Marking The Materials

After obtaining the rough wood from the lumberyard, mark out the various pieces on the wood
using the straight yard rule (A), the try square (B), or the bevel gauge (C). If you use the two
latter devices, remember that one edge of the material should be straight.

The marking gauge (D) is used to trace lines parallel to a straight border or edge. The marker can
be adjusted to vary the distance from the edge.
The function of the compass (E) is the scribing of circles or partial curves.
Basic Woodworking Operations

The basic types of woodworking operations required to shape the pieces and make the joints
shown in this book are illustrated on pages 9 through 16. To describe the actual method of
working the wood would require a whole book in itself, but the text does suggest the tools—both
hand and power— for each operation.

In general, the tools mentioned are those that will do the job most efficiently, but because some
operations can be accomplished in many ways, the choice of method will depend upon such
factors as the equipment available, the number of similar or identical operations to be performed,
the degree of precision necessary, and so on. For all operations involving power tools, the
characteristics of the particular equipment and the manufacturer's recommendations for its use
will also need to be considered.

It should be understood that careful sanding of the wood is ordinarily required after the wood has
been worked to the proper size and shape. Depending upon the operation, planing or filing may
also be necessary. In the text that follows, such operations have not been mentioned unless they
are essential to the description.

Sawing

A—Rip cut (with grain)

Hand: Rip saw recommended, but crosscut saw may be used. Power: Circular saw or band saw.

B—Cross cut (across grain)

Hand: Cross-cut saw or, for small pieces, back saw. Power: Circular saw or band saw.

C—Angle cut

Hand: Cross-cut saw or, for small pieces, back saw. Power: Circular saw or band saw.

D—Miter cut (45 degrees)

Hand: Cross-cut saw or, for small framing pieces, miter saw in miter guide. Power: Band saw or circular
saw.
A—Rip bevel (with grain)
Hand: Rip saw recommended, but crosscut saw may be used. Power: Circular saw.

B—Cross bevel (across grain)

Hand: Cross-cut saw or (for small pieces) back saw. Power: Band saw or circular saw.

C—Compound bevel

Hand: Cross-cut saw or back saw. Power: Circular saw or band saw.

D—Straight and curved cut

Hand: Keyhole or compass saw. Power: Band saw or jig saw.

E—Curved cut

Hand: Keyhole or compass saw, or (for thin pieces) coping saw. Power: Band saw or jig saw.

F—Inside cut

Drill hole (see 14A) to admit saw blade. Hand: Keyhole or compass saw, coping saw. Power: Jig
saw.
Surfacing

A—Surfacing a side

Hand: Jack plane followed by smoothing plane. Power: Jointer or belt sander.

B—Surfacing two sides

Hand: Jack plane followed by smoothing plane, with marking gauge to control thickness. Power: Jointer,
thickness planer, and belt sander.

C—Truing an edge (with grain)

Hand: Jack plane followed by jointer plane. Power: Jointer.

D—Squaring an edge (end grain)

Hand: Block plane or smoothing plane. Power: Jointer, or disc sander.

E—Chamfer

Hand: Use planes as in C or D, above, in conjunction with plane gauge if desired to maintain
proper angle. Power: As in C or D, above, or disc sander.

F—Stopped chamfer
Hand: Planes and files. Power: Jointer or shaper.

Shaping

A—Concave curve

Hand: Mallet and chisel directed toward saw cut bisecting curve, or wood rasp. Follow with
adjustable circular plane and files. Power: Shaper.

B—Convex curve

Hand: Mallet and chisel followed by adjustable circular plane and files. Power: Shaper.

C—Rounding a corner

Hand: Block plane or files. Power: Shaper.

D—Rounding a straight edge

Hand: Plane and files. Power: Shaper or molder.

E—Rounding a convex edge

Hand: Plane and files. Power: Shaper.

F—Rounding a concave or irregular edge

Hand: Files. Power: Shaper.

A—Recess on edge (drawer pull)

Hand: Chisels and gouges. Power: Shaper or router.

B—Recess away from edge (drawer pull)

Hand: Chisels and gouges. Power: Shaper or router.

C—Moldings

Hand: Rabbeting plane or molding plane. Power: Shaper or molder.

D—Relief carving

Hand: Gouges and special files. Power: Drill press with router bits, or carving cutters.

E—Turning

Hand: Not recommended. A spokeshave might be used for simple shapes. Power: Lathe with
turning chisels and gouges.

F—Irregular 1shaping

Hand: Saws for plan and elevation profiles, followed by planes, wood rasp, files and spokeshave.
Power: Shaper.
Joinery

A—Hole drilling

Hand: Brace and bit, with bit gauge if depth of a stopped hole is to be regulated. Doweling jig
will insure accurate matching of holes if a dowel joint is required. Power: Drill press.

B—Slanted hole

Hand: Brace and bit guided by prebored block (jig) clamped to work (face next to work having been cut
to angle required for inclination of bit). Power: Drill press.

C—Rabbet

Hand: Rabbeting plane or combination plane. Power: Circular saw or jointer.

D—Curved rabbet

Hand: Chisels or round rabbeting plane. Power: Drill press with router bit or shaper.

E—Groove or slot

Hand: Groove or combination plane. Power: Molder, circular saw, or router.

F—Tongue
Hand: Tongue or combination plane. Power: Jointer, shaper, circular saw or molder.

A—Dado

Hand: Back saw and chisels. Power: Circular saw or router.

B—Stopped dado

Hand: Chisels. Power: Circular saw or router.

C—Tenon

Hand: Back saw and files. Power: Circular saw or band saw.

D-Notch

Hand: Back saw and chisels. Power: Circular saw.

E—Through mortise

Hand: Back saw and files. Power: Circular saw or band saw.

F—Blind mortise
Hand: Mortise chisel and files. Power: Drill press with mortising attachment or router.

A—Box joint or finger lap

Hand: Back saw, chisel, and files. Power: Circular saw.

B—Edge dovetail

Hand: Back saw and chisel. Power: Dovetail router.

C—Dovetail dado

Hand: Back saw and rabbeting plane. Power: Dovetail router.

D—Dovetail joint

Hand: Back saw and chisel. Power: Dovetail router.

E-Half-bl¡nd dovetail

Hand: Back saw, followed by chisel. Power: Dovetail router.

F—Blind dovetail
Hand: Back saw and chisels. Power: Dovetail router.

Gluing Wood

Either hot or cold glue may be used in wood construction. After preparing the parts and making
sure that the surfaces are smooth, spread the glue on both faces to be joined.

The glued pieces should be pressed together for four to eight hours, depending on the type of
glue used.
A—In assembling furniture, direct pressure can be applied by use of a rope. B—The adjustable
bar clamp is used to join boards together. Its spread is 2 ft to 8 ft.

C—Pressure is usually maintained by the use of clamps.

D—Here is a simple method of joining boards without the use of clamps. Short pieces of wood
are nailed to the ends of two rails, and pressure is applied by inserting wedges.

E and F—The steel spring is another type of clamp.

G—The parallel clamp is made of wood and used for light work. The parts must be kept parallel
as they are screwed together.

H—The double bar clamp is used to press together thin sections of wood, as in veneer.

Methods Of Joining Boards

Often planks are not large enough for the work to be done. To obtain the desired width or length
it is necessary to glue two or more planks together with what is called a side or end joint.

In order to obtain an invisible joint in exposed panels, the grain must be accurately aligned.
There are many ways of joining these parts, each suitable for a particular type of work.

A—Because the planks sawed from the center of the tree trunk are the weakest, it is advisable to
saw them in two and glue them together to give them stability and strength.

B—To obtain best results, the two planks should be joined by matching either external rings or
interior rings, in order to equalize shrinking or warping.

C—If the external part of the lumber is connected with the internal part, a very bad joint may
result. There will be no proper seasoning of the two pieces, and after a period of time there will
be a noticeable demarcation of the whole joint.

D—In a solid panel it is necessary to have the edge straight to form a perfect joint. It is of utmost
importance to see that the grain direction is alternated from each plank to the next in order to
equalize the strain made by the annual rings.

E—If the grain is not alternated, the panel will have a tendency to curl.
Basic Joints
Straight joint

This is one of the simplest and most frequently used joints.

Rabbet joint

Similar to the preceding method, but less used because it is more difficult.

Dowel joint

A common method, often used where the total area is large.

Mortise and-tenon joint

This joint is less commonly used than the one at the left.

Tongue and groove

Flooring is usually made this way. It is also practical in furniture work.

Feather joint

This is one of the most practical ways of joining parallel planks.

Loose tongue and groove

With edges rounded or beveled, this joint is often used in wall paneling.

Sh¡plap joint

This method is used extensively for siding on houses. It is easy to make a watertight joint in this way.

Tongue-and-groove joint used in drawing board

The transverse rail is used to prevent warping.

Wedge mortise and tenon

This method is used when work is to be exposed to the weather.

Straight joint with wedges

Straight joint with dovetail wedge

This is a good method to use with a straight joint, particularly for outside work.
Butt Joints

A—Zigzag butt joint

This joint exposes more of the wood grain to contact with the glue, and is, therefore, stronger
than a right-angle butt joint.

B—Dowel butt joint

The dowels strengthen the joint. Glue is used with all of these joints.C—Fork butt joint
A good joint is obtained because the surfaces are held naturally in contact, permitting firm glue
adhesion.

D—Double dovetail butt joint

This joint is used where the joint is subject to strain.E—Tension scarf joint

This joint is held in place by wooden wedges, and is used more commonly in house
carpentry than in cabinet making.

The right angle butt joint is not often used in furniture work for practical reasons: It is not strong,
glue will not adhere easily to its surfaces, and the joint is always visible.

Rail Joints

The execution of rail joints is of great importance, because these are the basic structural elements
in furniture framework.

Various types of straight rails and transverse rails may be used to form various types of frames, and an
appropriate joint must be selected for the type of work to be done. You must consider the thickness of
the straight and transverse rails, the quality of wood, and the position of the frame —whether visible or
concealed. A middle rail may be added to the straight and transverse rails for extra support. The series of
joints illustrated will show the various types and explain the characteristics of each.

End half-lap joint

This joint is easily constructed, but unless reinforced with pins and bolts or screws it is not very durable.
It is used mostly in repair work.

Dowel joint
Another joint commonly used in repair work.

Through mortise-and-tenon joint

This is a joint often used by the amateur craftsman.

Open mortise and-tenon joint

This joint is easy to make and is used for ordinary furniture work.

Rabbet mort¡se-and-stub-tenon joint

This is the most widely used joint in the furniture field. It has all the requisites of a perfect joint.

Double mortise and tenon with miter rabbet

This joint can be used where work is exposed to the elements.

Through mortise and tenon with groove and miter on the inner edge

Through mortise and tenon

This joint is intended to be covered by veneer. The wedge prevents the joint from showing
through the veneer.

Dowel miter joint

This joint is used in every type of work.

Open mortise and tenon with miter

Miter with blind mortise and tenon

Miter joint with spline

This joint is easy to make and is often used by the amateur craftsman.

Miter mort¡se-and-tenon joint

This is a very strong joint, used for work exposed to humidity.

Miter tongue joint

This is very common in standard production.

Miter stub tongue joint

Same as miter tongue, except that feather joint is invisible.

Middle Rail Joints

Lap tee joint

This simple joint is often used by the amateur; also in repair work.

Dowel joint

This is a good general purpose joint.

Through mortise and tenon

The addition of the wedge makes this a very strong joint. It is used in work exposed to weather.

Blind mortise and tenon

This is an easily made and widely used joint.

Dovetail stub joint

This method is used to strengthen the frame where it will be subjected to unusual strain.

Oblique dovetail joint

Same as dovetail stub except that tongue runs through and joint is in oblique position.

Special dovetail joint

This joint is difficult to make and is used only for precision work.

Double dovetail joint

The principle here is the same as in a single dovetail joint. Both systems are used for joints subject to
great strain.

Mortise and tenon with rabbet

Here is one way of joining rails to form a panel.

Mortise and tenon with m¡tered rail and frame

Another mortise and tenon variation.

Mortise and tenon with groove

Note that mortise and tenon are reduced in width.

Double mortise and tenon

This mortise and tenon has many uses for cross-rail joints. The rail is mortised from both sides.

Cross-lap joint (1)

This easily made joint is one of the most commonly used.

Cross-lap joint (2)

Here is another application of the cross-lap principle.

Rail-To-Frame Joints

Dowel joint

This is one of the easiest joints to make.

Mortise-and-tenon joint

This method gives good results.

Dovetail joint

This method is used at points of unusual strain.

Double mort¡se-and-tenon joint

This is a particularly strong joint.

Exposed wedge joint

The wedge presses the rail and panel tightly together, making a very solid joint.

Exposed dowel joint

Similar to the exposed wedge joint, except that the dowel does not tighten the panel against the
rail.

Panel-To-Frame Joints
Panel in rabbet with cove molding

This variation shows another type of molding.

Beveled panel in dado groove

The beveling of the panel permits greater stability, and keeps the panel from rattling.
Panel in rabbet with molding

The molding is attached with screws or nails after the panel is in place.

Panel in dado groove

This is a simple method of joining a panel and frame. The frame must remain independent of the panel.

Panel lock joints

The panel and frame are independent members.

Frame Joints

Butt joint with nails or screws

Butt joint with corrugated fasteners or chevrons

Joining frame members is one of the most important phases of furniture construction. Solid wood
sections have a tendency to shrink, and that shrinkage causes cracks in the direction of the grain.
Select a joint suitable to the character of the work and to the strength required for the finished
piece.

In large furniture that will be difficult to move, it is advisable to use joints that can be easily re-
assembled (sometimes referred to as demountable joints). The frame will probably have to be
constructed with special bolts or dovetail joints. Several ways this can be done are shown on pages 35
and 36.

Dowel joint

Rabbet joint with glue and nails or screws

Box corner joint

This joint is seldom used because of its tendency to crack at the edges.

Butt joint with cord or leather

This joint is used in special construction, such as children's furniture.

Milled corner joint

The closed edges of this joint prevent the cracks which often occur with the box corner joint.
This one is commonly used in drawer construction.

Lock butt joint

This is an excellent joint to use where accurate fitting is required.

Dowel miter joint

Both amateur craftsmen and carpenters find many uses for this joint.

Feather miter joint

This joint is more commonly used in mass production than by craftsmen.

Feather joint

The wedge prevents the joint from showing through the veneer.

Miter and rabbet with dowel

This method is common in mass production work.

Splined miter joint

This joint is commonly used by amateur craftsmen.

Miter with metal clamp

This clamp is easy to apply and gives good results.

Miter tongue-and-groove joint

This joint is frequently used in commercial furniture.

Lock miter joint

This method is stronger than the miter tongue-and-groove joint.

Box joint

This joint is easy to make, and very strong.

Dovetail joint

This is one of the strongest terminal joints.

Blind dovetail joint

When the two sides are to be left exposed, this method can be used to conceal the joint.

Half-blind dovetail joint

This method is used when one side of a joint is exposed, as in drawer fronts.

Middle Frame Joints

Dado joint

This joint is used in ordinary work, especially if paint will later conceal it.

Dowel joint
This is an easy joint often used by the amateur craftsman.

Stopped dado joint

Excellent method of joining certain types of woodwork. The mechanics of the joint are not visible from
the front.

Through and stopped feather joint

When properly glued, this is a good joint.

Dovetail slip joint

Sides joined by this method cannot be pulled apart.

Metal clamp joint

This is a patented clamp, easy to install.

Back Panel Joints

Two methods of attaching back panel

Either method is a good choice for the amateur craftsman.

Back in rabbet joint

Back panel attached with nails or screws.

Back in groove (directly above)

Bottom of panel is held in place with screws.

Joining Three Pieces

Top rabbet joint

Top attached to side with dowels

Top attached with screw from underside

Bolts or dowels may be substituted for screws.

Demountable Joints

Demountable joints are useful in many projects, and in bed or large cabinet construction they are
indispensable. Many different hardware fasteners are found on the market today; here are some of the
most common.

These are practical for demountable joints, particularly to fasten side rails of beds to headboards and
footboards.
Older types of demountable joints

Although these joints are seldom used commercially today, they are still popular with the amateur
craftsman.

Bed fastener

This device can be used for shelves and supports as well as for beds.
 Anchor Nut

Butt joint with incased nut bolt

The bolt is inserted in a prepared hole, and the bolt anchor opens to hold it securely in place.

"Tee Nut" for butt joint

The "Tee Nut" is driven into a bored hole and the bolt is threaded into it from the opposite side.
Components can be readily assembled and demounted. This system is practical for fastening legs to
upholstered furniture.

Joining Rails To Legs

There are many ways of joining legs to transverse rails, and of attaching legs and rails to the body of the
piece of furniture. Great care should be taken in the selection and execution of such joints, so that they
will be able to withstand strain. The builder must also consider how the leg tip is to be protected where
it is in contact with the floor.

Dowel joint
This method is suitable for the amateur craftsman.
Dovetail joint
This is a very strong method of joining legs and rails.

Rabbet mortise and tenon

Here is another excellent method of attaching legs.

Mortise-and-tenon joint with corner block

The corner block strengthens the joint, and is particularly useful in chair construction.

Variation Leg Joint

Joints for attaching front legs to seat rails

Left, mortise and tenon reinforced with screws. Right, rabbet joint fastened with dowels. The rabbet joint
is the simpler of the two.
Another joint for front legs and seat rails

The mortise and tenon joint is reinforced with dowels.

Three-way joint

This is a method of joining the back leg of a chair to the side and back rails of the seat. The joint
can be made with either mortise and tenon or dowels. A metal corner is used for reinforcement.

Joining Legs To Furniture

Corner Block

A practical joint for a chair or furniture base. The leg is removable when held only by the hanger bolt; it
can also be glued for permanence. A steel corner brace can be substituted for the wood corner block.

Screw Fastened To Seat Or Furniture Bottom

Joining rails or frame to seat
After legs and rails have been joined, the assembly can be attached to the rest of the piece by wood
screws.
A metal leg may be fastened to the side panels of furniture with self-tapping screws. If there are two
cases side by side, only one leg is required.

Wedge-and-dowel ¡omr
In method at left, the wedge remains visible. At right, the hole does not run through, and the
wedge must be readied, as shown, before the leg is installed.

Demountable Legs

Screw joint
This is one of the simplest types of assembly.
"Knife Thread Insert1"

For light furniture, such as small tables, it is easy to fasten round legs to the top with a "Knife
Thread Insert."

1 Manufactured by Rosan, Inc., Newport Beach, Calif.

Demountable leg with metal corner

This method is often used for kitchen tables.

Flanged sockets
Legs screwed into flanged sockets are easily detached for shipment.

Joining Legs To Upholstered Furniture

A—Application of front leg to frame: The leg is fastened with a bolt and reinforced with a block on each
side.

B—Application of back to frame: The joint is similar to that used for the front legs.

C—Fastening legs to frame (another method): The joints for front and back legs are similar.
Joining Metal Legs To Wood Top

A number of methods may be used to join metal legs to a wood top. Several types of ready-made
wrought iron legs, not shown here, are also available. Each method is practical, but it is to be
noted that all furniture with metal legs has a tendency to be unstable unless there are reinforcing
rails between the legs. The longer the legs, the greater the sway.

A—Pipe leg with welded metal plate B—Metal pipe screwed to a plate

C—Metal tube fastened to the top by use of wood stub

D—Wrought iron legs fastened to furniture by screws

Metal Leg End Fittings

Several rubber, plastic, and metal caps and glides may be used to cushion the ends of metal legs. All
methods shown are fairly common, and can be used both for wrought-iron legs and for tubular legs.

Rubber, plastic tacks, and metal glides are the end fittings most commonly used with wood legs to
prevent scratching of floor. Other types largely used include the ferrule metal shoe, metal shoe with
adjustable glide, and swivel glide caster.
Wood Leg End Fittings