Unit 4: respiration

Respiration is the process in which energy stored in complex molecules is used to

make ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

Energy is the ability to do work, it exists as potential (stored) or kinetic (movement)

energy, large organic molecules contain chemical potential energy.
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted from one form to another.

The reactions that take place in the body are known collectively as metabolism, it is
the sum total of all anabolic and catabolic reactions.
Anabolic reactions are reactions where larger molecules are synthesised from smaller
molecules.
Catabolic reactions larger molecules are hydrolysed to produce smaller molecules.

Processes that need energy include

 Active transport- moving ions against a concentration gradient
 Secretion- exocytosis
 Endocytosis- bulk movement of molecules into cells
 Synthesis of molecules
 DNA replication + organelle synthesis
 Movement
 Activation of chemicals

Where does energy come from?

Energy comes from photoautotrophs (plants) that use sunlight energy in
photosynthesis to make glucose. Glucose contains chemical potential energy
which consumers can use. Respiration releases energy which is used to
phosphorylate ADP to make ATP.

Photosynthesis: 6CO2 +6H20  C6H12O6 + 6O2

Respiration: C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 +6H2O

The role of ATP

ATP is a high energy intermediate compound. It contains adenosine ( adenine + ribose
sugar) + 3 phosphate groups. It can be hydrolysed to make ADP (adenosine di-
phosphate) and a inorganic phosphate group and then further hydrolysed to
make AMP (adenosine monophosphate) and another inorganic phosphate
group.
It releases 30.6 kj of energy.
ATP is derived from RNA as it contains a ribose sugar and not a deoxyribose
sugar.
the stages of respiration

There are 4 stages to respiration:

 Glycolysis- happens in the cytoplasm of cells. It does not need oxygen, can
take place aerobically or anaerobically. Glucose is broken down to pyruvate.
 The link reaction- happens in the matrix of the mitchochondria. Pyruvate is
dehydrogenated and decarboxylated to make acetate. Requires oxygen.
 Krebs cycle- takes place in the matrix acetate is dehydrogenated and
decarboxylated. Requires oxygen.
 Oxidative phosphorylation- happens in the cristae (folded membrane)
where ADP is phosphorylated to ATP. Requires oxygen.

Coenzymes
During the reaction hydrogen atoms are removed from molecules in oxidation
reactions,they are catalysed by dehydrogenase atoms. Coenzymes help them
carry out oxidation reactions, the hydrogen atoms are combined with
coenzymes such as NAD or FAD, these carry hydrogen atoms which can later
be split.

NAD is a organic molecule that helps dehydrogenase atoms carry out their job.
Nicotinamide dineucleotide (NAD) is made from nicotineamide, 2x ribose
sugar, adenine and 2 phosphate groups.
When NAD accepts 2 hydrogen atoms it is reduced to NADH.
Coenzyme A
Made from a pantothenic group,adenosine, 3x phosphates and cysteine, its function is
to carry acetate, forming acetyl coenzyme A.

Glycolysis
Stage 1: substrate level phosphorylation:
 One ATP molecule is hydolysed and the phosphate group attatches at carbon
number 6 on the glucose molecule by hexokinase
 Glucose is changed by isomerisation to fructose-6-phosphate by isomerase
 Another ATP molecule is hydrolysed and the phosphate group is added to
fructose-6-phosphate at carbon atom 1 by phosphofructokinase making
fructose-1-6-biphospate
 Two ATP’s are used for each glucose molecule

Stage 2: glucose splitting

 Fructose 1-6-biphosphate isomerised by isomerase to 2x glyceralderhyde-3-
phosphate (GAP)
 GAP is hydrogenated by dehydrogenase enzymes aided by 2x NAD which
accepts the protons forming 2x NADH
 Two molecules of ATP is formed
 GAP is phosporylated by phosphokinase to make glyceralderhyde 1-3-
diphosphate
 The phosplates are then removed and and added to 2x ADP making 2x ATP
 Pyruvate is the product

Products of glycolysis
 Net gain of 2x ATP (four were made, two were used to start the reaction)
 2x NADH
 2x pyruvate
the link reaction
the link reaction occurs when oxygen is present, but it is not used in the reaction

 the 2x pyruvate molecules are dehydrogenated by pyruvate dehydrogenase

and then decarboxylated by pyruvate decarboxylase (CO2 formed)
 2x NAD is reduced to 2x NADH
 acetate is formed
 coenzyme A accepts the accetate forming acetyl coenzyme A

the Krebs cycle (one cycle turn)

 the acetate dissociates from coenzyme A and joins oxaloacetate
 this makes a 6 carbon compound citrate
 citrate is changed by isomerase to isocitrate
 isocitrate is decarboxylated and dehydrogenated (NADH + CO2 made)
 this makes a 5 carbon compound a-ketoglutarate
 a-ketoglutarate is decarboxylated and dehydrogenated (NADH + CO2 made)
 this makes a 4 carbon compound succinyl coenzyme A
 succinyl coenzyme A is changed into succinate (ATP produced)
 succinate is dehydrogenated (FAD reduced to FADH)
 fumarate is made and changed to malate
 malate is dehydrogenated and oxaloacetate is re-made (NADH made)

Product per moleule of Link reaction Krebs cycle

glucose
Reduced NAD 2 6
Reduced FAD 0 2
Carbon dioxide 2 4
ATP 0 2