in
some measure incorporated into themselves" (J.W. 7.3.3 §45). Such adher-
ents, who were not full converts, are known in modem scholarship as "God-
fearers" and "sympathizers."

T h e "God-fearers"

The term "God-fearers" is derived from the book of Acts, where it refers to
pious Gendles. '^ The prime example is Comehus, the centurion of Caesarea, in
Acts 10. Two others are named: Tidus Justus in 18:7 and Lydia in 16:14.
Throughout Acts the phrases phoboumenoi ton theon (e.g., 13:16, 26) and
sebomenoi ton theon (in various forms, e.g.. Acts 17:4, 17) occur as technical
terms for pious Gentiles. In modem scholarship, these people have often been
thought to constitute a well-defined class in association with the synagogue.
The description of this class in the Pauly-Wissowa Real-Encyclopadie article
of K. G. Kuhn and H. Stegemann is typical: "they frequent the services of the
synagogue, they are monotheists in the biblical sense, and they participate in

14. Seneca, in Augustine, De Civitate Dei 6.11. Stem, Greek and Latin Authors, 1:431.
15. On the potential of the synagogue service as a medium for attracting Gentiles, see
especially Georgi, The Oppotients of Paul, 84-91.
16. The following discussion is adapted from my article, "A Symbol of Otherness: Cir-
cumcision and Salvation in the First Century," in Seers, Sibyls and Sages in Hellenistic-Roman
Judaism (Leiden: Brill, 1997) 211-35.
 JEWS AND GENTILES 265

some of the ceremonial requirements of the Law, but they have not moved to
full conversion to Judaism through circumcision. They are called . . . sebo-
menoi or phoboumenoi ton theon."^'^ Estimates of their number have been high
("perhaps millions").Yet recently A. T. Kraabel has proclaimed their disap-
pearance and argued that "at least for the Roman Diaspora, the evidence pres-
ently available is far from convincing proof for the existence of such a class of
Gentiles."'^
The issue has a number of aspects which should be distinguished. First,
there is a question as to whether certain expressions such as hoi phobou-
menoi ton theon are technical terms for a well-defined class. Second,
whether there was a class of pious Gentiles interested in Judaism; and third,
whether those Gentiles, if they existed, conformed to the description set out
in Pauly-Wissowa.
The only undisputed technical name for pious Gentiles is the expres-
sion "fearers of heaven" in the Talmudic literature.^'' Even here it does not
seem that a consistent code of behavior was implied. In the opinion of Saul
Liebermann, "all the 'fearers of Heaven' must have accepted monotheism
and the moral laws, whereas in questions of religious ceremonies and ritual
they may have widely differed."^' There is also some difference of opinion
as to whether these "fearers of heaven" would attain salvation after death.
The story of a Roman senator who gave his life to protect the Jews in Mid-
rash Debarim Rahbah 2.24 clearly implies that he would not have been
saved if he had not been circumcised.^^ By contrast. Rabbi is said to have
told Antoninus that he could eat of Leviathan in the world to come, but not of
the Passover lamb, since he was not circumcised.^^
Outside the Rabbinic literature, the main body of evidence is found in
Acts in the usage of phoboumenoi and sebomenoi. Even here it is question-
able how far these are technical terms rather than ad hoc descriptions.^'* The
nontechnical sense is suggested in part by the strange distribution —

17. K. G. Kuhn and H. Stegemann, "Proselyten," PWRESup 9 (1962) 1260.

18. Encyclopedia Judaica, 10:55.
19. A. T. Kraabel, 'The Disappearance of the 'God-Fearers,'" in J. A. Overman and
R. S. MacLennan, eds.. Diaspora Jews and Judaism: Essays in Honor of, and in Dialogue witli.
A. Thomas Kraabel (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992) 119-30. See also Kraabel and MacLennan,
"The God-Fearers — A Literary and Theological Invention," in ibid., 131-43.
20. L. H. Feldman, "Jewish 'Sympathizers' in Classical Literature and Inscriptions,"
TAPA 81 (1950) 208; F. Siegert, "Gottesfurchtige und Sympathisanten," 75J4 (1973) 110.
21. S. Liebermann, Greek in Jewish Palestine (New York: Jewish Theological Seminary
of America, 1942) 81.
22. Siegert, "Gottesfurchtige," 110-112.
23. Liebermann, Greek in Jewish Palestine, 78-80.
24. K. Lake, "Proselytes and God-Fearers," in F. J. Foakes Jackson and K. Lake, eds.,
The Begitmings of Christianity: Part I. The Acts of the Apostles (London: Macmillan, 1933)
74-96.
266 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

phoboumenoi in the first half of Acts, sebomenoi in the second. The expres-
sion ton sebomenon proselytdn in Acts 13:43 makes it difficult to maintain
that sebomenoi was a technical term for a class distinct from proselytes.
Moreover, it is not clear precisely what constitutes a phoboumenos or
sebomenos, beyond some reverence for the God of Israel. Cornelius, who is
ceitainly not a proselyte, shows his piety by almsgiving and prayer. In other
cases the "God-fearers" are associated with the synagogues. In no case, how-
ever, are we told how far they kept the Jewish law or whether they were strict
monotheists.
Supporting evidence for the terminology of Acts is rare indeed. No tech-
nical terms for such pious Gendles are found in Hellenlsdc Jewish literature
before Josephus. In Joseph andAseneth it is Joseph, the Israelite, who is called
theosebes (8:5, 6) and phoboumenos ton theon (8:5, 6 and 8:9).^^ Even in
Josephus, only one passage uses sebomenoi in the supposed technical sense
{Ant. XA.l.l §110). This passage explains the wealth of the Jerusalem temple
by reference to the contributions of ton kata ten oikoumenen loudaion kai
sebomenon ton theon. Even in this case the interpretation is disputed. Kirsopp
Lake argued that since sebomenon does not have the article, it should be read as
a further description of the Jews, so "all the Jews worshipping God throughout
the world."26 Against this, the presence of the kai and the analogy with Acts
support the view that the sebomenoi are disdnct (e.g., Acts 17:17: "he spoke in
the synagogue tois loudaiois kai tois sebomenois").^^ Even if the reference in
Josephus is to pious Gentiles, the use of the term is poorly supported.
Neither phoboumenos ton theon nor sebomenos ton theon occurs in in-
s c r i p t i o n s . D e b a t e has centered on the occurrence of the Greek term
theosebes and the Latin metuens. The term theosebes is used by Josephus to
refer to Poppaea, consort of Nero, who interceded for Jews on two occasions.
She was not known for her piety, however, and there is no reason to infer
from Josephus anything more than a general sympathy for the Jews.^^ Those,
like Lifshitz, who find evidence for the "God-fearers" in the inscripdons as-
sume the existence of this class on the basis of Acts and Josephus and look
for anything that could be interpreted as a reference to it.^*^ The problem with

25. Cf. the phrase hoi phoboumenoi ton kyrion with reference to pious Jews in the LXX
(2 Chron. 5:6; Pss. 115:9-11; 118:2-4; 135:19-20; Mai. 3:16). See J. A. Overman, 'The God-
Fearers: Some Neglected Features," in Overman and MacLennan, eds.. Diaspora Jews, 145-52.
26. Lake, "Proselytes and God-Fearers," 85.
27. R. Marcus, 'The Sebomenoi in Josephus," Jewish Social Studies 14 (1952) 247-50;
Siegert, "Gottesfurchtige," 127,
28. Siegert, "Gottesfurchtige," 151.
29. Ant. 20.8.11 §195; Vita 16. She was implicated in the murder of Agrippina and the
banishment of Octavia. See Siegert, "Gottesfurchtige," 160.
30. B. Lifshitz, "Du Nouveau sur les 'Sympathisants,'" JSJ 1 (1970) 80: "Si done ces
demi-proselytes sont indubitablement attest^s chez Josephe et dans le NT on les cherchait tout
naturellement dans les inscriptions."
 JEWS AND GENTILES 267

this procedure was noted by Feldman.'' Both theosebes and metuens can be
used in a pagan, polytheistic context.^^ When they are used in a Jewish con-
text, they may simply refer to Jews.
Until recently there was no clear instance of the use of theosebeis to refer
to Gentile sympathizers with Judaism. Such an instance now seems to be pro-
vided by a late second- or early third-century-c.E. inscription from Aphrodisias
in Asia Minor. This inscription uses the term for a group that is distinguished
from the Jews but associated with them.'' Other occurrences must now be re-
considered in light of this: for example, the problematic inscriptions from the
Miletus theater (Eioudedn ton kai Theosebion), where the word order initially
suggests one group, the Jews, rather than two; and the Pantikapaion inscrip-
tion, which refers to the synagogue ton loudaidn kai theon sebon?'^ It should be
noted, however, that theosebes is not in any case an unequivocal term. It may
still, on occasion, refer to a Jew (as in Joseph and Aseneth), or, in a polytheistic
context, to a pagan. The meaning of each occurrence must be judged from its
context. The Aphrodisias evidence bears most directly on the use of the plural
theosebeis to designate a group. Occurrences of the singular theosebes in epi-
taphs or in the inscriptions from the Sardis synagogue remain quite ambiguous.
Even in the Aphrodisias inscription it is not clear what qualifies a person as a
member of the theosebeis.^^ They may, for example, be people who gave some
financial support to the synagogue. Finally, it Is well to remember that
theosebeis is not the term used in Acts, and so it does not confer a technical
sense on sebomenoi or phoboumenoi. Moreover, the evidence from Aphro-
disias in the late second or early third century C.E. cannot be assumed to be
valid for other times and places.
The case for a technical understanding of metuens rests largely on Juv-
enal's fourteenth satire, which refers to a Roman father who is metuentem
sabbata, "one who fears, or reveres, the Sabbaths."'^ In the same passage,

31. Feldman, "Jewish 'Sympathizers,'" 205.

32. For the term theosebes, see G. Bertram, "theosebes, iheosebeia," TDNT 3 (1965)
123-28. In the phrase deutn metuens. deuin may be genitive plural (Siegert, "Gottesfiirchtige,"
152).
33. J. M. Reynolds and R. Tannenbaum, Jews and Godfearers at Aphrodisias (Cam-
bridge: Cambridge Philological Society, 1987). See the maximalist interpretation of this in-
scription by Feldman, Jew and Gentile, 362-69.
34. See L. Robert, Nouvelles Inscriptions de Sardes (Paris: Maisonneuve, 1964) 41; and
T. Rajak, "Jews and Christians as Groups in a Pagan World," in J. Neusner and E. S. Frerichs,
eds., "To See Ourselves as Others See Us": Christians. Jews, "Others" in Late Antiquity
(Chico, Calif.: Scholars Press, 1985) 247-81.
35. See the comments of A. T. Kraabel, "Synagoga Caeca: Systematic Distortion in
Gentile Interpretations of Evidence for Judaism in the Early Christian Period," in Overman and
MacLennan, eds.. Diaspora Jews, 46-47; S. J. D. Cohen, "Crossing the Boundary and Becom-
ing a Jew," HTR 82 (1989) 13-33.
36. The argument was developed by J. Bernays, "Die Gottesfiirchtigen bei Juvenal," in
Gesammelte Abhandlungen von Jacob Bernays (Berlin: Hertz, 1885) 2:71-80.
268 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS AND PIETY

however, the phrase metuunt ius refers to full proselytes. In the inscriptions,
metuens is found in both pagan and Jewish epitaphs. There is no unambigu-
ous occurrence for God-fearer, although that usage is not necessarily ex-
cluded.^''
The terminology, then, shows some fluctuation. Phoboumenoi, sebo-
menoi, and theosebeis can all on occasion refer to Gentiles who are associ-
ated with Judaism in some way, but none of these terms is unequivocal, and
each occurrence must be interpreted in its own context.
The evidence for Gendle adherents of Judaism is not, however, limited
to this terminology.^^ We have already noted the statements of Philo and Sen-
eca about the spread of Jewish laws and Josephus's claim that the Jews of
Andoch pardally incorporated Gendle admirers. Izates of Adiabene was ini-
tially told that it was possible to worship God without circumcision. It has
been suggested that the expression "to worship God" (to theion sebein) is a
play on the phrase sebomenos ton theon, and denotes a special class of "God-
fearers" who observed the Jewish laws but stopped short of circumcision.^^
The class was not necessarily well defined, but the incident shows accep-
tance by some Jews of Gendles who stopped short of full conversion.
Josephus further claims.

The masses have long since shown a keen desire to adopt our reli-
gious observances; and there is not one city, Greek or barbarian, nor
a single nation, to which our custom of abstaining from work on the
seventh day has not spread, and where fasts and the lighting of lamps
and many of our prohibitions in the matter of food are not observed.
(Ag. Ap. 2.282)

This claim is corroborated by frequent allusions to Jewish customs in

the Roman satirists.*'' Much of the Roman evidence suggests a rather super-
stitious curiosity, although it could lead in time to full conversion. According
to Juvenal:

Some who have had a father who reveres the Sabbath worship noth-
ing but the clouds and the divinity of the heavens, and see no differ-
ence between eating swine's flesh, from which their father abstained,

37. Siegert. "Gottesfurchtige," 152.

38. Cf. Overman, "The God-Fearers," 151.
39. See Siegert, "Gottesfurchtige," 129.
40. On the Roman reception of Judaism, see M. Stem, "The Jews in Greek and Latin
Literature," in S. Safrai and M. Stem, eds.. The Jewish People in the First Century (CRINT 1.2;
Assen: Van Gorcum; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1976) 1101-59. Even Augustus is said to have
boasted that "not even a Jew, my dear Tiberius, observes the Sabbath fast as faithfully as I did
today" (Suetonius, Augustus 76). See also R. Goldenberg, "The Jewish Sabbath in the Roman
World up to the Time of Constantine the Great," ANRW 11.19.1 (1979) 414-47.
 JEWS AND GENTILES 269

and that of humans; and soon they lay aside their foreskins. Being
wont to flout the laws of Rome, they learn and practice and revere
the Jewish law, and all that Moses committed to his secret volume:
not to show the ways to anyone who does not practice the same rites
and to lead only the circumcised to the desired fountain. But the fa-
ther is to blame, who devoted every seventh day to idleness, keeping
it apart from all the concerns of life. (Satires 14:96-106)

The distinction between the partially observant father and fully converted son
is supported by Epictetus's reference to the type-figure who "is not a Jew but is
only acting the part," as opposed to one who has been baptized."*' Juvenal is
not, of course, scrupulous about the accuracy of his portrayal of Judaism, but
the very fact that he paints with broad strokes assures that the "Sabbath-fear-
ing" father was a familiar figure in Rome in the late first century C.E.
We know of several instances in first-century Rome where people of
high station were attracted to Judaism. Josephus reports how a lady named
Fulvia in the time of Tiberius had gone over to the customs of the Jews and
was persuaded by four Jews to send purple and gold to the temple of Jerusa-
lem.^2 Xhe four Jews appropriated the gifts, but the incident was reported to
Tiberius and allegedly led to the expulsion of four thousand Jews, who were
sent on military service to Sardinia. Poppaea, mistress and eventually second
wife of Nero, was at least sympathetic to Judaism, although it is unlikely that
she was a proselyte.*' Under Domitian, Flavius Clemens, cousin of the em-
peror and consul, was executed and his wife, Flavia Domltilla, was exiled.
The charge against them was atheism, "a charge on which many others who
were drifting into Jewish ways were condemned."'*'* From these examples we
can see that Judaism made some inroads into the upper classes, at least in the
first century C.E.*^ Tacitus complained that these sympathizers with Judaism

4!. Arrian, Dissertaliones 2.9.19-21. Note that the point of transition here is not circum-
cision but baptism.
42. Ant. 18.3.5 §§81-84. For discussion see Georgi, The Opponents of Paul, 92-93;
Smallwood, The Jews under Roman Rule 201-8. This incident should be related to the report of
Tacitus {Annals 2.85.4) that in 19 c.E. action was taken to expel Egyptian and Jewish rites, and
that 4,000 freedmen were sent to Sardinia on military duty. See also Suetonius, Tiberius 36.
43. Ant. 20.8.11 §195; Vita 3.16 §3. Josephus says she was theosebes, but see
Smallwood, The Jews under Roman Rule, 278 n. 79, who denies that she had any personal lean-
ings toward Judaism.
44. Cassius Dio, Historia Rontana 67.14.1-3; text in Stern, Greek atid iMtin Authors,
2:379-80. See Smallwood, The Jews under Roman Rule, 378. Flavia Domitilla was almost cer-
tainly the niece of the emperor. Smallwood suggests that the Rabbinic story of a senator Ketiah
bar Shalom, who either was executed for interceding for the Jews or committed suicide, is
based on the execution of Flavius Clemens (Smallwood, "Domitian's Attitudes towards Jews
and Judaism," Classical Philology 51 [19561 1-13).
45. For further contacts between the imperial household and Judaism, see Siegert,
"Gottesfurchtige," 150.
270 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS A N D PIETY

sent contributions to Jerusalem: "the worst ones among other peoples, re-
nouncing their ancestral religions, always kept sending tribute and contribut-
ing to Jerusalem, thereby increasing the wealth of the Jews."*^ The same
phenomenon was cause for boasdng for Josephus, who explained the wealth
of the temple by the claim that "all the Jews throughout the habitable world
and those who worshipped God, even those from Asia and Europe, had been
contributing to it for a very long dme" (Ant. 14.7.2 §110). Josephus also
claims that at the outbreak of the Jewish war, when the Syrians had rid them-
selves of the Jews, "still each city had its Judaizers, who aroused suspicion"
(J.W. 2.18.2 §463). These constituted "an equivocal element" which the Syri-
ans regarded as alien, though evidentiy not as Jews.*^
This evidence shows beyond reasonable doubt that Judaism in the Ro-
man Diaspora did win adherents who stopped short of circumcision. Even if
one regards the account of Paul's missionary activity in Acts as largely fic-
tional, the fiction requires verisimilitude to establish plausibility. Luke
would scarcely have given such prominence to a category that was not
known to exist at all. It does not, however, corroborate the description of this
class that we find in the Pauly-Wissowa article of Kuhn and Stegemann or in
Lifshitz's article. What we find Is a broad range of degrees of attachment, not
a class with specific requirements or with a clearly defined status in the syna-
gogue. Juvenal's fourteenth satire illustrates the range: first the father who
observes the Sabbath, then the son who worships nothing but the clouds and
the divinity of heaven, finally circumcision. Not all so-called "God-fearers,"
even in Acts, were necessarily monotheists or had necessarily broken.their
ties with the pagan community. There was also a spectrum of opinion on the
Jewish side, as we can see from the story of Izates. We should like to know
more of the manner in which the Jews of Antioch incorporated Greeks, or
what the "piety" of the theosebeis of Aphrodisias entailed.

The Function of the Literature

Much of the evidence for "God-fearers" and sympathizers comes from the
first century C.E. or later, and very littie of it comes from Egypt.*^ Nonethe-

46. Tacitus, Histories 5.5.1. See Feldman, "Was Judaism a Missionary Religion?" 30.
47. Josephus also claims that the women of Damascus had with few exceptions become
converts to the Jewish religion (J. W. 2.20.2 §560). While the claim is hyperbolic, it presumably
had some basis.
48. Goodman, Conversion, 118, notes that most of the inscriptional evidence for God-
fearers comes from Asia Minor and its environs. He argues that the imposition of the fiscus
ludaicus in 96 C E . led to sharper definitions of who was a Jew.
 JEWS AND GENTILES 271

less it must be taken into account in considering the function of the predomi-
nantly Egyptian Jewish literature that has been the subject of this book. The
reports of Josephus and Tacitus that Judaizing Gentiles sent money to Jerusa-
lem is anticipated in the invitation of the Third Sibyl to the Greeks to send
gifts to the temple (Sib. Or. 3:545-72). The identification of the God of the
Jews with Zeus or Dis in Pseudo-Aristeas and Aristobulus opened the way
for Greeks to worship the God of Israel without entirely abandoning pagan
religion. The sayings of Pseudo-Phocylides represent the kind of ethical
monotheism that might appeal to a God-fearing Gentile who did not want to
become a full member of the synagogue.
It is clear enough that the Hellenistic Jewish literature was not com-
posed as part of a great Jewish missionary endeavor to convert the Gentiles.
There was no such Jewish missionary movement. The current consensus of
scholarship is that Jewish literature composed in Greek was almost all ad-
dressed to a Jewish audience. Yet Martin Goodman, who has done more than
most to demolish the belief in a mission to win proselytes, nonetheless grants
that there is "some evidence of a Jewish mission to win gentile sympathizers
in the first century.'"*^ It seems to me that we must also allow for such an in-
tention in much of the literature from the second century B.C.E. on. No doubt
the polemics against idolatry in the Sibylline Oracles and the Wisdom of Sol-
omon would have offended most Gentiles, if they had happened to read
them. But even In these works, we have seen a persistent attempt to formu-
late arguments that enlightened and sympathetic Greeks might in principle
entertain. Whether in fact any of this literature made any impression on
Gentiles, we do not know. We have no evidence that it did. Those Gentiles
who were attracted to Judaism are more likely to have learned of it from per-
sonal contacts or from synagogue services than from literature that they
would often have found difficult to comprehend.
Even if we allow for some genuine attempt to address the Gentiles,
however, there can be little doubt that the Hellenistic Jewish literature was
primarily self-expression, the attempt of Hellenized Jews to express and pro-
claim their own identity. The self-confidence of this literature has been cele-
brated in recent scholarship, with some justification.^^ But to claim that "the
surviving products do not present a struggle for identity in an alien world, an
apologia for strange customs and beliefs"^' goes too far. Such an apologia is
very explicit In the Letter of Aristeas, and in some of the works of Philo.
Moreover, virtually all of this literature is engaged in an apologetic enter-
prise, to justify the rationality and even superiority of Judaism by Hellenistic

49. Ibid., 87.

50. See especially Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism, 292-93.
51. Ibid. 1 agree with Gruen that the literature is not "propaganda meant to persuade the
Gentiles."
272 IDENTITY THROUGH ETHICS A N D PIETY

canons, for the benefit of the Jews themselves, if not of the Gentiles. This en-
terprise is as clearly evident in a conservative work like 4 Maccabees as it is
in the Letter of Aristeas. Only in the more mystically oriented works, such as
the apocalypses of 3 Baruch and 2 Enoch, or the Testament of Abraham and
Testament of Job, does the apologia for Judaism cease to be a central con-
cern.
 Conclusion

It should be apparent from the foregoing chapters that there was no simple
normative definition which determined Jewish identity in the Hellenlsdc Di-
aspora. There are, however, some persistent tendencies. All these attempts to
articulate Jewish identity move between two poles. On the one hand, there
are the constraints of the Jewish tradition. On the other are the values of the
Hellenistic world. Most of the material we have surveyed can be viewed in
one aspect as a spectrum of attempts to strike a balance between these com-
peting factors and overcome the dissonance between them.
The Jewish tradition could be construed in various ways. The pattern of
"covenantal nomism" which E. P. Sanders had posited as the dominant con-
struction of Judaism was certainly represented in the Diaspora, in such di-
verse works as the chronicle of Demetrius, Fourth Maccabees, and the books
of Adam and Eve. Yet it was not the only, or even the dominant, factor in the
religion of Hellenistic Judaism. The Jewish tradition could also be construed
as the story of a glorious past which fostered ethnic pride, with little regard
for religious laws or for anything that could be called nomism, as we found
most conspicuously in Artapanus. It could also be construed as a moral sys-
tem which prized universal human values and attached little importance to
distinctive laws such as circumcision. The Jewish people might still be re-
garded as the paradigm for righteous humanity, but a righteous Gentile was
preferable to an unrighteous Jew. Pseudo-Phocylides makes no explicit refer-
ence to Judaism. What matters is the code of conduct, not allegiance to a
given people. In the Testament of Abraham and 3 Baruch there is ultimately
no distinction between Jew and Gentile at the judgment. These are admit-
tedly extreme examples. Loyalty to the Jewish community is evidentiy an
important factor in the great majority of cases (3 Maccabees is a striking ex-
ample). Yet, there was a soft boundary line between Jew and Gentile. The

273
274 CONCLUSION

God-fearers and sympathizers may not have been a well-defined class, but
they are important because they illustrate the gray area where the boundary
between Jew and Gentile becomes unclear and loses some of its importance.
The political identity of the Diaspora Jews is also achieved through
balancing traditional loyalty with their new allegiance. Jerusalem enjoys
symbolic importance, as it provides the Jews with a venerable center which
is peculiarly their own. Yet even a work like Sib. Or. 3, which glorifies the Je-
rusalem temple, does so without diminishing its loyalty to the Gentile rulers
of Egypt. For Philo and his like, the status of Jews in Alexandria was a more
urgent concern than the prospect of eschatological restoration in Judea. Only
in the traumatic period after 70 C.E. do we find a movement to abandon the
Diaspora and return to Jerusalem. Even then this aspiration may not have
been shared by the upper-class Jews, and it is only in this period that we find
significant social division within the Diaspora. At the same period, we find a
diametrically opposite view in 3 Baruch, which is prepared to abandon con-
cern for the welfare of Jerusalem and focus on the merits of the individual.
Even the most conservative strands of Diaspora Judaism still attempt to
strike a balance with Hellenistic culture. So Demetrius attempts to satisfy the
standards of critical historiography, and 4 Maccabees makes full use of
Greek rhetoric. Sibylline Oracle 5, which exhibits the most far-reaching re-
jection of the Gentile world, still uses a traditional Greek form of expression
and the pseudonym of the sibyl. This pervasive use of Hellenistic forms of
expression cannot be adequately understood as a device to attract the Gen-
tiles. For most of its history. Diaspora Judaism did attempt, with varying de-
grees of success, to win adherents and sympathizers. The use of Hellenistic
forms, however, and even the very desire to win Gentile adherents, sprang
from the self-identity of the Jews as respectable civilized members of Helle-
nistic society.
The common thread of Jewish identity, however, comes from the reh-
ance, in whatever form, on the Jewish tradition. The author of 3 Baruch still
uses the pseudonym of a Hebrew prophet. Artapanus may pay scant attention
to Deuteronomic law, but he is determined to glorify the ancestors of the
Jews. Philo's philosophy may be basically derived from the Greek tradition,
but he expresses it through exegesis of the Jewish Torah. Even Pseudo-
Phocylides, who makes no explicit references to Judaism, betrays his identity
by his use of the Septuagint. This common reliance on the tradition, rather
than any specific interpretation of it, is what enables us to distinguish Jew
from Gentile in the Hellenistic Diaspora.
The attempt of Jews to find common ground with their Gentile neigh-
bors suffered a severe setback in the tragic revolt in the time of Trajan. The
tradition was not entirely terminated: the Jewish sibylUne oracles continue
for centuries after the revolt. Yet, the attempt at cultural synthesis was under-
 CONCLUSION 275

mined and could never again be pursued with such vigor. The legacy of the
Hellenistic Diaspora was inherited not by Judaism but by the emerging
Chrisdan church. The Hellenlsdc Jews failed to win the respect and accep-
tance they desired from the Hellenistic world. Yet, their endeavor should not
be judged a failure because of its historical outcome. The debacle of the great
revolt was not a result of the Hellenizadon of Judaism but of social and polit-
ical tensions within the Roman Empire, over which Jews had little control.
The endeavor to find common ground between Athens and Jerusalem re-
mains a noble effort; it attests a faith in the human community which tran-
scends national, ethnic, and religious boundaries. The attempt to articulate a
common ethic, acceptable to diverse traditions, and to relate individual tradi-
tions to universal values remains a worthy goal which must still be pursued
in our own day. It is in the search for a universal common bond that the future
of humanity lies.
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 Index of Subjects

Abraham, 34-35, 39, 40, 42, 44-45, 48- Babylonian exile, 3

53, 55-57, 220-24, 236, 239, 248-51 baptism, 106, 167, 211, 232
Actium, 145 Bar Kochba, 148
Adiabene, 262, 268 Belial/Beliar, 146
Agrippa, 137-38 Berossus, 30, 33, 49, 52
agon motif, 208, 242 Buzyges, 170
Alcimus, 69
Alexander the Great, 29, 41, 64-65, 67, Caligula. 118-19, 125-28. 134, 151
143 canon, 20
Alexander Polyhistor, 31 -32 Carthage, 86
Allegorists, 20-21 Chelkias, 70
allegory, 187-90, 216. 236 Cicero, 7, 8, 13, 164
Ananias, Jewish general, 70, 71 circumcision, 8, 13, 55, 58-59, 160, 163,
Andreas, 142 167, 169, 183, 213, 230, 232, 234,
251, 255, 263, 268-70
animal cults, 42, 45, 158, 165, 192, 201
Claudius, letter of, 12. 116, 119-21
Antiochus III, the Great, 68, 86, l U n .
Cleopatra II, 99-100, 123-24
Antiochus IV Epiphanes, 48. 69. 71, 76,
Cleopatra III, 70, 72, 96, 100
79, 89, 90, 91
Cleopatra V, 110, 111
Ai\tiochus VII Sidetes, 10, 59
Cleopatra VII, 85, 89, 145, 148, 152
anti-Semitism, II, 13 competitive historiography, 30-31, 40-
Aphrodisias, 267, 270 4 1 , 4 6 , 53
Apion, 10, 24, 119, 127, 129 Cornelius, 264, 266
apocalyptic literature, 22, 219, 224, 240, covenant form, 177-78
247-60 covenantal nomism, 21-22, 35, 79, 189,
ApoUonius Molon, 7, 10, 110 192, 260. 273
apologetics, 14-16, 261-72 Cumae, 83
Aristeas the exegete, 35-37
astrology, 42, 49, 162-64. 220. 222 Cyrus of Persia, 92, 93, 95
Augustus, 114-16, 118-19, 134, 151
Death, 249-50, 259

303
304 INDEX OF SUBJECTS

dietary laws, 13, 129, 160, 163, 206, 251 Hyksos, 9-10, 90
Dionysus, 38, 67-68, 122-23 Hyrcanus, John, 48, 58-60
dissonance, 14-15 Hyrcanus II, 70
divination, 163 Hyrcanus, Tobiad, 75, 76, 78
Dositheus, son of Drimylus, 67, 68, 121,
123 idolatry, 87, 105, 158-60, 162-63, 165-
Dositheus, general, 68, 109 67, 172, 183, 193, 195, 198-200, 231,
Dualism, 182-83 233-34, 237, 242, 252, 255-56, 258,
260, 270
elephantiasis, 39, 45 immortality, 73, 105, 169, 206, 216, 228-
Elephantine, 3-4 29, 232, 234-36, 245, 251
Enoch, 49, 226, 240, 252-56 intermarriage, 23, 34-35, 104, 226, 230-
Erythrean sibyl, 83 32, 238, 245
Essene, 238 Isaac, binding of, 56-57
Ethiopia, 40-41, 61 Isis, 41, 147, 196
Ethiopian wife of Moses, 34-35, 63, 225-
26 Jason, reformer, 78
Euhemerism, 42, I63n. Jason of Cyrene, 78-79, 203
Exodus, 8, 35, 43, 45, 68, 198-200, 216, Jerusalem, 47, 54, 55, 71, 72, 76, 77, 80-
224-30, 237 83, 95, 101-2, 110-11, 114n., 129, 130,
Ezra, 13 136-37, 149, 152, 194, 257-60, 270,
274
fiscus Judaicus, 139, 142 Job, 35-37
Flaccus, 118-19 Jonathan of Cyrene, 140
Joseph, 40, 44, 104-10, 133, 176, 180,
Gerizim, 48, 52, 59 230-40
God-fearers, 173-74, 264-70, 274 Joseph, son of Tobias, 74-76
gymnasium, 120-21 Josephus, 60-62
Judas Maccabee, 46, 79, 82
Hades, 73, 214, 244, 256 Julius Caesar, 7, 13, 70, 72, 113
Hadrian, 142-43, 150-51 Justus of Tiberias, 60, 61
Hanukkah, 80-81 Juvenal, 8 , 2 1 3 , 2 1 8 , 267, 270
Hasmoneans, 17, 71, 77, 82-83, 101
Hecataeus of Abdera, 8-13, 29-30, 43, king from Asia, 90
52-53, 65, 155-56 king from the sun, 88, 91-95, 162
Helenos son of Tryphon, 116-17
Heliodorus, 77, 83, 95, 123, 125 laographia, 115-17, 122, 124-26
Heliopolis, 70, 71, 107 law, Jewish, 13, 20-23, 35, 43, 53, 55-
Hellenistic reform, 16 56, 59, 62, 83, 155-85, 199, 206-9,
Heracles, 51, 52 222-23, 228-29, 246, 254
Hermes, 41, 60 Leontopolis, 68-73, 80-82, 96, 101, 103,
Herods, 17 107, 139, 147
Hezekiah, governor, 65-66 Logos, 196, 213, 215-17, 219, 268
homosexuality, 158-60, 162, 165, 170, Lukuas, 142, 149
183, 198
Horace, 8, 263 Maccabees, 89, 91, 92, 96, 97, 98, I12n.
Horus, 90n. Macedonia, 86, 89
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS 305

Magic, 43 phoenix, 224-25, 228-29

Magnesia, battle of, 86
Manetho. 9, 30-31, 33, 35, 40-41, 45, 52,
90
Melchizedek, 48, 148
Menelaus, 77
messiah, 91-92, 94n., 95, 134, 135, 137,
142-43, 147
Michael, 148, 249-50, 256, 258
Mithridates, 145
monotheism, 158, 166, 172, 174, 222,
231, 238, 259
Montanism, 241
Moses, "9, 10, 13, 19, 33-35, 39-45, 46-
47, 50, 56, 61, 63, 68, 155-58, 162-63,
189, 191, 193, 214-15. 220-30, 254,
269
Mosollamus, 157
Mousaeus. 41
mystery cult. 211-17, 226. 229, 233
Mysticism, 210-19
natural law. 162-63, 172-73, 199, 206
Nebuchadnezzar, 30, 41, 47, 93
Nektanebo, 30, 41
Nero, 138, 143-44, 146, 150-51, 166,
266, 269
Noachian laws, 170-71
Onias III, 69, 76-79, 82-83, 96
Onias IV, 4, 68-78, 81-82, 96, 97, 100-
101, 103, 107, 109, 152
Orpheus, 4 1 , 2 1 9 - 2 0 , 222-24
Osiris, 228
pattern of religion, 21. 260
Persian period. 92
Pharisees, 263
Philo of Alexandria, 5, 15, 20. 23, 114,
119, 121, 125-28, 131-38, 152, 162-
63, 169-71. 178, 182, 184, 201-2. 208,
211-19, 222, 229, 239-40, 260, 263-
64, 268, 2 7 1 , 2 7 4
Philo the Elder, 37
philanthropia, 202
Phoenicia. 48-49
Phoenicians, 47, 50
Plato, 159, 189, 191, 214, 220, 224. 231
Politeuma. 114-16, 122, 139
Poppaea, 266, 269
Posidonius, 7
propaganda, 14-16, 261-72
proselytes, 231-32, 237
proselytism, 261-72
Ptolemy I Soter, 65, 66, 99
Ptolemy II Philadelphus, 98, 187
Ptolemy III Euergetes. 67, 74, 224
Ptolemy IV Philopator, 33. 38. 39, 67-
68, 122-24. 130
Ptolemy V Epiphanes, 74
Ptolemy VI Philometor, 68-71, 86, 89,
90, 96, 99-101, 110, 123, 158, 186-88
Prolemy VII Neos Philopator, 86
Ptolemy VIII Physcon, 70, 86, 89, 98-
101, 110, 123-25
Ptolemy IX Lathyrus, 70
Ptolemy XII Auletes, 111, 113
purity, 13
Pydna, 86
Quietus, Lusius, 141
Qumran. 18, 97, 175-78, 183, 232
Raphia, battle of, 39, 123
resurrection, 169-70, 206, 247
Rome, 8, 79, 86, 88, 112, 130, 134, 139,
142, 144-48, 150, 164, 262, 269, 275
sabbath, 8, 13, 65, 167, 169, 183, 190,
213, 251, 264. 267-70
Samaria, 49, 59
Satan, 241-44, 247
Schubart papyrus, 38
Scipio, 86
Semiramis, 30, 41, 44
Seneca, 8, 264, 268
Septuagint, 19-20, 31, 36-37, 48, 52, 97,
98, 101-3, 105, 169, 187, 203, 224,
228, 230, 241, 243, 274
Sesostris, 30, 41, 44
seventh king. 85-86. 88-90, 161
Shechem, 48, 58. 59
Sicarii, 24. 139-40, 142
306 INDEX OF SUBJECTS

Sidon, 47 Theophilus, 53
Simon II, high priest, 69, 76, 96, 195 Therapeutae, 211-12, 232, 238, 246
Sinai, 227-28 Tiberius Julius Alexander, 15, 121, 13
Solomon, 47, 50, 189 138
Son of Man, 148, 226 Titans. 87
Sophia, 213, 215-19 Titus, 139
Sparta, 79 Tobiads, 17, 74-77
spells. 56-57
tower of Babylon, 87
sympathizers. 173, 231-32, 267, 269-70,
Trajan, 112, 137, 140, 143, 147, 274
274
lyphon, 9
synagogue, 19, 141, 184
TVre, 47

Tacitus, II, 271

Varro, 13
Tell el-Yehoudieh, 72
temple, Jerusalem, 71, 72, 77, 80, 88.
Vespasian. 140, 151
91-93, 95, 96, 119. 122, 130, 139,
161-62, 164-66, 203, 216, 232
temple, Leontopolis, 69-73, 80-81, 101, wisdom literature, 22, 171, 182, 254
103, 107, 139, 147
temple, Tobiad, 76 Zeno papyri, 16, 67, 75
Zeus, 164, 189, 192, 196, 226, 271
 Index of Modem Authors

Abel, F. M., 81 Barr, J., 29

Abusch, R., 6 Barraclough. R., 120, 131. 133, 134
Amorai-Stark, S., 42 Bartlett, J.. 94
Andersen, F., 252 Batiffol, R, 104
Anderson, B., 2 Baumstark, A., 164
Anderson, G. A., 246 Beauchamp, R, 198
Anderson, H., 122, 124, 204 Beavis, M. A. L., 193
Applebaum, S., 4, 5, 24, 110. 115, 120, Becker, J.. 175, 176, 182. 183, 184
140, 141, 142, 143 Bell, H. I., 113
Arenhoevel, D., 81 Berger, D., 11
Argyle, A. W., 255 Berger, K., 158, 162, 170, 178, 179
Armstrong, A. H., 207 Berger, R, 2, 3
Arnim, H. F. A. von, 163, 181 Bernays. J., 169, 191, 267
Attridge, H. W., 18, 32, 33, 37, 44, 46, Bertram, G., 267
47, 52, 54, 56, 61, 62, 78, 80, 158, Bertrand, D. A., 246
160, 191. 193, 219 Bickerman, E. J., 6, 20, 30, 31, 33, 59,
Audet, J. R, 174 80, 81, 98, 101, 110, 111, 112, 114,
Aziza, C , 6 124, 164, 176, 187, 203, 204
Bidez, J., 94
Baer, R. A., 244 Bilde, R, 2, 19, 24, 120, 193
Baltzer, K.. 22, 177, 178, 179 Bimbaum, E., 131, 222
Barclay J. M. G., 4, 16, 19, 24, 38, 39, Bizzetti, R, 196
40, 42, 45, 66, 84, 88, 89, 94, 108, Bleeker, C. J., 235, 255
110, 121, 125, 126, 127, 130, 161, Boccaccini, G., 194
169, 186, 190, 192, 200, 204, 225, Bohak, G., 69, 70, 107, 108, 235
226, 229, 234, 238 Bolkestein, H., 170
Bardtke, H., I l l Bolz, N. W., 145
Bar-Kochva, B., 6, 9, 52, 53, 65, 66, 98, Borgen, R, 132, 180, 184
101, 156, 157 Bormann. L., 58
Baron, S., 262, 263 Bornkamm, G.. 214

307
308 INDEX OF MODERN AUTHORS

Borries, B. de, 158 Cumont, R, 94

Bottrich, C , 252, 254
Bousset, W., 212 Dalbert, R, 14, 32, 47
Bowker, J., 2, 13, 23 Dan, J., 215
Box, H., 118 Daniel, J. L., 6, 12, 13
Braun, M., 30, 31, 40, 41 Darnell, D. R., 212
Breitenstein, U., 199, 203, 205, 206 Davies, R R., 17, 212
Bright, J., 3 Davies, W. D., 6, 32, 66, 124
Broek, R. van den, 229 Dawson, D., 188, 190
Brooks, E. W., 104 Delcor, M., 18, 59, 71, 124, 197, 238,
Brooten, B. J., 173 241, 249, 251
Bull, R. J., 59 Delia, D., 114
Bultmann, R., 182 Delling, G., 105, 106, 158, 230
Burchard, C , 104, 105, 175, 230, 233, Del Tredici, K., 58
235, 236, 238 Denis, A.-M., 31, 32, 38, 51, 190, 220,
Burkert, W., 211, 223, 224 224, 246
Burr, v., 131 Derron, P., 168, 171
Burstein, S. M., 30 Dexinger, E., 137
Diels, H., 39, 158
Camponova, O., 94 Dieterich, A., 223
Cancik, H., 83 Doran, R., 32, 33, 35, 46, 47, 48, 51, 52,
Cardauns, B., 52 53, 78, 79, 80, 81, 83, 96
Carroll, R. R, 14 Dover, K. J., 159
Casey, R. R, 214 Drews, R., 29
Cerfaux, L., 38, 226, 229 Droge, A. J., 38, 41, 43, 46, 47, 61
Charles, R. H., 175, 248, 252, 253 Duchesne, L., 104
Charlesworth, J. H., 31, 32, 42, 51, 58, Dupont-Sommer, A., 175, 203
132, 163, 164, 253
Cheon, S., 197 Eddy, S. K., 30
Chester, A., 93, 96, 97, 149, 165 Edelstein, L., 7
Chestnutt, R., 104, 105, 106, 109, 231, Eltester, W., 176
232, 233, 237 Emmet, C. W., 122, 123, 124, 125, 128
Christ, R, 170 Engberg-Pedersen, T., 19
Coggins, R. J., 59 Engel, H., 196
Cohen, S. J. D., 11, 19, 67, 114, 261, Enns, R, 198
263, 267 Eppel, R., 180
Collins, J. J., 12, 19, 22, 23, 29, 37, 49, Ewald, H., 125
58, 84, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 93, 94,
96, 113, 121, 137, 143, 144, 145, 146, Fallon, R, 46, 57, 58, 227
148, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 171, Reldman, L. H., 5, 6, 13, 16, 18, 61, 62,
175, 196, 197, 199, 200, 201, 217, 12, 157, 262, 263, 265, 267, 270
226, 227, 241, 248, 249, 253, 264 Festinger, L., 14, 15, 16
Conzelmann, H., 180 Fiensy, D. A., 212
Cowey, J., 115 Finkelstein, L., 6, 32, 66, 124
Cowley, A., 4 Rischer, T , 80
Cross, R M., 20, 21 Rischer, U., 73, 135, 136, 170, 203, 206,
Crouch, J. E., 170, 171 237, 252, 256
 INDEX OF MODERN AUTHORS 309

Fishbane, M., 226 Gregoire, F., 135

Flusser, D., 16, 42 Grelot, R, 197
Foakes Jackson, F. J., 265 Griffiths, J. G., 94
Frankfurter, D., 94, 142 Gruen, E., 9, 10, 14, 15, 17, 20, 24, 32,
Fraser, R M., 9, 19, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 33, 34, 35, 38, 44, 46, 47, 48, 51, 52,
35, 38, 39, 40, 52, 54, 58, 66, 68, 73, 54, 58, 69, 70, 71, 72, 75, 82, 84, 85,
86, 89, 90, 98, 99, 100, 109, 123, 156, 86, 90, 93, 94, 103, 105, 106, 109,
188, 224. 225 117, 124, 126, 128, 131, 145, 146.
Frerichs, E. S., 19, 67, 114, 133, 164. 161, 187, 188, 193, 194, 226, 228,
267 261, 271
Friedlander, M., 14 Gruenwald, I., 227
Fritz, K. von, 194 Guthrie, W. K. C., 223
Fruchtel, U., 137 Gutman, Y., 32, 54, 55, 56, 57
Fruedenthal, J., 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, Guttmann, M., 170
38, 4 3 , 5 1 , 5 4 , 58, 204, 205
Fuks, A., 4, 66, 113, 141, 142 Haas, C., 242
Haase. W., 6
Gabba, E., 6, 10 Habicht, C., 74, 80, 81
Gafni, I. M., 136 Hadas, M., 97, 98, 100, 101, 102, 103,
Gager, J. G., 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 15, 63, 156, 122, 123, 124, 125, 130, 192, 194,
157 203, 204, 205
Garrett, S. R., 245 Hadot, R, 194
Gaylord, H. E., 255 Hage, W., 255
Geertz, C., 2 Hamerton-Kelly, R., 21. 234
Geffcken, J., 49, 88, 89, 145, 151 Hannestad, L.. 19
Georgi, D., 14, 50, 160, 184, 195, 213, Hanson, J., 33
222, 223, 262. 264, 269 Happold, K C., 210
Giblet, J., 46 Harlow, D. C , 255, 256
Gigante, M., 115 Harnack, A. von, 263
Gilbert, M., 196. 199 Harrelson, W., 179
Ginzberg, L., 170 Hata, G., 263
Goldenberg, R., 268 Hay, D. M., 211
Goldstein, J.. 74, 76, 77, 78, 102 Hayes, J. H., 3
Goodenough, E., 133, 134, 194, 210, Hayward, R., 69
211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, Hecht, R. D., 133, 137
222, 226, 229, 240 Hegermann, H., 66
Gooding, D. W., 102 Heinemann, I., 205
Goodman, M., 4, 6, 14, 32, 33, 35, 37, Hellholm, D., 83, 94, 141, 248
39, 46, 47, 51, 52, 53, 54, 58, 66, 85, Heckel, U., 93
86, 87, 98, 105. 110. 115, 124, 125. Hengel, M., 16, 18, 20, 32, 34, 38, 39,
143, 145, 168, 186, 191, 204, 220, 43, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51. 52, 58, 59,
225, 241, 248, 249, 252, 256, 261, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 93, 99, 103,
263, 270, 271 141, 142, 144, 148, 149, 188, 194. 219
Goodrick, A. T S., 197, 198, 199 Henten, J. W. van, 6, 115. 203, 204, 2Q6,
Gorg, M., 201 208
Green, W. S., 133 Hentschel, G., 196, 201
Greenfield, J. € . , 252 Hillers, D., 22
310 INDEX OF MODERN AUTHORS

Himmelfarb, M., 253, 257 Kee, H. C , 175, 176, 183, 238, 239, 245
Hody, H., 98 Keller, R., 221
Holladay, C. R., 24, 32, 33, 35, 37, 39, Kellermann, U., 74, 204
40, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 51, 52, 53, 54, Kerenyi, K., 231
56, 57, 58, 60, 186, 188, 190, 192, Kern, O., 221
193, 220, 221, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227 Kerst, R., 172
Hollander, H. W., 175, 176, 179 Kidd, I. G., 7
Holtz, T., 105 Kiel, v., 69
Honigman, S., 67 Kilpatrick, G. D., 232
Horbury, W., 66, 67, 70, 72, 73, 96, 121, Kippenberg, H. G., 47, 48, 51, 52, 58,
148, 149, 165 59, 145
Horna, K., 171 Kilpatrick, G. D., 104, 109
Horsley, R. A., 200 Klauck, H. J., 204, 205, 206
Horst, P. W. van der, 73, 115, 163. 168, Klein, G., 171
169, 171, 172, 173, 227, 228, 241, Knibb, M. A., 241, 242
242, 245, 246 Koester, H., 200
Howard, G., 103 Kohier, K., 212, 241
HUbener, W., 145 Kohut, G. A., 241
Hubner, H., 196, 197 Kolarcik, M., 196
Hughes, H. M., 255, 256 Kolenkow, A. B., 248, 250
Hultgard, A., 175 Kooij, A. van der, 70
Humphrey, E. M., 235, 236 Kraabel, A. T , 4, 265, 267
Humphreys, W. L., 3 Kraeling, C. H., 4
Kraeling, E. G., 4
Jacob, B., I l l Kraemer, R. S., 104, 105, 106, 230, 235
Jacobs, I., 242 Kraft. R. A., 240
Jacobson, H., 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, Kranz, W., 158
229 Kreitzer, L., 146
Jacoby, R, 31, 46, 51 Kroll, W., 159
James, M. R., 241, 249 Kuchler, M., 170, 171, 174, 176
Janowitz, N., 193 Kudlien, R, 169
Janssen, E., 249 Kugel, J. L., 20
Jellicoe, S., 19, 20, 98, 101, 102 Kuhn, H. W., 236
Jenks, G. C., 146 Kuhn, K. G., 104, 232, 264, 265, 270
Jeremias, J., 104, 106, 109, 137, 232, Kuiper, K., 224, 227
233 Kuntzmann, R., 85
Johnson, M. D., 246, 248 Kurfess, A., 151
Jonge, H. J. de, 203
Jonge, M. de, 175, 176, 180 Lafarque, M., 220, 221
Juster, J., 113, 185 Lagrange. M. J., 141
Lake, A., 214
Kahle, R, 19, 102 Lake, K., 265, 266
Kappelmacher, A., 225, 227 Lake, S., 214
Karpeles, G., 57 Lanchester, H. C. O., 92
Kasher, A., 4, 5, 17, 65, 66, 68, 70, 71, Lane, E. N., 262
72, 81, 99, 113, 116, 117, 120, 121, Lapp, R W., 76
122, 123, 141 Laquer, R., 51
 INDEX OF MODERN AUTHORS 311

Larcher, C , 196, 201 71, 114, 115, 116, 117, 120, 121, 138,
Layton, B., 246 140,141
Lease, G., 210, 211 Moehring, H. R., 18, 61
Lebram, J. H. C , 205 Momigliano, A., 6, 29, 31, 71, 80. 88,
Lemke, W. E., 21 89, 90, 93, 94, 98
Leon, H. J., 4 Moore, C. A., 18, 110, 111, 123
Levine, A.-J., 105 Moore, G. F., 232
Levison, J. R., 6, 18, 62 Mor, M., 1 7 , 7 1 , 102, 2 6 1 , 2 6 2
Lewis, J. J., 194 Morfill, W, R., 253
Licht, H., 159 Motzo, B., 124
Liebermann, S., 165 Moule, C. E D., 199
Lietzmann, H., 72 Mowinckel, S., 148
Lifshitz, B., 266, 270 Mras, K., 32, 56
Lloyd-Jones, H., 54, 57 Mueller, U. B., 149
Long, A. A., 207 Murray O., 194
Lovering, E., 133 Mussies, G., 16, 41
Luckmann, T., 2 Musurillo, H., 117, 120, 140, 142
Luderitz, G., 115, 120
Ludwich, A., 57 Nagel, M., 246
Neusner, J., 3, 18, 30, 61, 74, 133, 146,
149, 164. 200, 227, 239, 240, 267
Mach, M., 227
Nickelsburg, G. W., 54, 58, 82, 85, 94,
Mack., B. L., 201
124, 177. 179, 197, 236, 246, 248,
MacLennan, R. J., 265, 266, 267
249, 257, 258
MacRae, G., 106
Niebuhr, K.-W., 169, 170, 173, 176, 254
Marcus, R., 266 Nikiprowetzky, V., 49, 85, 87, 88, 89,
Martin, R. A., 249 91, 93, 162, 163, 164, 166
Mays, J. L„ 204 Nilsson, M., 158, 163. 211, 217, 223
Mazar, B., 76 Nissen, A., 184
McGinn, B., 146, 2 1 1 , 2 1 4 Nock, A. D., 210, 231
McKnight, S., 14, 261. 262 Nolland, J., 91, 92, 263
Meecham, H. O., 97 Norden, E., 204
Meeks, W. A., 4, 227, 229 Nordheim, E. von, 177, 241
Meisner, N., 97. 99, 101 Novak, D., 170
Mendels, D., 30, 46 Noy, D., 66, 67, 70, 72, 73, 121
Mendelson, A., 121, 131, 161, 202
Mendenhall, G., 22 Odeberg, H., 252
Merentitis, K. I., 37, 38 Oded, B., 3
Merkel, H., 84, 86, 96, 143, 145 O'Neill, J. C., 148
Merkelbach, R., 231 Orlinsky, H. M., 20, 98, 102
Michaelis, W., 182 0stergard, U., 2
Milik, J. T , 252 Overman, J. A., 265, 266, 267, 268
Millar, R, 4, 32, 66, 87, 115, 168, 185,
186, 220 Parente. R, 69, 72, 96, 123, 124, 125,
Miller, J. M., 3 126
Miller, R M., 21 Parke, H. W., 83, 84
Modrzejewski, J. M., 4, 5, 64, 66, 67, Parsons, E, 54, 57
312 INDEX OF MODERN AUTHORS

Paul, A., 85, 122, 125 Rooden, R T. van, 203

Peerbolte. L. C. L., 146 Rubinstein, A., 252
Pelletier, A., 97 Ruiten, S. van, 70
Pennington, A., 252 Rupport, L., 197
Peretti, A., 49, 188 Rutgers, L., 4
Perry, B. E., 231
Pervo, R. I., 40, 106, 122, 230 Safrai, S., 3, 5, 6, 16, 18. 102, 115, 120,
Petrie, R, 70 130, 268
Pfister, E., 164 Sanders, E. R, 21, 23. 234, 248, 249,
Pfitzner, V. C , 208, 242 251, 273
Philonenko, M., 104. 105, 106, 175, Sanders, J. A., 2
230, 231, 232, 233, 235, 238, 239, Sanger, D., 105, 109, 231, 237, 238
246, 252 Savignac, J. de, 135
Picard, J. C , 255, 256, 258, 259 Scaliger, J., 224
Pines, J., 255 Schachter, S., 15
Places, E. des, 196 Schafer, R, 6, 10, 11, 12, 221
Poorthuis, M., 102 Schaller, B., 241, 246
Porten, B., 4 Schaper, J., 137
Potter, D. S.. 151 Schiffman, L. H.. 263
Preisendanz, K., 240 Schlosser. J., 85
Prijs, L., 137 Schmidt. R, 248
Pucci Ben Zeev, M., 9, 53, 65 Schmidt, L., 170
Pummer, R., 58 Schnabel, R. 49
Purvis, J. D., 48, 59 Schurer, E., 4, 6, 16, 17, 18, 32, 33, 35,
37, 39, 46, 47, 51, 52, 53, 54, 58, 66,
Qimron, E., 25 85, 86, 87, 98, 105, 110, 115, 124,
125, 140, 143, 145, 168, 185, 186,
Rabin, C , 18 190, 191, 204, 220, 225, 241, 247,
Rad, G. von, 181 248, 249, 252, 256
RahnenfUhrer, D., 241 Schwartz, D., 102
Rajak, T . 17, 61, 114, 267 Schwartz, E.. 31
Rampolla, C , 204 Schwier, H., 93
Rappaport, U., 17, 123 Scott, J. M., 133, 137, 143
Redditt, R L., 206 Scott, W., 151
Redmond, J. A., 166 Scroggs, R., 21, 234
Reese, M., 195 Sedley, D. N., 207
Reider, J., 195, 201 Segal, J. B., 225
Renehan, R., 205 Sevenster, J. N., 6, 12
Rengstorff, K. H„ 176 Shinan, A., 61
Reynolds, J. M., 267 Shutt, R. J. H., 97, 98
Riecken, H. W., 15 Siegert, R. 172, 265, 266, 268, 269
Riedweg. C., 220 Sievers, J., 69
Riess, E., 163 Simon, M., 84, 161, 165. 166
Riessler, P., 104 Sly, D., 245
Robert, L., 267 Smallwood, E. M., 12, 113, 115, 118,
Robertson, R. G., 224, 225 120, 127, 128, 131, 138, 139, 140,
Rohde, E., 223 141, 142, 143, 146, 263, 269
 INDEX OF MODERN AUTHORS 313

Smith, J. Z., 239, 240 Turner, N., 248

Smith, M., 210
Snell, B., 225 Ulrichsen, J. H., 175, 176
Sparks. H. R D., 180, 241, 246, 248, Unnik, W. C. van, 176
252, 255
Spencer, S., 210 Vaillant, A., 252
Spittler, R. R, 240, 241, 246 Verbmgghe, G. R. 30, 31
Standhartinger, A., 58, 104, 105, 106 Vermes, G.. 4, 32. 49. 66, 110, 115, 168,
Steck, O. H., 22 186, 220, 247, 248, 249, 252
Stegemann, H., 264, 265, 270 Vervenne, M., 70
Stendahl, K., 104, 232 Vogel, C. J. de, 207
Sterling, G. E., 9, 15, 24. 29. 30, 31, 32, Vogt, E., 224
33, 34, 38, 40, 41, 46, 47, 49, 53, 54, Vogtle, A., 180
61 Volz, R, 137
Stem, M., 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 13, 16, Voss, M. H. van, 41
18, 52, 53, 76. 114, 115, 120, 130,
155, 157. 262, 264, 268, 269 Wacholder, B. Z.. 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 38,
Stone, M. E., 32, 54, 61, 78, 84, 124, 39, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50. 51, 52, 53, 54,
149, 175, 196, 241, 246, 247, 248 55, 57, 58, 60
Stowers, S. K., 204, 205 Wagner, S., 241
Strugneil, J., 2 5 , 3 1 , 3 9 , 225 Walbank, R W., 31
Sweet, J. R M., 199 Walla, M., 228, 229
Wallace, S. L., 117, 124
Talmage, E, 215 Walter, N., 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 41,
Talmon, S.. 20 46, 47, 48, 49, 51, 52, 53, 54, 58, 168,
Tannenbaum, R., 267 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 220, 221
Tara, W. W., 39, 145, 194 Wardy, B., 8
Taylor, J. E., 69, 70, 212 Weinreich, O., 43
Tcherikover, V., 4, 5, 14, 16, 17, 60, 66, Wells, L. S. A., 246, 247, 248
67, 71, 74, 76, 77, 96. 99, 100, 101, Wenschkewitz, H., 137
102, 103, 113. 116, 117, 119, 120, Werblowski, R. J. Z., 255
121. 123, 124, 125, 128, 129, 130, Wesselius, J. W., 204
131, 143, 194 West, S., 106, 230
Theisohn, J., 149, 226 White, R. T., 17
Thomas, J., 166, 168, 169, 176 Whittaker, M., 6, 246
Thompson, D.-J., 114 Wibbing, S., 180
Thorahill, R., 240 Wichersham, J. M., 30, 31
Thyen, H., 182, 205 Wieneke, J., 224, 225, 229
Tiede, D. L., 37, 40, 4 1 , 4 3 Wilken, R. L., 4
Tov, E., 20 Williams, D. S., 129
Tramontano, R., 97 Williams. S. K., 208
Trebilco, R, 4 Willrich, H., 43, 76, 125
Trencsenyi-Waldapfel, I., 225, 227, Wills, L. M., 45, 74, 78, 106, 110, 122,
228 230, 231
Troiani, L., 10 Wilson, W. T , 168, 171
Tromp, J. 122, 123, 124, 163 Winston, D., 187, 195, 196, 197, 199,
Turcan, R., 231 201, 202, 214, 215, 250
314 INDEX OF MODERN AUTHORS

Wolfson, H. A., 15, 20, 133, 135, 136, Yardeni, A., 4

197, 214, 215 Yavetz, Z., 12
Woods, R., 210
Wright, A. G., 196 Zahle, J., 19
Zenger, E., 196, 201
Ziener. G., 198
Yarbro Collins, A., 85, 146, 186. 252 Zuckerman, C , 115, 120
 Index of Ancient Literature

HEBREW BIBLE Numbers 44:28 93

24:7 (LXX) 135, 137 47:8 144
62:4 236
Genesis 64, 236
Deuteronomy 136, 178
10 198
6:4 172 Jeremiah
12 50
26:13b-14 181
14 49 17:5-8 181
30:15 182
25:1-3 (LXX) 34 26:20-23 64
32:21 (LXX) 257
25:6 (LXX) 34 29:7 3
30:6 108 41^4 3
Joshua
30:11 108 41:16 3
3:15 102
32 239 44:1 64
33:18 (LXX) 48
7 Samuel
34 58 12:3 181 Ezekiel
36:33 (LXX) 35, 36 18:5-9 181
45:26 230 2 Samuel 37 206
7 40^8 13
Exodus 237 44:9 13
3:14 (LXX) 19 1 Kings
4:22-23 201 11 64 Hosea
7:1 227 2:8 233
11-19 198 Isaiah 2:22 233
227 1:16 167
15:23-25
235 1:26 70
16:31 Joel
169 19:18-22 107
23:5 3:3 91
19:19 69
28:4-5 107 4:2 91
19:19 (LXX) 69
41:2 93
Leviticus 136, 164 41:25 93 Zechariah
20:26 12 44:9-20 200 2:15 (LXX) 236

315
316 INDEX OE ANCIENT LITERATURE

Malachi 9:26 69 10:18 233

3:16 (LXX) 266 11:22 69 10:20-21 233
11:34 89 13:4-7 181
Psalms
1:6 182 Ezra Hebrews
2 95 9.2 13 n-12 180
24 181
46:4 55 Nehemiah Revelation
48 95 9 22 13 144
48:2 55 13:3 146
79:4 3 2 Chronicles 16:12 93
79:10 3 5:6 (LXX) 266 17 144
115:9-11 (LXX) 266 17:8 146
118:2-4 (LXX) 266 17:11 146
135:19-20 (LXX) 266 18 144
137:4 1 NEW TESTAMENT 21 237

Job Matthew
31:16-18 181 3:10 134
38-41 36 23:15 263 APOCRYPHA
42:15 246
42:17a (LXX) 37, 242 Luke Tobit
42:17 (LXX) 36 3:9 134 3:1-6 22

Proverbs 22 John Wisdom of Solomon 24,

4:10-14 182 6 235 26, 195-202,
8:22 56 6:51 105 206, 219, 271
9 182 15 134 1-5 197
9:2-5 235 1:1-6:21 196, 197
Acts 267 1:4 197, 250
Qoheleth 22 10 264 1:6 202
13:16 185, 264 1:13-14 201
Esther 17, 45, 128 13:26 185, 264 2:1 197
(LXX) 18, 22, 110-12, 13:43 185, 266 2:10 200
123 13:44 185 2:11 197
10:3L (LXX, 13:50 185 2:12 199, 200
colophon) no 16:14 264 2:13 198, 236
A6 111 17:4 185, 264 2:13-20 201
ElO 112 17:17 185, 264, 266 2:16 198, 236
E14 114 18:7 264 2:18 236
2:22 197, 216
Daniel 17, 20, 118 Romans 3:2 236
1-6 45, no 1 162, 200 3:4 198
2-6 96 1:26 173 3:16 199
7 148 4:3 199
9 91 1 Corinthians 5:5 197, 236
9:4b-13 22 8:6 172 5:6-7 198
 INDEX OF ANCIENT LITERATURE 317

5:15 198 16:21 201 3:11 77, 78

5:17 198 16:24 198 3:33 77
6:3 195 16:26 201 3:35-40 79
6:4 199, 200 18:2 201 4:2 77
6:17-20 197 18:5 199 4:5 77
6:22 216 18:6 201 4:11 46, 79
6:22-9:18 196 18:9 200, 201 4:18-20 47
6:22-11:1 196 18:13 201 4:33-34 69
7:15 216 18:24 202 4:34 77
7:17-18 198 19:13-14 202 4:37 77
7:22-24 196
5:12 79
7:22-8:1 196 Ben Sira 195 5:19 79
7:23 202 24 200
6:1-6 59
7:25-29 216 24:8-12 240
6:7-8 38, 68
7:27 196 24:19-22 235
6:18 203
8:1 196 24:20 236
8:13 216 24:23 7 207
56, 223
10 198 50:24 101 7:38 79
10-19 195, 198, 216 50:26 49 8:15 79
10:4 201 8:22 82
10:5 201 1 Maccabees 77. 78, 98 9:13-18 79
10:6 201 2:2 82 10:4 79
10:10 201 6:43-46 82 10:19-20 82
10:15 201 8 79 12:40 79
11-19 202 8:17-18 46 13:15 82
11:21-26 250 10:30 98 14:15-18 82
11:23-24 202 10:38 98 14:24 79
12:3-4 202 11:8-19 78 15:11-16 82
12:19 201 11:28 98
12:27 198 11:34 98
13 162, 201 12 79
13-15 144,199 12:19-23 52 PSEUDEPIGRAPHA
13:1 199 14:24 47
13:1-9 200 15:16-21 5 Apocalypse of
13:10 42 Abraham 222, 242
13:10-19 200 2 Maccabees 18, 63, 74,
14:12-31 200 76, 77-83, 96,
14:16-20 195 111, 123, 124, Apocalypse of
14:22-29 199 152, 203, 206 Moses 246-48
14:23 199 1:1-9 79, 80 5-8 247
14:26 199 1:7 81 13 247
15:17 198 1:9 80 15-29 247
15:18-19 200 1:10 69, 187 21:6 247
16:2 201 2:18 81 30:1 247
16:3 201 3 83, 95 32 247
16:5 201 3:1 77, 78, 79 37:5 247
16:10 201 3:5 203 39:2 247
318 INDEX OF ANCIENT LITERATURE

Ascension of Isaiah 7:29 149 28-29 179

4:1 146 9:38-10:56 237 28:13 108
10:27 257
2 Baruch 21 10:44 257 Jubilees 91
4:5 222 11-12 144 7:20 171
36-40 144 13:1-4 149 7:28 171
12:12 242
3 Baruch 26, 249, 255- Joseph and Aseneth 103- 12:17 164
59, 260, 272, 10,214,219, 12:60 42
273, 274 230-39, 241,
1:2 257, 258 245, 2 5 1 , 2 6 7 Letter of Aristeas 19, 26,
1:3 258 1-21 108, 230 97-103, 124,
2:3 256 1:5 234 152, 191-95,
2:7 256 1:9 238 271, 272
3:5 256 8 233 3 194
4 255, 258 8:5 105, 231 6 36
4:17 257, 258 8:5-6 232, 266 12-14 4, 66
4-9 256 8:9 266 14 100
8:5 257, 258 10:18-20 237 16 192
11-15 255 12-13 237 28 98
16 259 12:1-2 237 29-32 102
16:2 257 12:2-3 237 36 99
12:11 237 37 99, 100
1 Enoch 49 13:10 234 57 103
8 164 14-17 107, 235, 239 96-99 194
37-71 148, 226 14:8 236 99 216
48:10 149 15:4 105, 232 102 98
90:8 69 15:6 236 116 101
15:7 107 121 194
2 Enoch 26, 240, 248, 16-17 232 122 103, 194
249, 252-55, 16:7 235 130 193
256, 257, 259, 16:8 105 130-65 193
272 16:16 105, 232 130-68 192
3-37 252 16:17-23 107 132 172
24-30 , 254 19:5 105, 232 136 225
33:6-7 254 21:3 236 137 193
39-55 253 21:21 105, 232 140 193
44:1 254 22 237 148 100
44:2 254 22:3 232 166-67 100
58 254 22-29 107, 108, 109, 168 192
58-63 253 201
234 98
59:3 252 225-30
23-29 238 179
65 254
23:9 108 310 115
253
65-66 23:12 108 312-16 191
24:9 108
4 Ezra 21, 149 24:13 108 Life of Adam
3:13-14 222 25:6 108 and Eve 246-48
 INDEX OF ANCIENT LITERATURE 319

1-11 247 4:25-26 206 3:46-62 145

9-11 247 5:4 203 3:63-74 146
12-17 247 5:33-36 207 3:75-92 145
25-29 247 6:10 208 3:93-96 84
30-34 247 6:16 207 3:97 84, 145
40-42 247 6:18-21 207 3:97-155 87
48:3 247 7:9 207 3:97-294 85
7:18 207 3:97-349 85
3 Maccabees 100, 109, 9:9 206 3:105-55 87
112, 117, 121, 9:30 207 3:156-61 86, 87
122-31. 132, 14:9 203 3:161 87
134, 152, 273 15:3 206 3:162-95 86
1 67 17:8 205, 206 3:175-95 88
1:3 15 17:11-14 208 3:179-90 86
2:2-20 22 17:12-16 208 3:182-90 160
2:28 122, 124 17:17-24 208 3:190 86
2:29-30 38, 67, 123 18:5 206 3:192-93 85
2:30 125 18:6-19 206 3:193 85
2:33 129 18:23 206 3:194 89
3:3 128 3:194-95 89
3:3-7 129 Prayer of Joseph 239-40 3:218 222
3:8-10 68, 126 Origen, Commentary 3:218-30 42
3:12 124 on John 3:218-36 42, 49
3:33 129 2:31 239 3:218-47 162
4:1 128 3:220-28 163
5:31 128 Philocalia 3:247 163
6:3 130 23.15 239 3:255-58 162
6:6 124 23.19 239 3:261 163
6:9 127 3:265-85 91
6:15 130 Pseudo-Philo 3:265-94 91
7:1 124 Book of Biblical An- 3:275-79 162
7:10-16 129 tiquities 3:283-84 162
7:11-12 129 18:5 222 3:286 92
7:19 130 3:286-94 91
Sibylline Oracles 24, 72, 3:287 91
4 Maccabees 26, 178, 136, 168, 183, 3:288-89 91
202-9, 273, 274 184, 186, 224, 3:295-488 85
1:1-12 205 271 3:318 85, 89
1:10 205 2 145 3:319-20 147
1:11 207, 208 3 25, 83-97, 160- 3:350-80 85, 145, 146
1:13-3:18 205 65, 166, 274 3:350-488 85
1:15-17 206 3:1-45 167, 191, 222 3:401-88 83
1:33-34 206 3:1-92 84 3:489-829 85
2:14 179 3:11 167 3:545-55 160
3:19 205 3:11-12 172 3:545-72 161, 162, 271
4:9 203 3:15 167 3:550 162
4:20 203 3:30-33 144 3:551-54 163
320 INDEX OF ANCIENT LITERATURE

3:573-600 162 5:111-78 143 8:52-59 151

3:591-93 164 5:138 146 8:65-74 150
3:597-98 162 5:139-40 146 8:131-38 150
3:599-600 160, 162 5:143 144 11 145, 150, 151
3:601-18 90 5:147 146 11:61-79 147
3:608 85 5:150 165 12-13 146
3:608-9 85, 90 5:158-59 148 12-14 151
3:624-34 161 5:159 144 12:1-11 151
3:652 88, 91, 94 5:160-61 144 13 151
3:652-56 92 5:166 144, 165 14 151
3:657-68 95 5:173 144 Fl-3 167
3:702-3 95 5:174 148 Fl:7 167
3:705 95 5:179-285 143, 144 Fl:7-8 172
3:708-9 95 5:206-13 147 FI:20-22 167
3:732-40 95 5:251 149 Fl:32 167, 172
3:757-58 164 5:252 149 F3:3 167, 172
3:762-66 160 5:256 148, 149 F5:l 167
4 166-67 5:256-59 144, 148
4:8-11 166 5:257 148 Testament of
4:27-30 166 5:264 149 Abraham 17, 126, 222,
4:116 166 5:264-85 149 241, 248-51,
4:118 166 5:268 149 255, 257, 259,
4:119-24 166 5:278-80 165 260, 272, 273
4:130-35 166 5:286-327 146 Recension A
4:138 166 5:286-434 143 I 249
4:138-39 166 5:353-56 165 1-15 249
4:140-51 166 5:367 146 8 249
4:165 106, 232 5:386-97 165 10 250
5 143-50. 152, 5:398-410 165 10:1 249
161, 165, 166, 5:398-413 144 14 250
203, 259, 274 5:403-5 165 16-20 249
5:1-11 151 5:406-7 165
5:1-51 143, 150, 151 5:414 148 Testament of Asher 177
5:6-7 166 5:414-19 149 1:3-8 182
5:33-34 166 5:420-32 257 2:9 183
5:34 146 5:422 149 4:5 183
5:46-50 144 5:424-25 149
5:51 150 5:425 149 Testament of
5:52-59 144 5:430 149, 165 Benjamin 176
5:52-110 143, 144 5:435-530 143 4:2 179
5:75-79 165 5:484-88 147 6 181
5:75-85 165 5:484-91 144
5:77-85 144 5:487 144 Testament of Dan 176
5:93 146 5:495-96 165
5:101 146 5:500-507 165 Testament of Gad 176
5:108 148, 149 5:512-31 144
5:111-36 146 8:1-216 150 Testament of Job 36,
 INDEX OF ANCIENT LITERATURE 321

126, 208, 219, 4:6 106 IQS (Community Rule)

240-46, 247, 8 226 I:24b-2:1 22
248, 251, 272 8:4-5 233
1:3 242 17:11 176 4QMMT 25
2-27 242
4:4-9 242 Testament of Moses 4QWords of the Lumi-
7 243, 244 3:1 93 naries
9-15 245 1:8-7:2 22
17 243 Testament of
17:1 241 Naphtali 17 llQMelchizedek 148
18 243 5:8 177
18:6-7 242 Genesis Apocryphon 49
20:5 243 Testament of
23 243 Reuben 176
24-26 44 2-3 181
27:10 242 3:10 179 HELLENISTIC
2 8 ^ 243 3:10-4:5 179, 180 JEWISH AUTHORS
28:8 241 3:11-15 178, 180
32 243 4:1-5 180 Acts of the Alexandrian
35-38 243 4:6-6:5 179 180 Martyrs 117, 140, 142
39 244 4:8 180
40 244 5:1-7 180 Aristeas the Exegete 35-
41 244 6:1 180 37
43:5 244 6:9 178 Eusebius, Praeparatio
45 245 6:10-12 178 Evangelica
46-47 57 9.25.1-4 35
46-50 244 Testament of Simon 176
46-53 241, 246 2:5-5:3 180 Aristobulus 186-90
47:3 244 Clement, Stromateis
Testament ofZebulun I 186
Testament of Joseph 5:1 179 1.150.1 186
2:4-10:3 180 6:4 179 5 186
2:7 180 6:7 179 6 186
3-9 179, 180 7:2 179
10-17 178 8:1 179 Eusebius, Praeparatio
10:1 180 Evangelica
10:2-3 180 Treatise ofShem 42, 163 7.14 186
10:5-20:6 179 8.10 186
18:1-2 178 8.10.5 188
13.12 186,219
Testament of Issachar DEAD SEA SCROLLS 13.12.2 187
4:2-6 181 13.12.7 192
5:2 179 IQH (Hodayot) 236 13.12.9 213,216
7:6 179 13.I2.9-I0 189
IQM (War Scroll) 148 13.12.11 56
Testament of Levi 17, 13.12.13 213
183 IQIsa 69 13.13.34-35 190
322 INDEX OE ANCIENT LITERATURE

Eusebius, Historia Eupolemus 46-47 2.66 127

Ecclesiastica Clement, Stromateis 2.68-70 127
7.32.16-18 186 1.130.3 46 2.79 7
1.141.4 46 2.92-96 11
Artapanus 37-46 1.141.4-5 46 2.112-14 6
Clement, Stromateis 1.153.4 46 2.147 7
1.23.154, 2-3 37 2.148 10
Eusebius, Praeparatio 2.190-219 170
Eusebius, Praeparatio Evangelica 2.199 170
Evangelica 9.26.1 46 2.202 170
9.18 37 9.30.1-34.8 46 2.210 19
9.23 37 9.34.20 46 2.215 170
9.27 37 9.39.2-5 46 2.255-58 §36 62
9.27.2 45 2.282 268
9.27.4 43 Ezekiel the
9.27.6 43 Tragedian 222, 224-30 Antiquities
9.27.7 39 Eusebius, Praeparatio Proem 1,4 §24 200
9.27.12 42 Evangelica Proem 3 §14 62
9.27.20 38, 39, 45 9.28 224 Proem 4 §24 62
9.27.23-26 43 9.29.254-69 224 1.1.4 §18 62
9.27.24-27 38 29.4-16 224 1.7.1-8.2 §§154-68 61
9.27.32 41 1.8.2 §§167-68 42
Josephus 1.10.2 §180 48
Boule Papyrus 117 Against Apion 31 2.10.1-2 §§238-53 61
1.1 61 11.1.3 §8 3
Cleodemus Malchus 51- 1.186-87 4 11.8.6 §344 48
52 1.191 3 11.185-295 61
Eusebius, Praeparatio 1.205-11 65 12.1.1 §3 65
Evangelica 1.209-12 6 12.1.1 §§4-7 65
9.20.2-4 51 I.2I6-18 §23 61 12.1.1 §§5-6 6
1.218 53 12.1.1 §§7-10 49
Josephus, Antiquities 1.288-320 10 12.1.1 §8 65
1.15 §§239-41 51 1.304-11 11 12.1.5 §§180-85 75
2.1-7 10 12.3.1 §121 139
Demetrius the 2.29-32 127 12.3.3 §§138-44 114
Chronographer 33-35 2.34 127 12.4.1 §154 74
Clement, Stromateis 2.35 4, 65 12.4.1-11 §§154-234 17
1.141.1-2 33 2.37 113 12.4.1 §158 74
1.141.8 33 2.38 116 12.4.10 §224 75
.2.41 127 12.4.10 §§226-27 52
Eusebius, Praeparatio '2.48 12 12.4.11 §§228-34 76
Evangelica 2.49 68 12.4.11 §229 76, 77
9.19.4 33 2.50-52 70 12.4.11 §§234-36 77
9.21.1-3 33 2.51-56 100 12.5.5 §§257-64 48, 59
9.29.1-19 33 2.53-55 123 12.9.7 §387 69
9.29.15 33 2.61 126 12.9.7 §§387-88 69
9.29.16c 33 2.65 25, 121, 129 13.3.1 §62 69
 INDEX OF ANCIENT LITERATURE 323

13.3.1-3 §§62-72 70 7.3.3 §45 185,264 29 127

13.3.1 §64 71 7.10.1 §§409-19 139
13.3.1 §§65-66 71 7.10.2-3 §423-31 71 Hypothetica
13.3.4 §§74-79 49, 69 7.10.2-4 §§420-36 139 lA 170
13.4.5-9 §§103-20 78 7.11.1-4 §§437-53 140 7.1-9 170
13.9.1 §257-58 262 7.47 15 1.1 170
13.10.4 §§284-87 70 7.50-53 204
13.10.4 §287 100 7.420-36 69 De losepho
13.11.3 §318 17 7.426 70 131-37 136
13.H.3 §319 262 7.426-32 70
13.13.2 §354 72, 96 Legatio ad Gaium 118,
13.254-58 59 Vita 128, 130,
13.275-81 59 3.16 §3 269 132,133
14.7.2 §110 266, 270 16 266 13 134
14.7.2 §§114-18 114 120 127
14.8.1 §§127-32 70 Justus of Tiberias 60-61 139 127
14.10.1 §188 113 Josephus, Vita 143-47 134
14.10.8 §§213-16 211 336-67 §65 61 144 145
16.6.2 §§160-61 116 144-49 126
18.6.3 §159 113 Photius, Bibliotheca 157 126
18.6.3 §159-60 131 31 60 159 126
18.8.1 §§257-60 131 162 125, 127
19.1.1 §1 125 Letter of Claudius 12, 165 127
19.5.1 §276 131 116, 119, 120, 166-70 127
19.5.2 §278 119 121 214 5
19.5.2 §§280-85 120 245 5
19.5.2 §281 116 Philo
19.5.2 §283 114 De Abrahamo De Migratione Abrahami
20.2.3-4 §§34-48 262 1-46 178 89-90 131
20.5.2 §100 113, 131 69-71 42 89-93 20
20.7.3 §147 113 77 42 92 132
20.8.6 §§167-72 137 84 164 93 132
20.8.11 §195 266-69 187-88 164
De Confusione
Jewish War Linguarum De Opificio Mundi
1.1.1 §§31-33 96 38 20 1 §3 200
1.31-33 69 190 20 171 172
1.62-65 59
2.8.7 §142 218 De Decalogo De Praemiis el
2.13.5 §§261-63 137 16 42 Poenis 137
2.18.2 §§463 270 52-81 163,201 43-46 222
2.18.7-8 §§487-98 138 79-172 134
2.18.8 §§494-95 138 In Flaccum 126, 126, 88 136
2.20.2 §560 270 133, 134 94 135
2.487 4, 65 6.23 263 95 135
6.9.2 §418 142 17 127 104 136
7.3.3 §44-45 4 25^2 138 152 135, 136
324 INDEX OF ANCIENT LITERATURE

164 135 De Vila Mosis Pseudo-Menander

165 135 1.5 222 Words of the Wise
165-72 134 1.35 137, 169 Menander 174
1.158 229
De Providentia 2.17 264 Pseudo-Orphic Frag
Eusebius, Praeparatio 2.44 135. 161 merits 218, 219-24
Evangelica 2.216 §168 184
7.14.64 137 2.232 5 Pseudo-Phocylides 168-
74
Quaestiones et Solufiones Philo the Elder 3 170 172
in Genesin Clement, Siromateis 9-21 169
4.8 218 1.141 37 30 163
31 169
Quis Rerum Divinaruin Josephus, Against Apion 39 169
Heres 1.218 37 42 173
23 56 54 172
69 173
Philo the Epic
Quod Deus Immutabilis Poet 54-57 75 172
Sit 98 172
Eusebius, Praeparatio
\12-11 136 102 168
Evangelica
103-4 169
9.20.1 54
De Somniis 135 104 169, 172
9.24.1 54
2.63-64 133 107-8 169
9.37.1 57
2.64 134 115 169
9.37.1-3 54
2.91-92 133, 134 140 169
163 172
Pseudo-Eupolemus 47-50 177-78 170
De Specialibus Legibus Eusebius, Praeparatio 183 170
1.13-29 163, 201 Evangelica 185 170
1.66-97 202 9.17 47 186 170
2.62 264 9.17.3 42 190-91 170
2.62-63 §282 184 9.17.4 48 191 173
2.255 163. 201 9,18.2 47 192 173
194 173
De Virtutibus Pseudo-Hecataeus 52-54 198 170
33 215 Josephus, Against Apion 210-17 172
39 222 1.83-205 52 228 173
109-24 179 1.213-14 52
178 215 Thatlus 51-52
On Abraham and (he Josephus, Antiquities
De Vita Contemplativa Egyptians 18.6.4 §167 51
3-9 163, 201 Josephus, Antiquities
5 211 1.7.2 §159 53 Suetonius, Augustus
78 212 67.2 51
80 246 Clement, Stromateis
85 211 5.113.1-2 53 Theodotus 57-60
 INDEX OF ANCIENT LITERATURE 325

Eusebius, Praeparatio Debarim Rabbah 31.15 142

Evangelica 2.24 265
9.22 A 60 Patrologia Latina
9.22.1-11 57 Lamentations Rabbah 25.562 4
9.22.5 59 i, 13 §41 146 25.563 4

Theophilus Song of Songs Rabbah Justin Martyr

Eusebius, Praeparatio viii, 9 §3 146 Oratio ad Graecos 217
Evangelica
9.34 53 Pseudo-Justin Martyr
9.34.19 47 De Monarchia
CHRISTIAN SOURCES 2 220
Josephus, Against Apion
1.216 53 AnatoUs Cohortio ad Gentiles
On the Passover 15 220
Zeno Papyri 17, 67, 75, Eusebius, Historia
76 Ecclesiastica Clement, Protrepticus
7,32.16-18 18 Stromateis 220
5.123-24 220
Apostolic Constitutions
RABBINIC SOURCES 7.36.1 213 Origen
7.36.1-6 212, 213 De Principiis
7.36.6 213 1.3.2 252
b. Berakhot
7.39.2-4 212 2.3.6 256
Ala 233
8.6.5-8 212
43b 233
53b 233
Clement
Stromateis
b. Megillah CLASSICAL SOURCES
5.14.123 222
13a 231
5.113.1 190
Aeschylus
b. Menahot Eumenides
Epiphanius
I09a-b 72 17-19 226
Adversus Haereses
64.29.6 224 609-21 226
b. Sanhedrin
92b 256 Eusebius Antisthenes
Praeparatio Evangelica Cicero, De Natura
b. Shahbat 9 32 Deorum
33b 250 1.32 158
Historia Ecclesiastica
b. Yebamot 4.2.1-4 141 Apollonius Molon
76a 173 4.2.3 143 Eusebius, Praeparatio
Evangelica
m. Menahot Jerome 9.19.1-3 7
13:10 72 Commentary on Daniel
3.11.14 69 Apollonius of Rhodes
m. Tamid 255 11.13-14 4 Argonautica 54
326 INDEX OE ANCIENT LITERATURE

Appian Eudoxus 14:102-4 213, 218

8.19.132 86 Cicero, De Divinatione
87-99 164 Livy
Bella Civilia History of Rome
2.90 141 Hecateus of Ahdera 31.14 217
Diodorus Siculus, 39.8-19 199
Cassius Dio Bibliotheca Historica
Historia Romana 1.96.4-9 41
Lycophron
57.18.5a 263 40.3 5,9,155
Alexandra 54, 201
67.14.1-3 269 40.3.4 10
141 40.8 5
68.32 Martial
Josephus, Against Apion 12.57.13 24
Cicero 1.186-89 65
On the Consular Prov- Orosius
1,190-91 156
inces 1.201-4 157 7.12 141

Cleanthes Heraclitus Pausanias

Hymn to Zeus 158 Plutarch, De Pythiae 10.12 83
Oraculis
Diodorus Siculus 6 {397A) 83 Phlegon
Bibliotheca Historica Mirabilia
1.12.4 41 Herodotus 3.7 93
1.15.9-16.2 41 2.73 228
1.17.3 41 2.81 223
Plato
1.27.4 41
Cratylus
19.17.4-6 65 Hesiod
400c 224
33-36 100 Theogony 49
34-35 10
Laws 62
Works and Days
282-92 183 636 159
Euripides 836 159
770 189
Hippolytus 841-42 159
252-54 223
Horace
Satires Phaedo
Euhemerus of Messene
1.4.138-43 263
Diodorus Siculus, 80d 214
1.5.100
Biblotheca Historica
5.41 163 Symposium 159, 214, 231
Isocrates
6.1 163 Ad Nicoclem Timaeus
42-43 172 38e 56
Epictetus
Discourses Juvenal Plutarch
l.ll.l'A 159 Satires Isis and Osiris
6.594-97 160 24 [360B] 41
Arrian, Dissertationes 14 267, 270 32 41
2.9.19-21 269 14:96-106 269 38 41
 INDEX OF ANCIENT LITERATURE 327

Lycurgus Suetonius Valerius Maximus

15 159 Augustus 1,3,3 262
76 268
Quaestiones Convivales Xenophon
4.6 [671-72] 38, 68 Domitian Memorabilia
8.9.1 39 12.2 142
2.1.21-34 183
Tiberius
Polybius Zeno
36 269
31.18.20 89 Plutarch, De Alexandri
36.1 263
38.4.22 86 Virtute
Syncellus 1.6 163
Seneca 347d 141 Republic
Augustine, De Civitate 348d 141 Diogenes Laertius
Dei 7.33 159

Tacitus
Clement, Stromateis
6.11 12,264 Annals
5,11.76, 1-3 159
2,85.4 269
2.85.5 263
Seostris
6.28 224
Diodorus Siculus,
Bibliotheca Historica41
1.54-57
Historiae
EGYPTIAN SOURCES

5,13 93 Book of the Dead 181

Herodotus
5.3.1-4.2 11
2.102-9 41
5.5.1 270 Manetho 9-11
Josephus, Against Apion
Strabo Varro 1.75-90 9
Geography Augustine, De Civitate 1.228 9
1.2 147 Dei 1,232-50 9
16 13 4.31 159 1.241 40
16.2 5 1.244 40
16.2.35-36 157 Lactantius, Divinae 1.246 40
16.2.35-39 157 Instilutiones
16.28 5 1.6 83 Potter's Oracle 90, 94