Effects of dyes on different types of fabrics

Abstract
Some fabrics just don't absorb dye as well as others, which makes me wonder: how exactly does
dye work? Do different colors of dye have more impact on a fabric? Do different fabrics react and
absorb dyes with varying outcomes?This experiment attempts to answer these questions by testing
a given dye's effectiveness on a wide range of fabric

Materials and Procedure

For the experiment, It was chosen four natural fibers (cotton, silk, linen, and wool), three synthetic
fibers (polyester, rayon, and spandex), and one control fabric (cotton) and submitted them to the
same dying process.
In order to get the most accurate results, we repeated the dye process six times with different sets of
fabric samples.

Results
It was hypothesized that there would be significant variation across the different fabrics in terms of
absorption of the dye, that the natural fabrics would absorb the dye more effectively than the
synthetic fibers, and that the cotton would bond the best with the dye overall.
According to both my data and further research, this assumption was correct.

Discussion
The purpose of this experiment was to test a given dyes effectiveness on a wide range of different
types of fabrics. I wanted to see just what would happen so that when I ever tie-dye in the future, I
might know just what to expect after the dying process is completed.
At the start, I hypothesized that there would be significant variation across the different fabrics in
terms of absorption of the dye, and that the natural fabrics would absorb the dye more effectively
than the synthetic fibers, and that the cotton would bond the best with the dye overall.
All of the different components of this hypothesis were supported by the data I collected. This is
because cotton ended up being the fabric with the best scores, meaning closest to 100% saturation
and 50% luminance, with an average of 100% saturation and 40% luminance.
Because cotton is a natural fiber, the data I collected also supported that segment of my hypothesis.
There was also a great deal of variation between each fabric, which supported the first segment of
my hypothesis.
This project attempts to explain how and why the chemicals in dye react differently with different
types of fabric.
Environmental Pollution
Abstract
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into a natural environment that causes
instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the ecosystem i.e. physical systems or living
organisms. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise,
heat, or light. Pollutants, the elements of pollution, can be foreign substances or energies, or
naturally occurring; when naturally occurring, they are considered contaminants when they
exceed natural levels. Modern Awareness
Pollution became a popular issue after World War II, due to radioactive fallout from atomic warfare
and testing. Then a non-nuclear event, The Great Smog of 1952 in London, killed at least 4000
people. This prompted some of the first major modern environmental legislation, The Clean Air Act
of 1956. Pollution began to draw major public attention in the United States between the mid-1950s
and early 1970s, when Congress passed the Noise Control Act, the Clean Air Act, the Clean Water
Act and the National Environmental Policy Act.
Bad bouts of local pollution helped increase consciousness. PCB (Polychlorinated biphenyl)
Dumping in the Hudson River resulted in a ban by the EPA on consumption of its fish in 1974. Long-
term dioxin contamination at Love Canal starting in 1947 became a national news story in 1978 and
led to the Superfund legislation of 1980. Legal proceedings in the 1990s helped bring to light
Chromium-6 releases in California--the champions of whose victims became famous.
The pollution of industrial land gave rise to the name Brownfield, a term now common in city
planning. DDT was banned in most of the developed world after the publication of Rachel Carson's
Silent Spring.
The development of nuclear science introduced radioactive contamination, which can remain lethally
radioactive for hundreds of thousands of years. Lake Karachay, named by the World watch Institute
as the "most polluted spot" on earth, served as a disposal site for the Soviet Union throughout the
1950s and 1960s. Second place may go to the area of Chelyabinsk U.S.S.R. as the "Most polluted
place on the planet".
Nuclear weapons continued to be tested in the Cold War, sometimes near inhabited areas,
especially in the earlier stages of their development. The toll on the worst affected populations and
the growth since then in understanding about the critical threat to human health posed by
radioactivity has also been a prohibitive complication associated with nuclear power. Though
extreme care is practiced in that industry, the potential for disaster suggested by incidents such as
those at Three Mile Island and Chernobyl pose a lingering specter of public mistrust. One legacy of
nuclear testing before most forms were banned has been significantly raised levels of background
radiation.
International catastrophes such as the wreck of the Amoco Cadiz oil tanker off the coast of Brittany
in 1978 and the Bhopal disaster in 1984 have demonstrated the universality of such events and the
scale on which efforts to address them needed to engage. The borderless nature of atmosphere and
oceans inevitably resulted in the implication of pollution on a planetary level with the issue of global
warming. Most recently the term persistent organic pollutant (POP) has come to describe a group of
chemicals such as PBDEs and PFCs among others. Though their effects remain somewhat less well
understood owing to a lack of experimental data, they have been detected in various ecological
habitats far removed from industrial activity such as the Arctic, demonstrating diffusion and
bioaccumulation after only a relatively brief period of widespread use.
Growing evidence of local and global pollution and an increasingly informed public over time have
given rise to environmentalism and the environmental movement, which generally seek to limit
human impact on the environment.

Forms of Pollution
The major forms of pollution are listed below along with the particular pollutants relevant to each of
them:
Air pollution, the release of chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere. Common gaseous
pollutants include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and nitrogen oxides
produced by industry and motor vehicles. Photochemical ozone and smog are created as nitrogen
oxides and hydrocarbons react to sunlight. Particulate matter, or fine dust is characterized by their
micrometer size PM10 to PM2.5.
Light pollution, includes light trespass, over-illumination and astronomical interference.

Littering
Noise pollution, which encompasses roadway noise, aircraft noise, industrial noise as well as high-
intensity sonar. Soil contamination occurs when chemicals are released intentionally, by spill or
underground leakage. Among the most significant soil contaminants are hydrocarbons, heavy
metals, MTBE, herbicides, pesticides and chlorinated hydrocarbons.
Radioactive contamination, resulting from 20th century activities in atomic physics, such as nuclear
power generation and nuclear weapons research, manufacture and deployment. (See alpha emitters
and actinides in the environment.)
Thermal pollution, is a temperature change in natural water bodies caused by human influence, such
as use of water as coolant in a power plant. Visual pollution, which can refer to the presence of
overhead power lines, motorway billboards, scarred landforms (as from strip mining), open storage
of trash or municipal solid waste.
Water pollution, by the discharge of wastewater from commercial and industrial waste (intentionally
or through spills) into surface waters; discharges of untreated domestic sewage, and chemical
contaminants, such as chlorine, from treated sewage; release of waste and contaminants into
surface runoff flowing to surface waters (including urban runoff and agricultural runoff, which may
contain chemical fertilizers and pesticides); waste disposal and leaching into groundwater;
eutrophication and littering

Sources and Causes

Air pollution comes from both natural and man-made sources. Though globally man made pollutants
from combustion, construction, mining, agriculture and warfare are increasingly significant in the air
pollution equation. Motor vehicle emissions are one of the leading causes of air pollution. China,
United States, Russia, Mexico, and Japan are the world leaders in air pollution emissions. Principal
stationary pollution sources include chemical plants, coal-fired power plants, oil refineries,
petrochemical plants, nuclear waste disposal activity, incinerators, large livestock farms (dairy cows,
pigs, poultry, etc.), PVC factories, metals production factories, plastics factories, and other heavy
industry. Agricultural air pollution comes from contemporary practices, which include clear felling and
burning of natural vegetation as well as spraying of pesticides and herbicides.
About 400 million metric tons of hazardous wastes are generated each year. The United States
alone produces about 250 million metric tons. Americans constitute less than 5% of the world's
population, but produce roughly 25% of the world’s CO2, and generate approximately 30% of world’s
waste. In 2007, China has overtaken the United States as the world's biggest producer of CO2.
In February 2007, a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), representing
the work of 2,500 scientists, economists, and policymakers from more than 120 countries, said that
humans have been the primary cause of global warming since 1950. Humans have ways to cut
greenhouse gas emissions and avoid the consequences of global warming, a major climate report
concluded. But in order to change the climate, the transition from fossil fuels like coal and oil needs
to occur within decades, according to the final report this year from the UN's Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).
Some of the more common soil contaminants are chlorinated hydrocarbons (CFH), heavy metals
(such as chromium, cadmium–found in rechargeable batteries, and lead–found in lead paint, aviation
fuel and still in some countries, gasoline), MTBE, zinc, arsenic and benzene. In 2001 a series of
press reports culminating in a book called Fateful Harvest unveiled a widespread practice of
recycling industrial byproducts into fertilizer, resulting in the contamination of the soil with various
metals.
Ordinary municipal landfills are the source of many chemical substances entering the soil
environment (and often groundwater), emanating from the wide variety of refuse accepted,
especially substances illegally discarded there, or from pre-1970 landfills that may have been
subject to little control in the U.S. or EU. There have also been some unusual releases of
polychlorinated dibenzodioxins, commonly called dioxins for simplicity, such as TCDD(2,3,7,8-
Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin).
Pollution can also be the consequence of a natural disaster. For example, hurricanes often involve
water contamination from sewage, and petrochemical spills from ruptured boats or automobiles.
Larger scale and environmental damage is not uncommon when coastal oil rigs or refineries are
involved. Some sources of pollution, such as nuclear power plants or oil tankers, can produce
widespread and potentially hazardous releases when accidents occur. In the case of noise pollution
the dominant source class is the motor vehicle, producing about ninety percent of all unwanted noise
worldwide.

Conclusion
Pollution control is a term used in environmental management. It means the control of emissions and
effluents into air, water or soil. Without pollution control, the waste products from consumption,
heating, agriculture, mining, manufacturing, transportation and other human activities, whether they
accumulate or disperse, will degrade the environment. In the hierarchy of controls, pollution
prevention and waste minimization are more desirable than pollution control. In the field of land
development, low impact development is a similar technique for the prevention of urban runoff

Determinatio of Quantity of Casein in milk

Abstract
Aim is To determine the quantity of Casein present in different samples of milk. Natural milk is an
opaque white fluid Secreted by the mammary glands of Female mammal . The main constituents of
natural milk are Protein, Carbohydrate, Mineral Vitamins, Fats and Water and is a complete
balanced diet. Fresh milk is sweetish in taste. However , when it is kept for long time at a
temperature of 5 degree it become sour because of bacteria present in air. These bacteria convert
lactose of milk into lactic acid which is sour in taste. In acidic condition casein of milk starts
separating out as a precipitate. When the acidity in milk is sufficient and temperature is around 36
degree, it forms semi-solid mass, called curd. Casein is present in milk as calcium caseinate in the
form of micelles. These micelles have negative charge and on adding acid to milk, the negative
charges are neutralized.
Milk is a complete diet as it contains in its proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals, vitamins and
water. • Average composition of milk from different sources is given below.

• Casein is the major protein constituent presents in the milk and is a mixed phosphor-protein.
• Casein has isoelectric pH of about 4.7 and can be easily separated around this pH.
• It readily dissolves in dilute acids and alkalies.

Materials Required:
Beakers (250 ml), filter-paper, glass-rod, weigh-box, filtration-flask, Buchner-funnel, water pump,
test-tubes porcelain dish, burner, different samples of Milk, 1% acetic acid solution, saturated
ammonium sulphate solution.

Procedure
• Take a clean dry beaker, put into it 20cc of goat’s milk and add 20 ml of saturated ammonium
sulphate solution slowly and with stirring. Fat along with casein will precipitate out.
• Filter the solution and transfer the precipitates in another beaker.
• Add about 30 ml of water to the precipitate.
• Only casein dissolves in water forming milky solution leaving fat undissolved.
• Heat the milky solution to about 40°C and add 1% acetic acid solution drop wise, when casein gets
precipitated.
• Filter the ppt., wash with water, and let the ppt. dry.
• Weigh the dry solid mass in a previously weighed watch glass.
• Repeat the experiment with other samples of milk.

Observation Table
If an acid is added to milk, the negative charge are neutralized and the neutral protein precipitated
out.
Ca+2 (Casemated) + 2CH3 COOH(aq) Casein(s)+(CH3COO)2 Ca (aq)
Volume of milk taken in each case = 20 ml.

Conclusion
Different samples of milk contain different percentage of Casein..

Dyeing of wool, cotto and silk in Malachite Green

Abstract
Aim is To dye wool, cotton and silk clothes with malachite green
Dyes are coloured substances which can adhere to the surface of materials and are used to give
colour to paper, food- stuffs and various textiles such as cotton, wool, silk, synthetic fibres etc.
The dyed fabrics appear to be coloured because a particular dye absorbs radiations of specific
wavelengths from the visible region of electromagnetic radiations which fall on its surface. The
remaining radiations are reflected. The colour observed is due to this reflected light.

Characteristics of a dye:
1. It must have a suitable colour.
2. It must be capable of being fixed to the material
3. When fixed it must be fast to detergents, soaps, water, dry-cleaning solvents, light and dilute
acids.

Requirements
500ml beakers, tripod stand, wire gauze, glass rod, spatula, wool cloth, cotton cloth and silk cloth.
Sodium carbonate, tannic acid, tartaremetic and malachite green

Procedure
1. Preparation of sodium carbonate solution.
Take about 0.5g if solid sodium carbonate and dissolve it in 250 ml of water.
2. Preparation of tartaremtic solution.
Take about 0.2g of tartaremetic and dissolve it in 100ml of water by stirring with the help of a glass
rod.
3. Preparation of tannic acid solution.
Take 100 ml of water in a beaker and add about 1.0g of tannic acid to it. Heat the solution. On
heating a clear solution of tannic acid is obtained.
4. Preparation of dye solution.
Take about 0.1g of malachite green dye and add to it 400 ml of water. On warming a clear solution
of the dye results.
5. Dyeing of wool and silk.
Take about 200ml dye solution and dip in it the woollen/ silk cloth to be dyed. Boil the solution for
about 2 minutes. After that remove the cloth and wash it with hot water 3-4 times, squeeze and keep
it for drying.
6. Dyeing of cotton.
Cotton does not absorb malachite green readily, therefore it requires the use of a mordant. For
dyeing a cotton cloth dip it in sodium carbonate solution for about 10 minutes and then rinse with
water. Then put the cloth in hot tannic acid solution for about 5 minutes. Now take out the cloth from
tannic acid solution and keep it in tartaremetic solution for about 5 minutes. Remove the cloth and
squeeze it with the spatula to remove most of the solution. Now place the cloth in boiling solution of
the dye for about 2 minutes. Remove and wash the dyed cloth thouroughly with water, squeeze and
keep it for drying.
7. Dyeing of cotton directly.
Take another piece of cotton cloth and put it directly into boiling solution of the dye. Keep it dipped
for about 2 minutes. Remove the cloth, wash with water, squeeze and keep it for drying

Observations
1. The colour of the wool cloth dyed directly by dipping in hot solution of malachite green dye is fast.
2. The colour of cotton cloth dyed directly (without using mordant) by dipping in hot solution of
malachite green is not fast to washing and is of low intensity.
3. The colour of cotton cloth dyed by using mordant and then by dipping in hot solution of malachite
green is fast to washing and is of high intensity.
4. The colour of the silk cloth is fast and is of high intensity

Conclusion
1. Wool and silk absorb the dye colour well.
2. Use of mordant helps in giving fast colour to the cotton cloth

Effect of Sodium Carbonate on foaming capacity

Abstract
Aim is to study the effect of addition of sodium carbonate on foaming capacity of a soap. Soaps and
detergents are cleaning ingredients that are able to remove oil particles from surfaces because of
their unique chemical properties. Soaps are created by the chemical reaction of a jetty acid with on
alkali metal hydroxide. In a chemical sense soap is a salt made up of a corboxylix acid and an alkali
like sodium of potassium. The cleaning action of soap and detergents is a result of thrill, ability to
surround oil particles on a surface and disperse it in water. Bar soap has been used for centuries
and continues to be an important product for batching and cleaning. It is also a mild antiseptic and
ingestible antidote for certain poisons. SOAP Soap is a common term for a number of related
compounds used as of washing clothes or bathing. Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of higher
fatty acids such as stearic acid (C17 H35 COOH), palmittic acid (C15 H31 COOH) and oleic acid
(C17H35 COOH) they have the general formula RCOONa and R COONa. Soap is produced by a
saponification or basic hydrolysis reaction of a fat or oil. Currently sodium carbonate or sodium
hydroxide is used to neutralize the fatty acid and convert it to the salt..
General Overall Hydrolysis Reaction

Although the reaction is shown as one step reaction, it is in fact two steps. The net effect as that the
ester bonds all broken. The glycerol turns back into an alcohol. The fatty acid is turned into a salt
due to the presence of abasic solution of NaoH. In the carboxyl group, one oxygen now has a
negative charge that attacts the positive sodium ion. A molecule of soap consists of two parts.
a) Alkyl group – it is oil soluble
b) Corboxyl group – It is water soluble

Types of soaps
The type of fatty acid and length of the carbon chain determines the unique properties of various
soaps. Tallow or animal fats give plimarily sodium stearate (18 carbons) a very hard, insoluble soap.
Fatty acids with longer chains are even more insoluble. As a matter of fact, 3inc stearate is used in
talcum powders because it is water repellent. Coconut oil is a source of lauric acid (12 carbons)
which can be made into sodium lourate. This soap is very soluble and will lather easily even in sea
water. Fatty acids with only 10 or fewer carbons are not used in soaps because they irritate the skin
and have objectionable odors

Materials Required:
(a) Apparatus One 100ml conical flask, 20ml test tubes, 100ml measuring cylinder, test tube stand,
weight box, stop watch and burner.
(b) Chemicals Soap samples, distilled water, tap water and m/10 Na2Co3 solution.

Theory
Calcium and magnesium ions present in the tap water interfere in the foaming capacity of soap.
These ions combine with soap and form insoluble calcium and magnesium salts which get
precipitated

Therefore, the presence of these ions effect the foaming capacity of soap and hence their cleaning
capacity. When Na2CO3 is added to the tap water, calcium and magnesium ions gets precipitated
as their carbonates in the presence of Na2CO3
Foaming capacity of the water increases. In order determine the effect of NO2CO3 on the foaming
capacity of asample of soap it is first shaken with distrilled water there with top water and finally with
top water containing equal volume of M/10 Na2CO3 solution and then the time taken for
siroppealance of foam it noted

Procedure
1. Weigh accurately 0.5g of the given amount of soap and transfer to a 100ml of conical flask. Add
50ml of distilled water and wolm to dissolve till clear solution is obtained.
2. Take three 20ml test tubes and label them as 1,2 and A,B and C. To test tube A add 10ml of
distilled water, to test tube C add 5ml of tap water 5ml of M/10 Na2CO3 solution.
3. Add 1ml of soap solution to each tube.
4. Cork test tube A tightly and shake vigorously for 1minute. Place the test tube on the test tube
stand and start the stop watch immediately. Note the taken for the disappearance of foam.
5. Repeat the same procedure for test tube B and C, rate the time taken for the disappearance of
foam

Observation Table
Weight of soap taken = 0.5g
Volume of distilled water taken for propering solution = 50ml

Conclusion
• Foaming capacity of tap water increases on addition of Na2CO3 solution.
Aim is to study the Discoveries In The Field Of Chemistry

xygen
Oxygen had been produced by several chemists prior to its discovery in 1774, but they failed to
recognize it as a distinct element. Joseph Priestley and Carl Wilhelm Scheele both independently
discovered oxygen, but Priestly is usually given credit for the discovery. They were both able to
produce oxygen by heating mercuric oxide (HgO). Priestley called the gas produced in his
experiments 'dephlogisticated air' and Scheele called his 'fire air'. The name oxygen was created by
Antoine Lavoisier who incorrectly believed that oxygen was necessary to form all acids.
Oxygen is the third most abundant element in the universe and makes up nearly 21% of the earth's
atmosphere. Oxygen accounts for nearly half of the mass of the earth's crust, two thirds of the mass
of the human body and nine tenths of the mass of water. Large amounts of oxygen can be extracted
from liquefied air through a process known as fractional distillation. Oxygen can also be produced
through the electrolysis of water or by heating potassium chlorate (KClO3).
Oxygen is a highly reactive element and is capable of combining with most other elements. It is
required by most living organisms and for most forms of combustion. Impurities in molten pig iron are
burned away with streams of high pressure oxygen to produce steel. Oxygen can also be combined
with acetylene (C2H2) to produce an extremely hot flame used for welding. Liquid oxygen, when
combined with liquid hydrogen, makes an excellent rocket fuel. Ozone (O3) forms a thin, protective
layer around the earth that shields the surface from the sun's ultraviolet radiation. Oxygen is also a
component of hundreds of thousands of organic compounds.
Atomic Number: 8
Atomic Weight: 15.9994

Atomic Theory
• 1803 Dalton - the atom is a indivisible, indestructible, tiny ball
• 1850 Evidence is accumulating that the atom is itself composed of smaller particles
• The current model...
The behavior of electrically charged particles Like charges repel each other, unlike charges attract

Behavior of moving charge in magnetic field

• A charged particle moving though a magnetic field will feel a force perpendicular to the plane
described by the velocity vector and magnetic field vector
• This deflects the moving charged particle according to the "right hand rule" (based on a positive
charge)
• A negative charge will be deflected in the opposite direction

Cathode rays and electrons

Electrical discharge through partially evacuated tubes produced radiation. This radiation originated
from the negative electrode, known as the cathode (thus, these rays were termed cathode rays).
• The "rays" traveled towards, or were attracted to the positive electrode (anode)
• Not directly visible but could be detected by their ability to cause other materials to glow, or
fluoresce
• Traveled in a straight line
• Their path could be "bent" by the influence of magnetic or electrical fields
• A metal plate in the path of the "cathode rays" acquired a negative charge
• The "cathode rays" produced by cathodes of different materials appeared to have the same
properties
These observations indicated that the cathode ray radiation was composed of negatively charged
particles (now known as electrons).J.J. Thompson (1897) measured the charge to mass ratio for a
stream of electrons (using a cathode ray tube apparatus) at 1.76 x 108 coulombs/gram.
• Charged particle stream can be deflected by both an electric charge and by a magnetic field
• An electric field can be used to compensate for the magnetic deflection - the resulting beam thus
behaves as if it were neutral
• The required current needed to "neutralize" the magnetic field indicates the charge of the beam
• The loss of mass of the cathode indicated the "mass" of the stream of electrons

Synthesis of urea
Urea (also known as carbamide) is a waste product of many living organisms, and is the major
organic component of human urine. This is because it is at the end of chain of reactions which break
down the amino acids that make up proteins. These amino acids are metabolized and converted in
the liver to ammonia, CO2, water and energy. But the ammonia is toxic to cells, and so must be
excreted from the body. Aquatic creatures, such as fish, can expel the ammonia directly into the
water, but land-based animals need another disposal method. So the liver converts the ammonia to
a non-toxic compound, urea, which can then be safely transported in the blood to the kidneys, where
it is eliminated in urine.
Urea has quite an interesting history. It was first discovered and isolated from human urine by H.M.
Rouelle in 1773, and was then successfully synthesized in 1828 by Friedrich Wohler. The synthesis
was almost an accident, as Wohler had been trying to make another compound, ammonium
cyanate, to continue a study of cyanates he had been working on for the previous few years. When
he added silver cyanate to ammonium chloride solution he obtained a white crystalline material,
which proved identical to urea obtained from urine.
This discovery was very important, as this made urea the first organic compound to be synthesized
from wholly inorganic starting materials. Wohler wrote triumphantly to Berzelius:
"I must tell you that I can make urea without the use of kidneys, either man or dog. Ammonium
cyanate is urea."
This discovery dealt a severe blow to a widespread belief at the time called "vitalism". This theory
maintained that living organisms, like plants and animals, were made of different materials to
inanimate objects like rocks. The belief was that living organisms possessed an unknown 'vital force'
that allowed them to fabricate organic chemicals, and since inanimate objects did not possess this
force, they could neither create, nor be transformed into the chemicals of life. Wohler's discovery
showed that not only could organic chemicals be modified by chemistry, but that they could also be
produced through chemistry as well. In effect, he had shown that we are made of the same materials
as the rest of Nature, and are therefore a part of the world around us

Electricity Transforms Chemicals

Humphrey Davy was born on December 17, 1778 in Penzance, Cornwall, England. He received his
education in Penzance and in Truro. His father died in 1794, and Davy, in an effort to help support
his family, became an apprentice to a surgeon-apothecary. Davy's most important investigations
were devoted to electrochemistry. Following Galvani's experiments and the discovery of the voltaic
pile, interest in galvanic electricity had become widespread. The first chemical decomposition by
means of the pile was carried out in 1800 by Nicholson and Carlisle, who obtained hydrogen and
oxygen from water, and who decomposed the aqueous solutions of a variety of common salts. Davy,
too, began to example the chemical effects of electricity in 1800
He soon found that when he passed electrical current through some substances, these substances
decomposed, (a process later called electrolysis). In 1813, Sir Humphrey Davy concocted a giant
battery in the basement of Britain's Royal Society. It was made of 2,000 pairs of plates and took up
889 square feet. The intensity of its effect (the voltage generated) was directly related to the
reactivity of the electrolyte with the metal. Evidently, Davy understood that the actions of electrolysis
and of the voltaic pile were the same. His work led him to propose that the elements of a chemical
compound are held together by electrical forces. Davy must have known of Lavoisier's suggestion
that the alkali earths were s of unknown metals. At first, he tried to separate the metals by
electrolyzing aqueous solutions of the alkalis, but this yielded only hydrogen gas.
He then tried passing current through molten compounds, and his persistence was rewarded when
he was able to separate globules of pure metal by this means. His first successes came in 1807 with
the separation of potassium from molten potash and of sodium from common salt. He described
potassium as particles which, when thrown into water, "skimmed about excitedly with a hissing
sound, and soon burned with a lovely lavender light." Dr. John Davy, Humphrey’s brother, said that
Humphreys "danced around and was delirious with joy" at his discovery. These results were
presented in the Bakerian lecture of November, 180

Electron
The one who put the stop to the dispute was an English scientist named Joseph John Thomson. In
his experiment to produce cathode rays he used a tube filled with rarefied gas but he made a bit of
modification with the equipment. As it was said before cathode rays are emitted from the cathode
and directed to the anode. What Thomson made with the equipment was a little gap in the anode.
Through the gap a small beam of cathode rays got out of the area of the cathode and anode
influence. Next, the beam passed through a long vacuum tube and fell on a fluoroscopic screen
leaving there a fluorescent sign. In the vacuum tube Thomson put also two metal plates connected
to a battery. That way he could create voltage between the plates, where the beam had its path. The
field was directed perpendicularly to the cathode rays beam. It emerged that under the influence of
voltage the beam was deflected (the spot on the screen appeared in a different place than without
the voltage turned on). It was the final evidence that cathode rays consisted of charged particles- the
other way the beam couldn't be deflected by the electric field. The direction of the deflection has
shown of what charge the particles creating the beam are. It emerged to be the negative chargeare.
It emerged to be the negative charge.

Knowing that cathode rays were formed of charged particles Thomson decided to measure the
velocity of those particles. Except from the electric field he used the magnetic one. The deflection of
a particle in the magnetic field depends on the velocity of the particle. Arranging the electric and the
magnetic field leveling each other in their influence on the particles, and knowing the intensities of
both fields one can calculate the velocity of the particles of cathode rays. That is what Thomson did

Radioactivity
In 1896 Henri Becquerel was using naturally fluorescent minerals to study the properties of x-rays,
which had been discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Roentgen. He exposed potassium uranyl sulfate to
sunlight and then placed it on photographic plates wrapped in black paper, believing that the
uranium absorbed the sun’s energy and then emitted it as x-rays. This hypothesis was disproved on
the 26th-27th of February, when his experiment "failed" because it was overcast in Paris. For some
reason, Becquerel decided to develop his photographic plates anyway. To his surprise, the images
were strong and clear, proving that the uranium emitted radiation without an external source of
energy such as the sun. Becquerel had discovered radioactivity.
Becquerel used an apparatus similar to that displayed below to show that the radiation he
discovered could not be x-rays. X-rays are neutral and cannot be bent in a magnetic field. The new
radiation was bent by the magnetic field so that the radiation must be charged and different than x-
rays. When different radioactive substances were put in the magnetic field, they deflected in different
directions or not at all, showing that there were three classes of radioactivity: negative, positive, and
electrically neutral

Plastics
In the United States during the 1860s, John Wesley Hyatt experimented with cellulose nitrate. In
1865, Hyatt became involved in devising a method for producing billiard balls from materials other
than ivory. Originally using mixtures of cloth, ivory dust, and shellac, he patented in 1869 the use of
collodion for coating billiard balls. The patent came one year after his collodion material was
introduced commercially.
John W. Hyatt and his brother Isaiah took out U.S. Patent 105,338 in 1870 for a process of
producing a horn-like material using cellulose nitrate and camphor. Although Parkes and Spill had
mentioned camphor in their work, the Hyatt brothers recognized the value of camphor as a
plasticizer for cellulose nitrate. In 1872, the term “celluloid” was coined by Isaiah Hyatt to describe
the Hyatt’s’ commercially successful product.
The validity of Hyatt’s’ patents was challenged by Spill, and a number of court actions took place
between 1877 and 1884. In the final action, it was found that Spill had no claim on the Hyatt
brothers’ patents, the judge ruling that Parkes was the true inventor of the process because he had
mentioned the use of camphor in his patents. Thus, there was no restriction on the use of these
processes and any company, including the Hyatt’s’ Celluloid Manufacturing Company, was free to
use them. After that decision, the Celluloid Manufacturing Company prospered, changed its name to
the American Cellulose Chemical Corporation, and eventually was absorbed by the Celanese
Corporation

Abstract
The aim of my experiment is to determine which of the material used (cherry, tomato & beet) would
make the best red color on fabric. It also attempts to find out would fabric type, afterbath, washing
and sun have an effect on the color.
The procedures for my experiment began by collecting the required plant materials. Then dye had to
be prepared from them. After this four sets of three types of fabric was to be dyed with it. After
allowing them to dry, they were to be tested for the effect of fabric type, afterbath, washing and sun
on their color

Theory
A DYE can generally be described as a colored substance that has an affinity to the substrate to
which it is being applied. The dye is generally applied in an aqueous solution and may require a
mordant to improve the fastness of the dye on the fiber. A mordant is an element which aids the
chemical reaction that takes place between the dye and the fiber so that the dye is absorbed.
Mordants (e.g. metallic salts) act on the dye molecules by breaking apart existing links and forming
new ones that will bind with the fabric. Not all dyes need mordants to help them adhere to fabric. If
they need no mordants, such as lichens and walnut hulls, they are called substantive dyes. If they do
need a mordant, they are called adjective dyes.

Common mordants are:

alum, usually used with cream of tartar, which helps evenness and brightens slightly;
iron (or copperas) which saddens or darken colors, bringing out green shades;
tin, usually used with cream of tartar, which blooms or brightens colors, especially reds, oranges and
yellows;
blue vitriol which saddens colors and brings out greens;
Tannic acid used for tans and browns.
Based on the source of the dye, it can be broadly classified into two:

1. Synthetic dyes
2. Natural dyes

Historically, natural dyes were used to color clothing or other textiles, and by the mid-1800’s
chemists began producing synthetic substitutes for them. Nowadays, most of the colors used in
commercial textile dyeing are synthetic. But the focus here is on the importance of natural
dyes.Natural dyes are a class of colorants extracted from vegetative matter and animal residues.

Natural dyes obtained from minerals

Ocher is a dye obtained from an impure earthy ore of iron or ferruginous clay, usually red (hematite)
or yellow (limonite). In addition to being the principal ore of iron, hematite is a constituent of a
number of abrasives and pigments.

Natural dyes obtained from animals

A good example is cochineal, which is a brilliant red dye produced from insects living on cactus
plants. Purple was extracted from a small gastropod mollusk found in all seas or from a crustacean
called a Trumpet Shell or Purple Fish. Estimates are that it took 8,500 shellfish to produce one gram
of the dye, hence the fact this dye was worth more than its weight in gold. So only the royal family
could afford it.

Natural dyes from plants

Nature has gifted us more than 500 dye-yielding plant species. Earliest evidence for the use of
natural dyes from plants dates back to more than 5000 years, with Madder (Rubia cordifolia) dyed
cloth found in the Indus river valley at Mohenjo-Daro. There is a whole variety of plants which can be
used to make plant dyes. Different parts of the plants can be a source for different type of dyes in
case of different types of dyes and plants

Materials Required
01. Fabric-Cotton, Wool and Polyester (four sets of fabric, each with 1 piece of each type of fabric)
02. Cherries
03. Tomatoes
04. Beet
05. Beakers
06. Watch glass
07. Detergent
08. Vinegar
09. Stirring rod
10. Distilled water

Procedure
1) Choose cherries, beets, and tomatoes with the darkest red color and make dyes from each of
them.

To make the dye solution:

Chop plant material into small pieces and place in a pot. Add double the amount of water to plant
material. Bring to a boil, and then simmer for about an hour. Strain. Now you can add your fabric to
be dyed. For a stronger shade, allow material to soak in the dye overnight.

Getting the fabric ready for the dye bath:

You will have to soak the fabric in a color fixative before the dye process. This will make the color set
in the fabric.
2) Choose three types of fabric (cotton, wool, polyester) and make four sets of fabric, each set with
one piece of each type of fabric. One set is the control.
3) Dye one set of fabric with each of the three dye baths. Put the control in distilled water only.
Observe color and intensity.
4) Soak each set (including control) in a vinegar afterbath. Observe color and intensity.
5) Wash each set (including control). Observe color and intensity.
6) Dry each piece of fabric in the sun. Observe color and intensity.
7) Compile the data and then draw conclusions.

Results
The cherry dye solution was close to red in color, but the fabrics were dyed pink.
The beet dye was very dark red, but the dyed fabric turned magenta.
The tomatoes made a light gold dye and dyed the fabric a gold color.
Out of the three fabrics, the wool picked up the color the best, then the cotton.
The polyester had only very pale coloring, with the most color on the polyester dyed with beets.
The afterbath affected the color a lot. It took the color out of the fabric instead of helping the color
attach.
Washing and sun had little or no effect on color or intensity

Discussion
Research has shown that synthetic dyes are suspected to release harmful chemicals that are
allergic, carcinogenic and detrimental to human health. Ironically, Germany, that discovered azo
dyes, became the first country to ban certain azo dyes in 1996.
Lately there has been increasing interest in natural dyes, as the public becomes aware of ecological
and environmental problems related to the use of synthetic dyes. Use of natural dyes cuts down
significantly on the amount of toxic effluent resulting from the synthetic dye process.
Natural dyes are environment friendly; for example, turmeric, the brightest of naturally occurring
yellow dyes is a powerful antiseptic and revitalizes the skin, while indigo yields a cooling sensation.
Organic dyeing not only helps preserve the traditional art of weaving and design, but also provides
employment and yields economic and ecological benefits.
Commercialization of natural dyes can be successful in the state with systematic and scientific
approach for identification of resources, extraction, purification, chemical structure elucidation and
promotion of use of natural dyes, thereby enhancing the economy of the local people. Recent work,
to discover whether it is possible to use plants as commercially viable sources of dyes has
highlighted a significant resource, which would benefit both industrial production and consumer
choice

Abstract
Aim is To investigate foaming capacity of different washing soap and effect of addition of sodium
carbonate on them. Soaps and detergents are cleaning ingredients that are able to remove oil
particles from surfaces because of their unique chemical properties.
Soaps are created by the chemical reaction of a jetty acid with on alkali metal hydroxide. In a
chemical sense soap is a salt made up of a corboxylix acid and an alkali like sodium of potassium.
The cleaning action of soap and detergents is a result of thrill, ability to surround oil particles on a
surface and disperse it in water.
Bar soap has been used for centuries and continues to be an important product for batching and
cleaning. It is also a mild antiseptic and ingestible antidote for certain poisons. SOAP Soap is a
common term for a number of related compounds used as of washing clothes or bathing. Soaps are
sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids such as stearic acid (C17 H35 COOH), palmittic acid
(C15 H31 COOH) and oleic acid (C17H35 COOH) they have the general formula RCOONa and R
COONa. Soap is produced by a saponification or basic hydrolysis reaction of a fat or oil. Currently
sodium carbonate or sodium hydroxide is used to neutralize the fatty acid and convert it to the salt..

General Overall Hydrolysis Reaction

Although the reaction is shown as one step reaction, it is in fact two steps. The net effect as that the
ester bonds all broken. The glycerol turns back into an alcohol. The fatty acid is turned into a salt
due to the presence of abasic solution of NaoH. In the carboxyl group, one oxygen now has a
negative charge that attacts the positive sodium ion. A molecule of soap consists of two parts.
a) Alkyl group – it is oil soluble
b) Corboxyl group – It is water soluble

Types of Soaps
The type of fatty acid and length of the carbon chain determines the unique properties of various
soaps. Tallow or animal fats give plimarily sodium stearate (18 carbons) a very hard, insoluble soap.
Fatty acids with longer chains are even more insoluble. As a matter of fact, 3inc stearate is used in
talcum powders because it is water repellent. Coconut oil is a source of lauric acid (12 carbons)
which can be made into sodium lourate. This soap is very soluble and will lather easily even in sea
water. Fatty acids with only 10 or fewer carbons are not used in soaps because they irritate the skin
and have objectionable odors

Materials Required:
a) Apparatus Five 100ml conical flasks, five 20ml test tubes, 100ml measuring cylinder, test tube
stand, weight box and stop watch.
(b) Chemicals Five different samples of soap and distilled water.

Theory
There is no quantitative method for the determination of foaming capacity of a soap. The foaming
capacity of soap depends upon concentration of soap in the sample. Solution of different soap are
prepared by dissolving their equal weights in equal volumes of distilled water. These solutions are
shaken vigorously to produce foam and then they are allowed to stand. Time taken for the
disappearance of foam are measured for different samples. Longer the time taken for the
disappearance of foam in a given sample of soap, greater is its foaming capacity

Procedure
Take five 100ml conical flasks and lobel them as A,B,C,D,E.
Take 50ml of water in each conical flask and then add 2g of different samples of soap to each flask.
Warm to dissolve and get a clear solution. Arrange five test tubes on a test tube stand labelled as
A,B,C,Dand E.
Take ICC of the soap solution from each conicol flask ad to the corresponding test tube.
Shake the test tube for 1 minute by covering its mouth by the thumb.
Foam will be formed in the test tube. Start the stop watch and note the time taken for the
disappearance of foam.
Repeat the same procedure for the test tubes B, C,D and E.
Shaking each tube with the same force and noting the time taken for disappearance of the foam

Observation Table

Conclusion
• Foaming capacity of soap is maximum in distilled water as compared to that in tap water.

Abstract
Aim is to Extract Nicotine Sulphate from Samples of Cigarettes

Tobacoo
Tobacco is an agricultural product processed from the leaves of plants in the genus Nicotiana. It can
be consumed, used as a pesticide and, in the form of nicotine tartrate, used in some medicines. It is
most commonly used as a drug, and is a valuable cash crop for countries such as Cuba,India,
China, and the United States. Tobacco is a name for any plant of the genus Nicotiana of the
Solanaceae family (nightshade family) and for the product manufactured from the leaf and used in
cigars and cigarettes, snuff, and pipe and chewing tobacco. Tobacco plants are also used in plant
bioengineering, and some of the 60 species are grown as ornamentals.
The chief commercial species, N. tabacum, is believed native to tropical America, like most nicotiana
plants, but has been so long cultivated that it is no longer known in the wild. N.Rrustica, a mild-
flavored, fast-burning species, was the tobacco originally raised in Virginia, but it is now grown
chiefly in Turkey, India, and Russia. The alkaloid nicotine is the most characteristic constituent of
tobacco and is responsible for its addictive nature. The harmful effects of tobacco derive from the
thousands of different compounds generated in the smoke, including polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (such as benzpyrene), formaldehyde, cadmium, nickel, arsenic, radioactive polonium-
210, tobacco-specific nitrosamines (TSNAs), phenols, and many others.
Tobacco is cultivated similarly to other agricultural products. Seeds are sown in cold frames or
hotbeds to prevent attacks from insects, and then transplanted into the fields. Tobacco is an annual
crop, which is usually harvested mechanically or by hand. After harvest, tobacco is stored for curing,
which allows for the slow oxidation and degradation of carotenoids. This allows for the agricultural
product to take on properties that are usually attributed to the "smoothness" of the smoke. Following
this, tobacco is packed into its various forms of consumption, which include smoking, chewing,
snuffing, and so on.
Most cigarettes incorporate flue-cured tobacco, which produces a milder, more inhalable smoke.
Use of low-pH, inhalable, flue-cured tobacco is one of the principal reasons smoking causes lung
cancer and other diseases association with smoke inhalation.

Nicotine
Nicotine is an alkaloid found in the nightshade family of plants (Solanaceae) that acts as a nicotinic
acetylcholine receptor agonist. The biosynthesistakes place in the roots and accumulation occurs in
the leaves of the Solanaceae. It constitutes approximately 0.6–3.0% of the dry weight of tobacco and
is present in the range of 2–7 μg/kg of various edible plants. It functions as an antiherbivore
chemical; therefore, nicotine was widely used as an insecticide in the past and nicotine analogs such
as imidacloprid are currently widely used.
In low doses (an average cigarette yields about 1 mg of absorbed nicotine), the substance acts as a
stimulant in mammals, while high amounts (30–60 mg) can be fatal. This stimulant effect is the main
factor responsible for the dependence-forming properties of tobacco smoking. According to the
American Heart Association, nicotine addiction has historically been one of the hardest addictions to
break, while the pharmacological and behavioral characteristics that determine tobacco addiction are
similar to those determining addiction to heroin and cocaine.
The nicotine content of popular American-brand cigarettes has slowly increased over the years, and
one study found that there was an average increase of 1.6% per year between the years of 1998
and 2005. This was found for all major market categories of cigarettes.

Requirments
250 ml Beaker
Filter Paper
Separating funnel
China Dish
Physical Balance
Glass Rod

Chemicals Required
Calcium Hydroxide [Ca(OH)2]
Kerosene as solvent
Concentrated Sulphuric Acid
Cigarettes

Procedure
Collect different samples of cigarettes.
Remove the covers and collect the contents of the cigarettes on separate pieces of papers. Weigh 1
gram of each sample using a physical balance and label them. Place them in a dry place.
Dissolve each sample in Calcium Hydroxide solution taken in 100ml beakers. Stir them with the help
of a glass rod.
Filter the different solutions after the Nicotine has fully dissolved. Collect them separately in
separating funnels.
Add two test tubes of Kerosene Oil to each separating funner. Before pouring, ensure that the valve
is closed.
After Pouring shake the mixture vigorously in order to mix the two liquids and leave it for two days
without disturbing. Two layers – one heavy layer in the bottom and the second lighter layer in the top
separates out.
Open the valve of the funnel and let the heavy layer out through the open valve. The lighter layer
remains in the separating funnel.
Add half a test tube of concentrated Sulphuric Acid to each separating funnel. Again shake it
vigorously in order to mix them and leave it for sometime.
Two layers are formed – one heavy (dark drown) layer at the bottom and another lighter (almost
transparent) layer on the top.
Open the valve of the separating funnel and collect the heavier layer in a test tube.
Now transfer the contents into a china dish. Repeat the same procedure for the different samples
and label them after the name of the cigarettes from which they have been obtained.
Heat the crystals in liquid form and ultimately subject them to cold water and leave them for a day or
two.
Weigh the crystals hence obtained with the help of a physical balance.

Result
The analysis showed relatively higher levels of nicotine in tobacco from beedis (0.17g) as compared
to cigarettes (0.05g in Sample B and 0.06g in Sample A)

Conclusion
This study concludes that the nicotine content in tobacco contained in country cigarettes (beedi) is
higher compared to the content in company manufactured branded cigarettes.

Abstract
To determine the rate of fermentation of various fruit juices.
Fermentation is a slow decomposition of complex organic compound into simpler compounds by the
action of enzymes. Enzymes are generally protons example of fermentation are souring of milk curd,
bread making wine making, rewing.
The word ‘Fermentation’ had been derived from latin (Ferver means to ‘boil’). As during fermentation
there is lot of frothing of liquid due to the evolution of carbon dioxide, it gives the appearance as if it
is boiling. Sugars like glucose, sucrose when fermented in presence of yeast cells are converted to
ethyl alcohol. During fermentation of, starch is first hydrolyzed to maltose by action of enzyme
diastase.
Fermentation is carried out at a temperature of 4-16°C (40-60°F). This is slow for most kinds of
fermentation, but is beneficial for cider as it leads to slower fermentation with less loss of delicate are
ma. Apple based juices with cranberry also make fine ciders and many other fruit purees or
flavorings can be used, such as grapes, cherry, raspherry. The cider is ready to drink after a three
month fermentation period, though more after it is material in the vats for up to 2 to 3 years

History of Fermentation
Since fruits ferment naturally, fermentation precedes human history. Since ancient times, however,
humans have been controlling the fermentation process. The earliest evidence of winemaking dates
from eight thousand Years ago in Georgia, in the Caucasus area. Seven thousand years ago jars
containing the remains of wine have been excavated in the Zagros Mountains in Iran, which are now
on display at the University of Pennsylvania.There is strong evidence that people were fermenting
beverages in Babylon circa 5000 BC, ancient Egypt circa 3150 BC, pre-Hispanic Mexico circa 2000
BC,and Sudan circa 1500 BC.There is also evidence of leavened bread in ancient Egypt circa1500
BC and of milk fermentation in Babylon circa 3000 BC.French chemist Louis Pasteur was the first
known zymologist, when in 1854 he connected yeast to fermentation. Pasteur originally defined
fermentation as “respiration without air”.

Discovery of Fermentation
Louis Pastuer in 1860 demonstrated that fermentation is a purely physiological process carried out
by living microorganism like yeast. This view was abandoned in 1897 when Buchner demonstrated
that yeast extract could bring about alcoholic fermentation in the absence of any yeast cell. He
proposed that fermenting activity of yeast is due to active catalysts of biochemical origin. These
biochemicals are called enzymes. Enzymes are highly specific compound or a closely related group
of compounds.
Fermentation has been utilized for many years in the preparation of beverages. Materials from
Egyption tombs demonstrated the procedures used in making beer and leavened bread. The history
of fermentation, whereby sugar is converted to ethanol by action of yeast, is also a history of
chemistry. Van Helmont coined the word iogaslt in 1610 to describe the bubble produced in
fermentation.
Leeuwenhoek observed anddescribed the cell of yeast with his newly invented microscope in 1680.
The fruit and vegetable juices contain sugar such as sucrose, glucose, and fructose. These sugars
of fermentation in presence of enzyme invert are and zymose give with the evolution of 〖CO〗_2.
Maltose is converted to glucose by enzyme maltose, glucose to ethanol by another enzyme zymose.

Importance of Fermentation.
Enrichment of the diet through development of a diversity of flavors, aromoas and textures in food
substances.
Preservation of substantial amounts of food through lactic acid alcohol, acetic acids and alkaline
fermentation.
Biological enrichment of food substances with proteins, essential aminoacids, falty acids and
vitamins.
Elimination of anti nutrients.
A decrease in cooking times and fuel requirements.
Theory
Fruit juices contain various sugars like glucose, fructose etc. When juices are treated with yeast and
it converts sugar into glucose and fructose. These monosccharides are further converted into ethyl
alcohol by another enzyme known as zymose.

The relative rates of fermentation can be established with fillings solution A and B. Since glucose in
an aldose gives red precipitate with fellings solution. When all the quantity of glucose is converted to
ethanol, the mixture will not give red

Requirements.
Fruits such as pineapple, apple, orange, grape, lemon, yeast powder, ammonium sulphate , fehling's
solutions, beaker roundbottom flask, thermometer,test tubes, dropper, stand, hot water both, conical
flask, distilled water etc.

Procedures :-
Step 1 : Take approximately Ig of yeast powder in beaker, add 20ml distilled water and 3 -4ml of
saturated solution of ammonium sulphate^tir the solution by a glass rod.
Step 2: Pour 2ml of fruit juice a clean round bottom flask and add 20ml of distilled water.
Step 3: Now transfer the content of the beaker into a round bottom flask and shake the mixture.
Step 4: Place the round bottomed flask into a hot water bath containing water at 35 - 45°C and
shake the solution after each minute.
Step 5: After keeping the round bottomed flask for 10 min, take out 10 drops of the mixture in a test
tube and add 1 ml of "Fehling's solution -B". Heat the test
tube in a hot water both for few minutes observe. The change in color and the fermentation of red
precipitate. Perform this test after internal of five minutes until the mixture gives red precipitate with
Fehling's reagent.
Step 6: Repeat the procedure in the same way taking other samples of fruit juices.

Result:-
All fruit juices do not undergo fermentation at the same rate. The increasing order of the rate of
fermentation is:
Apple <Pine apple juice = orange juice <Grape juice < Lemon Juice.