UNIT 2 TWO-ANDTHREE-

DIMENSIONAL SPACES
Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Plane and Space Vectors
2.3 Operations on Vectors
Addition
Scalar Multiplication

. 2.4 Scalar Product

2.5 Orthonormal Basis
2.6 Vectors and Geometry of Space
Vector Equation of a Line
Vector Equation of a Plane
Vector Equation of a Sphere
2.7 Summary
, 2.8 Solutions/Answers

d 2.1 INTRODUCTION
This unit gives the basic connection between linear algebra and geometry. Linear
algebra is built up around the concept of a vector. In this unit we shall assume that you
know some Euclidean plane geometry, and introduce the concept of vectors in a
geometric way. For this, we begin by studying vectors in two - and three- dimensional
spaces. These are called plane vectors and space vectors, respectively.
'iIrr
.
Vectors were first introduced in physics as entities which have both a measure and a
@
definite direction (such as force, velocity, etc.). The properties of vectors were later
$4/ abstracted and studied in mathematics.
Here we shall introduce a vector as a directed line segment which has length as well as
a direction. Since vectors are line segments, we shall be able to define angles between
!'E vectors, perpendicular (or orthogonal) vectors, and so on.
: We shall then use all this knowledge to study some aspects of the geometry of space.
~.
Since the concepts given in this unit will be generalised in future units, you must study
this unit thoroughly.

Objectives
.After studying this unit, you should be able to
define a vector and calculate its magnitude and direction;
obtain the angle between two vectors;
perform the operations of addition and scalar multiplicaiwn on plane vectors as well
as space vectors;
obtain the scalar product of two plane (or space) vectors;
express a vector as a linear combination of a set of vectors that form an orthonormal
basis;
* solve simple problems involving the vector equations of a line, a plane and a sphere.

2.2 PLANE AND SPACE VECTORS

How would you find out the position of a point in a plane? You would choose a set of
coordinate axes and fix tS: by its x and y coordinates (see Fig. 1).
 Fig. 1

Similarly, t o pinpoint the position of a point in three-dimensional spzicc. wc havc togivc

three numbers. T o d o this, we take three mutually perpendicular lincs (axcs) in sp;tcC
which intersect in a point 0 (see Fig. 2(a)). 0 is called the origin. Thc positive
directions, OX, OY and OZ o p those lines are so chosen that if a right-hanclccl scrcw
(Fig. 2(b)) placed at 0 is rotated from OX t o OY, it moves in the direction of OZ.

Fig. 2

T o find the coordinates of any point P in space, we take the foot of the perpendicular
from P on the plane XOY (Fig. 3). Call it M. Let the coordinatesof M in the plane XOY
be (x,y) and the length of MP be / z / .Then the coordinates of P are (x,y,z). where /z/is
the length of MP. z is positive or negative according 9s M P is in the positive direction
OZ or not.
A

Fig. 3

' So, for each point Pin space, there is an ordered triple (x,y .z) of real numbers, i.e., an
element of R" (see Unit 1). Conversely, given anordered triple of real numbers, we can
easily find a point P i n the space whose'coordinates are the given triple. So there is a
3
one-one correspondence between the space and the sct R . For this reason. the
three-dimensional space is often denoted by the synihol R'. For a similar reason a plane
is denoted by R?.and u line by R.
 Two-and Three-Dimensional Spaces
In R2 or R3 we come across entities which have magnitude and direction. They.afe
called vectors. The word 'vector' comes from a Latin word that means 'to carry'. Let us
see what the mathematical definition of a vector is.
+
~efinition:A vector in R' or R3 is a directed line segment AB with an initial point A and
a terminal point B. Its length, or magnitude, is the distance between A and B , and is
+ + +
denoted by IAB I . Every vector AB has a direction, which is from A to B. .In Fig. 4, AB ,
+++ -. +
C D , O E , C F are examples of vectors with different directions. ( AB I is mad as 'modulus of AB'

1
I Fig. 4
!

i
+
Now, if AB is a plane vector and the coordinates of A are (a,, a,) and of B are (b, ,bz),
! + +
then A B / = lBAl = J(a,-b,)' + (a2-b,)' Similarly. if A = (a,.a2,a,) and
B = (bl,b2,b3)are two points in R3, ihen the length of the space vector AB is
+

4:
A+
B I = /+
B A /= ,/(al-bl)% (a2-b2)' + (a3-b3)'.
+ +
The vector AB is called a unit vector if IAB 1 = 1 .
I
+ +
Definition: Two (plane or space) vectors AB and CD are called parallel if the lines
AB and C D are parallel lines. If the lines AB and C D coincide, then AB and C D are
said to be in the same line.

p From Fig. 5, you can see that two parallel vectors or two vectors in the same line may C
have the same direction or opposite directions. Also note that parallel vectors need not
have the same length. F
Fig. 5
+ + +
Definition: If AB and C D have the same length and the samr direction, we say AB is
+ + +
equivalent to CD . If A and Ccoincide, and B and D coincide, then we say AB and C D
are equal.
I
Note that equivalent vectors have the same magnitude and direction but may have
different initial and terminal points. In geometric applications of vectors, the initial and
terminal points do not play any significant part. What is important is the magnitude and
direction of a vector. Therefore, we may regard two equivalent vectors as equal
vectors. This means that we are free to change the initial point of a vector (but not its
magnitude or direction).
Because of this, we shall always agree to let the origin, 0,be the initial point of all our
+
vectors. That is, given any vcctor A B , we shall represent it by the equivalent vector
Vector Spaces + ---f 3 + +
O P ,for which ( O P( = 1AB 1 and OP and AB have the same directions (see Fig.6). Then
the terminal point, P, completely determines the vector. That is, two different points
3 +
P and Q, in R3 (or R2) will give us two different vectors O P and O Q .
A

E E l ) In Fig. 4 we have drawn 4 vectors. Draw the vectors which are equivalent to
them and have 0 as their initial points.

-
As we have noted, a vector in R2 or R3 is completely determined if its terminal point is
known. There is a 1- 1 correspondence between the vectors in R2 (or R ~and ) the points
in R2 (or R3). This correspondence allows us to make the following definition.
Definition: a) A plane vector is an ordered pair (a,,a2) of real numbers.
b) A space vector is an ardered triple (al,a2,a3) of real numbers.
Note that we are not making any distinction between a point P in the plane
+
4 (or P(al,a2,a3)in space) and the vector OP in R2 (or R3).
P(x 1
9 y

We may often use a single letter u or v for a vector. Of course, u or v shall mean a pair
or a triple of real numbers, depending on whether we are talking about R2 or R3.
/iy
For example, u = (1,2), v = (0,5,-3), etc.
I
I
Definition: The vector (0,O) in the plane, and the vector (0,0,0) in space are called the
-- - I/ zero vectors in R2 and R3, respectively.
0; X
Now, if u = (x,y), then can we obtain its magnitude in terms of x and y ? ' ~ e s we
,
Fig. 7 can. Its magnitude in given by I u I = as you can see from Fig.7 (and applying the
Pylhagoras Theorem!)
Similarly, if v = (x,y ,z), then ( v (= d X 2 + y 2 + z 2 ,
Let us consider the following examples.
i) If u = (5,12), (u(= Jw= 13
ii) Ifu = (-6,1), lul = -
/, = fi
iii) Ifv = (1,2,-I), then (v(= , / 1 ~ + 2 ~ + ( - 1 ) ~
=

iv) If v = ( 1 I n 1 / n , l l f l ) , then v is a unit vector because ivl = 1.

32 \I) Ifw = (1/3.1/2. =6), then w is a unit vector because /wl = 1.
As we have mentioned earlier, two vectors in R~ are equal if their terminal points Spaces
TWO-andThree-~imensiona~

coincide (since their initial points are assumed to be at the origin). Thus, in the language
of ordered pairs and triplets, we can give the following definition.
Definition: Two plane vectors (al,a2) and (bl,b2) are said to be equal if a, = b, and
a2 = b2. Similarly, two space vectors (al,a2,a3)and (bl,b2,b3)are said to be equal if
a , = b,, aZ= b2,a3 = b3.
For example, (a,b) = (2,3) if and only if a = 2 and b = 3. Also (x,y,l) = (2,3,a) if and'
o n l y i f x = 2 , y = 3 a n d a = 1.
E2) Fill in the blanks:
a) (2,O) = (x,y) x = .................................... and y = ........:.................
b) (1,2) = (2,l) is a ............................................................. statemeqt.
c) (1,2,3) = (1,2,z) * z = .................................................
Now that you have got used to plane and space vectors we go ahead and define some
operations on these vectors.

2.3 OPERATIONS ON VECTORS

You are familiar with binary operations on R (Unit 1). We use these to define
operations on the vectors of R2 and R3.

2.3.1 Addition
Two vectors in R2 can be added by considering each as an ordered pair, rather than as
a directed line segment. The advantage is that we can easily extend this definition to
vectors in R3.
Definition: The additian of two plane vectors (x, ,y,) and (x2,y2)is defined by
CX,,YI)+ ( ~ 2 9 ~ =
2 )(XI+XZ,YI+Y~).
Similarly, the addition of two space vectors (xl,y,,z,) and (x2,y2,z2)is defined by
(XI,y,,z,) + ( x ~ , Y ~ , z=z()x I + x ~ , Y I + z1+zz).
Y~, . /

The geometric interpretation of addition in R2 is easy to see. The sum of two vectors
9 -+ +
OP and O Q , in R2, is the vector O R , where O R is the diagonal of the parallelogram
+ +
whose adjacent sides are OP and O Q (Fig.8). Note that QR is equivalent to QP.

Fig. 8

Let us look at an example of addition in R2 and R3

Example 1: Find the sum of
a)(4,-3)and(O,l), b)(l,-1,2)and(-1,2,-5).
 Spaces
Verl~~ r Solution: a) (4,-3) + (0,l) = (4+0, -3+1) = (4,-2)
b) (1,-1,2) + (-1.2,-5) = (1-1, -1+2. 2-5) = (0.1,-3)
It is obvious that the sum of two plane (or space) vectors is a plane (or space) vector. so,
that vector addition is a binary operation on the set of plane vectors and on the set of
space vectors. The set of all space vectors, R7, satisfies the following properties with
respect to the operation of vector addition. For any ( a , ,a,,a,). (bl,b2,b3),(c,,c,,c,)
in k
i) vector addition is associative:
( a l .a2.a3) + I(bl.b2.b3) + (c1.c2.c3)}
= (al.a2,a3)+ ( b l + c , , b,+c,. b7+c3)
= (,a,+(b,+c,). a, + (b,+c,). a, + (b3+c3))
= ( ( a l + b l ) + c,. (a,+b,)
+ c,. (a,+b,) + c3)
= {(al,a,.a3) + (b,.b,.h,)} + (c,.c,.c,)
Note that in the above proof we have made ube of the fact that the ai 's, b,'s, c i l sare
real numbers. and that. for real-numbers. addition is associative.
i i ) vector addition is commutative:
, ( a l.+.a,) + (bl.b2.b3)
F ( i l l + b , . a2+b,, a3+b3)
= ( b I + a I ,b,+a,, b3+a3)
- (bl.b2.b3)+ ( a , .a?.a,)
-

iii ) identity element exists for vector addition :

c'vnsider the vector ( 0 . 0 . 0 ) .We have (a.,.a2.a3)+ (0.0.0) = (al+(). a,+O, a,+()) =
(al.a2.a3).Similarly, (0.0,O) + (al,a2,a3)= (a,.a,.a,). So (0.0.0) is the identity
element for vector addition. We denote this vector by 0. (Now you know why 0 is
called the zero vector,!j
IV) ebery space vector has an inverse with respect to addition:
Given (a, ,a2.a,), consider (-a, ,-a2,-a,). Then clearly
(al.a2,a,) + (-a,,-a,.-a,) = (0,O.O) and
(-a,,-a2,-a3) + (al.az,a3)= (0,o.O).
So the (additive) inverse of ( a , ,a,,a,) is (-a, ,-a,.-a,). That is, if n = (a, .a,.a,),
then - n = (-a,, -az, -a,).

E E3) Show that properties (i) - (iv) hold good for R'.
 Now that we have discussed the properties of vector addition, we are ready to define Two-and Three-Dimensional Spaces
another operation on vectors.

2.3.2 Scalar Multiplication

We now consider the multiplication of any pair or triple by a real number. 'Scalar' means number.

Definition: If a E R and (a,,a2) is a plane vector, we define the multiplication of

(a,,a2) by the scalar a to be the plane vector ( a a , , a a,), i.e.,

Similarly, a (a, ,a2,a3) = ( a a,, a a2, a a3).

What does scalar multiplication mean geometrically? To understand this we take
+ +
O P , a vector in R2, and a E R. Then a. O P is a vectorwhose length is la1 l o p ( and
+
whose direction is the same as that of O P , if a > 0, and opposite to that of O P ,
+ + +
if a < 0. For example, Fig. 9 shows us 3 vectors, O P , OQ and O R , in R2. Here,
+
- -
[-
a,ifazO
I ~ I = a, ifa <O

+ + + +
OQ = 2 O P and O R = -(1/2)OP.

Now, for any plane vector u = (al,a2), and for all a E R we will algebraically show
that a ul = / a )Iul.
S i n c e a u = ( a a , , a a 2 ) , w e g e t l a u l =.J-
= la1 Jm=/ u (
la1

E4: For aspace vector u. prove that laul = la1 !ul n E R.

Fig. 9

I,. I
Now. for any plane (or space) vector v, we define -v to be ( - 1) v. Then
+
u - v = u (-v), for any two plane or space vectors u and v. Thus we have defined
subtraction with the help of scalar multiplication.
We now give, with proofs, 5 properties of plane vectors, related to scalar
multiplication. For this, let a , p R and u = (al,a2),v = (bl,b2) be any two plane
vectors. Ther?
i)a(u+v)=au+av
Proof: a (u+v) = a [(a, .a2) + (b, ,b2)] Scalar multiplication distributes
over vector addition.
= a ( a l + b l , a 2+ b2)
= ( a (a,+b,). a (a,+b,))
= (aa, + a b , , aa2 + ab2)
=, ( a a , , aa2) + ( a h , ab2)
= a(a1 ,a2) + a(bI,b2)
= au + a v

+ P) u = a u + PU
ii) (a
Proof: ( a + P) u = ( a + P) (a,, a,)
= ((a + P) a17 ( a + P) a2)
= (a a, + Pal, aa2 + Pa21
I
Vwlur S p a r ,
I iii) a ( p U) = (a@)u
Proof: a (pu) = a(p(ai,a2)) = a ( p a i , Pa21
= ( a p a,, a P a,) = UP (a,,a2>
= (43) u
Similarly,
P (au) = ( P a h = u
iv) 1-u 5 u

Proof: 1.u = 1 (ai,a2) = ( l a i , l a 2 ) = (ai,a2) = u

v) U.u = 0, the zero vector in R ~ .

Proof: 0-u = 0 (a, ,a2) = (0-a,, 0.a2) = (0,O) = 0

E E5) Prove that the properties (i) to (v) given above also hold for the set of all space
vectors.
A

Now that you are familiar with the operations of addition and scalar n~ultipl~cation
ot

this in Unit 3.)

.
vectors. we introduce the concept of linear combinations. (You w ~ l study
l more about

Definitioifr A plane (or 5p[ice) vector x is s a ~ to

d be a linear combination of the non-zero
plane (or space) vectors u , , u ,,....., u, if there exist scalars cti ,...,a,, -which are not
all zero, such that x = a ,u , + a,u, + . . . anun. +
For example, the vector (3.5) is a linear conlbination of the vectors (1.0) and (0.1 )
because (3,s) = 3(1,0) + S(0. I). ~ i m i l a r l(1.1,2)
~, is a linear combination of the vectocs
(1,0,0), (0,1,0) and (0,0,1) because ( I , I ,?) = (I,(),()) + (0.1.0) + 2(0.0,1).

E E6) Show that every vector (a.b) E R' is a linear combination ot the vectors (1.0)
and (0. I ).
We end this section with mentioning that the set of all plane vectors, along with the TWO-and~hree-~imensiona~
Spaces

operations of vector addition and scalar multiplication defined above, forms an

algebraic structure called a vector space. (We will define the term 'vector space' in
Unit 3.) Similarly, the set of all space vectors, along with vector addition and scalar
multiplication defined above, forms a vector space.
Let us now look at one way of multiplying two vectors.

2.4 SCALAR PRODUCT

You know that every vector has a direction. Thus, it makes sense to speak about the
angle between two vectors. You must have learnt, in Euclidean geometry, that any two
+
intersecting lines determine a plane. Thus, given any two distinct non-zero vectors O P
+ +
and OQ ,we get a plane in which these two vectors lie. Then, the angle between OP and
+
OQ is the radian measure of LPOQ which is interior to APOQ in this plane (see
Fig. 10).

A
Z A
z
0 IS the
angle
between

*
Y

Fig. 10

-+ +
If O P and OQ have the same direction, the angle between them is defined to be 0, and
i t the! h'rve opposite directions, the angle between them is defined to be T .In any other
+ +
c a w the angle between O P and OQ will be betweenoand T.Thus, the angle 8 between
any two non-zero vectors satisfies the condition that

So far. we have seen how to obtain the angle between vectors by using the geometrical
reprewntation of vectors. Can we also obtain it if we use the ordered pair (or triple)
representation of vectors? T o answer this we define the scalar product of two vectors.

Definition: The scalar product (or dot product, or inner product) of the two vectors The scalar product of two vectors
+
u = (a, ,a2) and v = (bl,b2) is defined to be the real number a l b l a2b2. It is is a scalar.

denoted by u . v. Thus,
+
u . v = a , b , a2b,.

Similarly, the scalar product of u = (a, ,a2,a3) and v = (b, .bz,b3) is

+ +
u . v = n , b , a2b2 a3b3.

Remark: Since the dot product of two vcctors is a scalar. we call it the scalar product.
Note that the-scalar product is not a binary operation on R' or R" I-Iowever, it has
certain ~isefulproperties, some of which wc gikc in the f:)llowing theorem.
 Vector Spaces Theorem 1: If u,v,w E R3 (orR2) and a E R , then'
a) u-u = (u12, so that u.u r 0 +u
b) u-u = 0 iff u = 0
c) U.V = v.u
d) u.(v+w) = u.v + u-w
e) ( a u ) =
~ a (u-V)= U - (av)

Proof: We shall give the proof for R'. (You can do the proofs for R' similarlyl)l

Let u = (al,a2,a3), v = (bl,h2,b3Jand w = (c, ,c2,c3).Then,

a) u.u = a,2 + a22 + a32 = lul 2 .
b) u = 0
- u-u =,O,sinceal = 0, a2 = 0, a3 = 0. Conversely,
u. u 0 =+ a: + a: + a: = 0 =+ al = 0, a2 = 0, a3 = 0, since the sum of non-negative
real numbers is zero if and only if each one of them is zero.
c) u-v = albl + a2b2+a3b3= blal+b2a2+ b3a3 = v.u
Why don't you try finishing the proof of the theorem now? That's what we say in E7

E E7) Prove (d) and ( 6 ) of Theorem 1.

1

1 .- ,- .-
Now we are in a position to obtain the angle between two vectors algebraically. We
have the following theorem.
Theorem 2: If u = (al,a2,a3)and v = (bl,b2,b3)are non-zero space vectors, and if 0 is
theangle between them, then lul Ivl cos 0 = uev, that is,
0 = cos-' (u.vl(u(Ivl).
+ -+
P (a, ,a2,a,) Roof: Let u = O P and v = OQ. So the coordinates of P and Q are (al ,a2,a3)and
(bl~~29b3).
+ +
o(o,o,o) ' First suppose O P ,OQ are not parallel (see Fig. 11).
Fig. 11
+
By the cosine rule applied to APOQ (in the plane determined by O P and OQ),
+
pQ2 = 0 p 2 + O Q -
~ 2 0 P .'OQ cos 0, i.e.,

The Cosine rule says that, for

20P.00 C O S ~= OP~+OQ~-PQ~ lk
A ABC below, cZ= (aZ + bZ- = (a: + a$ + a:) + (b: + bz + b:) - {(a,- b1l2+ (a2- b212 + (a3- b,)'}.
2ab cos8) + + +
.'. , 2 ( O PI lOQ I cos 0 = 2(al b, + a,b2+a3b3) = 2 u.v (because O P = TOP I and

Thus, lul .Ivl cos 8 = U.V.

- So we have proved Theorem 2 in the case when u and v are not parallel.
B a C
If u and v are parallel, then v = a u for some a E R (see Sec. 2.3.2). Now, we have two
possibilities : a > 0 and a < 0.
 Two-and Three-DlmmsionaI Spaces
If a < 0, then la1 = -a and cos 8 = -1. Hence, lul Ivl cos 8 = -1ul Ivl = -1ul laul =

Thus, the theorem is true in these two cases also, and hence, is true for all non-zero
vectors u and v.

E E8) Prove that lul Ivl cos 8 = u.v for any two plane vectors u and v, where 8 is the
angle between them.

Let us look at some examples now.

Example 2: Find the angle 8 between the vectors u = (2,O) and v = (1,l).
Solution: 8 satisfies 0 5 8 5 IT and

so that 8 = 1~14.
F
Example 3: Prove that the vector v = ( l l f l , 2 1 f l ) is equally inclined to u = (1,O) and
1 tow=(-315,415).
Solution: Note that lul = 1 = Ivl = Iwl.
1 If the angles between u and v and between v and w be a and p, respectively, then
U'V -
i cosa=--u.v= 1IvT
i Iul IvI
andcosp=v.w= - 3 / 5 f l + 8 / 5 f l = 1 1 m
!
Since 0 5 a p
5 IT,0 I 5 IT and cos a = cos p, we get a = p.
i
E9) Prove that the vectors u = (1,2,3) and v = (3 n - 1 are perpendicular.
Vector Spaces
E E1O)'If the vectors u and v in each of the following are perpendicular, find a.
a) u = (l,a,2), v = (-1,2,1) ).

b) u = (2,-5,6), v .= (1,4,a)
c) u = (a,2,-l),v = (3,a,5)

E E l l ) Prove that the angle between (1.0) and (-3,4) is twice the angle between
(1,0) and ( 1 1 f l . 2 1 f l ) .
'0'

We go bn to prove another property of the dot product that is very often used in the
study of inner product spaces (which you will read more about in Block 4). This result
is called the Schwarz Inequality.
Theorem 3:For any two vectors u,v of R3 (or R2), we have lu-vl 5 ul IvI.
L

Proof: If either u = 0 or v = 0, then both sides are zero and the inequality is true. So
suppose u # 0 and v # 0. Let 0 be the angle betwet n u and v. Then, by Theorem 2,

cos0=- U'V . This implies that

IuI IvI

cosel =
Iu'vI . But lcos 01 5 1
-
lul Ivl
IusvI
Thus, -5 1 , that is,
IuI Ivl
Iu' v I IuI IvI
Note: lu.vl = lul IvI holds i f either
i) u or v is the zero vector, or
ii) lcos 01 = 1 , i.e:, if 8 = 0 or .rr.
So the two sides in Schwarz inequality are equal for non-zero vectors u and v if the
vectors have the same or opposite directions.
In the next section we will see how we can use the dot product to write any vector as a
linear combination of some mutually perpendicular vectors.
 Two-and Three-Dimensional Spaces
2.5 ORTHONORMAL BASIS
I

i W e have seen how to calculate the angle between any two vectors. If the angle between
two non-zero vectors u and v is n/2 then they are said to be orthogonal. That is , if u and
vare mutually perpendicular then they are orthogonal. Now, if u and v areorthogonal,
then, by Theorem 2,

Conversely, if u,v are non-zero and if u-v = 0, then the angle 0 between them satisfies
C U'V
cos0 = - - 0. s o that 0 = n / 2 .
lul lvl
Thus, for non-zero vectors u and v , u-v = 0 iff u and v are orthogonal.
A n important set of orthogonal vectors in R2 is {i,j} (see Fig. 12(a)), where i = (1,O) and
j = (0,l). Thus, i and j are unit vectors along the x and y axes, respectively. They are
orthogonal because i.j = 1.0 + 0.1 = 0.

Similarly, in R3, i = (1,0,0), j = (0,1,0), k = (0,0,1), are mutually orthogonal The vector5 a,b,c,...are caUed
(see Fig. 12(b)), since mutually orthogonal ~f each of
them is orthogonal to each of the
i - j = 1-0 + 0.1 + 0.0 = 0, j-k = 0.0 + 1.0 + 0.1 = 0 and k.i = (0.1 + 0.0 + 1.0) = 0. others.

Fig. 12

Note that, i and j in R2. and i,j,k in R" are not only mutually orthogonal, but each of
them is also a unit vector. Such a set of vectors is called an orthonormal system.

Definition: A set of vectors of R v o r R2) are said to form an orthonormal system if each
vector in the set is a unit vector and any two vectors of the set are mutually orthogonal.
An orthonormal system is very important because every vector in R y o r R ~ can) be
expressed as a linear combination of the vectors in such a system. In the following
theorem we will prove that any vector in R~ is a linear combination of the orthogonal
system {i j,k}.
Theorem 4: Every vector in R~ is a linear combination of i,j,k.
Proof: Let x = (x,,x,,x,) be any space vector. Then
x = (x,.xz.x3)= ~ ~ ( l . 0 . +
0 )x,(O.I,O) + x,(O.O.I)
= x , i + x2j + xik.
Thus, our thcorem I \ proved
Note: In the proof a t ~ o v c x. , - s . i* \,
. - I= a . j ; i r r t ~ ! x , .= x.k.
Veclor Spaces In fact, if {u,v,w) is any orthonormal system in R3, then every space vector x can be
expressed as a linear combination of u,v,w as

Since the proof of this is a little complicated we will not give it over here.
Remark: The result given in Theorem 4 also holds good for R2, if we replace {i,j,k) b
{i = (1,0), j = (0,l)). It is also true that every vector in R2 can be written as a linear
combination of an orthonormal system {u,v) in R2.

Since three orthonormal vectors in R3 have the property that all vectors in R3 can be
written in terms of these, we say that these vectors form an orthonormal basis for the
vector space R3. (We explain the term 'basis' later, in Unit 4.) Similarly, two
orthonormal vectors in R2 form an orthonormal basis of R2.
Example 4 : Prove that
+
u = ( l l f l ) (i - j k)
+
v = ( 1 1 s ) (2i j - k). and
w = ( l l f l ) (j+k)
form an orthonormal basis of R3. Express x = -i+3j+4k as a linear combination of
U,V,W.

Solution: Since lul = 1 = Ivl = lwl, and u.v = u.w = w.v = 0, we see that {u,v,w) is an
orthonormal system in R3. Therefore, it forms an orthonormal basis of R ~Thus,
. from
what you have just read, you know that x can be written as
(X.U)U+ (X.V)V+ (x'w) W. Now
x-u = ( l l f l ) (-i+3j+4k). (i - j + k)
= (lm) (4.i -3j. j + 4k- k)
= (llVT) ( - 1 - 3 + 4 ) = 0

Next,
x.v = (1/<6)(-i +
3j+4k). (2i+j-k)
= (11V6)(-2+3-4) = - 3 l m a n d
X.W = (1/<2) (- i + 3j + 4k). (j + k)

= (1/<2) (3 + 4) = 7/<2 .

Hence,
x = (-31fl) v + (71fl) w

E E12) If x = 3i - j - k, express x as a linear combination of u,v,w of the example

above.

I %
J
Let us now see how to'find the angle that a space vector makes with each of the axes.
YOU know that, for any vector x in^" +
x = (x.i)i (x.j)j + (x.k)k. Also, i,j,k lie along
the x,y and z axes, respectively. Suppose x makes angles of u , P, T with the x,y and z
axes respectively (see Fig. 13). Then, by Theorem 2,
x.i - x.i
Fig. 13 Cosa= -- -
42 1x1 il 1x1
 x-j x.k Two-and Three-Dimensional Spaces
Similarly, cos P = -and cos T = - These quantities are called the direction
1x1 1x1
+
cosines of x. Thus, the cosines of the angles formed by x = OP with the positive
directions of the three axes are its direction cosines.
2 '

4-1 We have just seen that:

2 If x is a non-zero vector i n R3,then its direction cosines are
i1 x.i
- -
x.j -
x-k
gpr
1x1 ' 1x1 ' 1x1
i"
For example, the direction cosines of i are 1,0,0 because

3h Similarly, the direction cosines of u = (a,,a2,a,) are

This is because,

Similarly,

E13) Find the direction cosines of the vector i + j.

-. ,

We now give a very nice property pertaining to d~rec!ioncosines.

Theorem 5: If cos a , cos p, cos r are the direction c o s i n o ~of a non-zero vector u, then
cos2a + cos2p + cos2r = I
Proof: You have just seen that the direction cosines of
u = ( a , ,+,a3) are

cos p = a2
Jm

from which it is obvious that

This theorem ends our discussion of the scalar product of vectors.

Before going further. we mention another kind of product of two vectors in R" nnamely.
the cross product. T h e cross product of two vectors a and b in R
'. denotcd by a x b , is
 defined to be the vector whose direction is perpendicular to the plane of a and b, and
magnitude is la' lbj sin ti. whcre U is the :uigle between a and b (see Fig. 14).

Fig: 14

Thus, a x b = (la1 Ibl sin 0) n, where n is a uiit vector perpendicular to the plane of
a and b.

Note that this way of multiplying two vectors is not possible in R'
Now let us try to represent some geometrical concepts by using vectors.

2.6 VECTORS AND GEOMETRY OF SPACE

In this section we will obtain the equations of a line, a plane and a sphere in terms of
vectors.

2.6.1 Vector Equation of a Line

-+
Let A be a point in R3and OA be denoted by a. Let u be a given vector in R3.Then the
equation of the line through A and parallel to u is
a y /
r=a + au,
where a is a real parameter.
+
This means that the position vector r, of any point P on such a line, satisfies r = a au,
0 -. for some real number a. Conversely, for every real number a, the point whose position
Fig. 15 vector is a + au is on this line (see Fig. 15).
The position vector of apoinf Pis The vector equation r = a + au , of a line, corresponds to the Cartesian equation
0s

Example 5: Find the equation of the line through the point A(1,-1,l) and parallel to
the line joining B(1,2,3) and C(-2,0,1).
Solution: The position vector a of A is (1 ,-1,l).
+ =-OC+
Also BC
+
- OB
= (-2,0,1) - (1,2,3)
= (-3, -2, -2)
Hence, u = (-3,-2,-2)
Thus, the vector equation of the line through A and parallel to BC is
 Remark: Whatever has been discussed above 1s also true for R'. That is. the equation Two-gnd Thrre-DimenkionulSpnm

o f any line in R' that passes through a = (al,az) and is parallel to a,given vector u =
(uI.u2) is r = a + au. a E R.
This corresponds to the Cartesian equation = -!Z-h
I m

E El4) Find the vector equation of the line passipg through a = (1.0), and parallel
t o thc v-axis.

C
b
a
h .. .. . . . .-.--- I . " .
Now how do we get the vector equation of a straight line in R'. which passes through
points A and B, whose position vectors are a and b, respectively?
+ + +
Since A B = OB - OA = b - a (see Fig. 16). we want the equation of a line passing
through A and parallel to the vector b-a.
Hence the desired equation is
r =a + a (b-a). 0
This equation corresponds to the Cartesian equation
Fig. 16

of the line.passing through (x,,yl,zl)and (xz.y-,,zz).

Remark: The vector equation of any line in R' passing through a = (al .az) and
b = (bl,b,) i s r = a + a ( b - a). 1
I
Example 6: What is the vedpor equation of a line passingkhrough j = (0,l:O) and
k = (0,0,1)? I
Solution: Nowj - k = (0,1,0) - (0,0,1) = (0,1,-1).
Thus, the required equation is
r = k + aG - k) = (o,o.'I) + u(0.1.41).
= (0, a , I -a)

E E15) Fipd the vector equation of the line through i and i + j + k. What
,are the direction cosines of the vector on corresponds to the value a = l ?
L

--
Now let us see how to obtain the equation of a plane in terms of vettors.

2.6.2 Vector Equation of $plane

Let A,B,C be non-collinear points in ~ b i t position
h vectors a,b,c, respectively. Then,
from Euclidean geometry you know that the three points A,B,C determine a unique
plane. The vector equation of the plane determined by A,B,C is
r = a + a(b-a) + p, (c-a), where a , p, are any real numbers. Why is this the equation? kis the Greek letter mu. 45.
 Well, suppose you take any point P in the plane determined by A.B and C. Then, since
+ +
A,B and C are not collinear, the vector AP is ;I linear cornbinatbor~of the vectors AB
+ + +
and 2 (see Fig. 17). That is. AP = a AB + p A C , a. p E R. Now. O P = O A + AP =
3 +
+ +
a + a A B + p AC = a + a(b-a) + p(c-a).

Fig. 17

We can rewrite the equation of the plane containing the points A,B,C as
r=(l_a-p)a+ab+pc.
This shows us that r is a linear combination of the vectors a,b and c.
Example 7: Find the vector equation of the plane determined by the points (0.1, l ) ,
(2,1,-3) and (1,3,2). Also find the point where the line
r = (1+2a) i + (2-3a)j - (3+5a)k intersects this plane.
Solution: The position vectors of the three given points are
j + k, 2i + j - 3k, i + 3j + 2k.
Therefore, the equation of the plane is
r = j + k + s(2i -4k) + t ( i + 2 j + k ) , that is,
r = (2s + t)i + (1 + 2t) j + (1-4s + t) k, where s, t are real parameters.
The second part of the question requires us to find the point of intersection of the given
line a@ the plane. This point must satisfy theequations of the plane and this line. Thus,
s,t and a must satisfy
2s + t = i + 2&, 1 + 2t = 2 - 3a, 1 - 4 ~+ t = - 3 - h .
When these simultaneous equations are solved, we gets = 2, t = - 1. a = 1. Putting this
value of a in the equation of the line, we find the position vector r , of the point of
intersection is .
r = 3 i - j - 8k,
so that the required point is (3,-1,-8).

E E16) Find the equation of the plane passing through i, J and k.

We will now give the vector equ;ition of a plane when we know that it is perpendicular
t o a fixc.tl I I I I ~ I\.er.tc~l.
11. ;~ncI
we know ~ h tlisti~nct.
c of the origin from i t is rl
The required equation is
r-n=d
Note that d 2 O always, being the distance from the origin.
The equation r.n = d corresponds to the Cartesian equation ax + by + cz = d, of a T w 0 - d Three-DimenrionalS~nces

plane.
Example 8: Find the direction cosines of the perpendicular from the origin to the plane
r. (6i - 3j - 2k) + 1 = 0.
Solution: We rewrite the given equation as
r.(6i-3j-2k)= -1
NOW(6i - 3j - 2k( = V36 + 9 +'4 = 7. Thus,
1 6 i - 3 j - - k2( = 1 and -6i - - j 3 --k2 isaunitvector.Then
7 7 7 7 7 7
(-,6
r . -i + l j + Z k
7 7 )
=1
7
is the equation of the given plane, in the form r.n = d, with d r 0 and n being a unit
vector. This shows that the perpendicular unit vector from the origin to the plane is
n = --6_i + -j3 + -k.2 Its direction cosines are what we want.
7 7 7
6 3 2
They are - --.-,--
7 7 7
E17) What is the distance of the origin from rhe plane
.
r (i+j+k) + 5 = O?

Let us now look at the vector equation of a sphere.

2.6.3 Vector Equation of a Sphere

As you know, a sphere is the locus of a point in space which is at a constant distance
from a fixed point. The constant distance is called the radius and the fixed point is called
the centre of the sphere. If the radius is a and the centre is (c, ,cz,c3),then the Cartesian
equation of the sphere is

The vector equation of the same sphere (see Fig. 18) is Jr-cJ = a , where c = (c, ,c2.c3).
In particular, the vector equatiori of a sphere whose centre is the origin and radius is a Fig. I8
is J r J= a.

Wegive the following example.

Example 9: Find the radius of the circular section of the sphere Irl = S by the plane
r.(i+j+k) = 3 f l

Solution: The sphere Irl = 5 hascentre the origin, and radius5. The plane r.(i+j+k) =
3 m can be rewritter. ds I- (lm) ( i +j+k)= 3, in w h i c h ( l 1 l ~ )(i+j+k) is a unit
vector. This shows that the distance of this plane from the origin is 3. So the plane and
the sphere intersect. giving a circular section of the sphere. In Fig. 19 OP = 5, ON = 3.
Fig. 19
Hence. NP' = OP' - ON' = 5' - 3' = 4' So, the requiredrradius. N P = 4. -1 7
Vector Spaces
E E18)Find the radius of the circular section of the sphere Irl = 13 by the plane
r.(2i+3j+6k) = 35.

Let us finally recapitulate what we have done in this unit.

2.7 SUMMARY
We end this unit with summarising what we have covered in it. We have
1) defined vectors as directed line segments, and as ordered pairs or triples.
2) introduced you to the operations of vector addition and scalar multiplication in R2
and R3.
3) defined the scalar products of vectors, and used this concept for obtaining direction
cosines of vectors.
4) given the vector equations of a line, a plane and a sphere.

E2) a) 2,O b) false c) 3

E3) The proof is the same as that for R3, except that you will deal with ordered pairs
instead of ordered triples.
-
E4) L e t u = (a,b,c).Then J a u J= J m + a 2 c 2 = a \ 1111.
E5) The proof is the same as that for R2, except that you will deal with triples*iTlstead
of pairs
E6) Let (a,b) be any plane vector. Then (a,b)=a(l ,O) + b(O,l), and hence, is a linear
combination of (1,O) and (0,l).
 Two-and Three-Dimensional Spaces
e) (au).v = (-1, -2, aa3) . (bl,b2,b3)
= aa,bl + aa2b2 + aa3b3
= a (u.v)
You can similarly show that (au).v = u.(av).
E8) First consider any two vectors u and v, which are not in the same line. Let
u = (al,a2) and v = (bl,b2). Then, as in Theorem 2, lul Ivl cos 0 = U.V.Next,
consider the case when u and v are in the same line. Then u = av, for a E R.
Then, as in Theorem 2, you can again prove that lul lvlcos 0 =u.v.
E9) Suppose 8 is the angle between them. Then
coso = -- 0. Also 0 I0 IT. This gives 0 = 7712, that is u and v are
U.V

lul IvI
perpendicular.
E10) Now u and v are perpendicular iff u.v = 0.
a ) u . ~ = O ~ l ~ ( - l ) + a - ~ 2 + 2 ~ 1 = 0 * 1 + 2 a = O

E l l ) Letu = (1,0), v = (-3,4),w = (11-2ifl). Let the angles between u and v

and u and w be a and p, respectively.
Then we have to show that a = 2P. Now, cos a = u V = - -
-3
lul IvI 5

A result from trigonometry is'

cos 20 = 2 cos2 0 -1, for any angle 0.
Therefore, cos2P = 2(1/5)- 1 = -315 = cosa. Since cos P is positive, 0 < P < d 2 .
Therefore, 0 < 2p < n. Also 0 < a < T , and cos 2P = cos a . Hence, 2p = a.
E12) x = (x.u)u + (x.v)v + (x.w)w
Now,x;u = ( l l f l ) (3i -j - k).(i-j+kj.= l / f l ( 3 + 1 - 1 ) = t 7 .
X.V= f i a n d x . w = - n .
Therefore, x = flu + fiv - f l w .
E13) Since (i+j/= <we get the direction cosines to be 11- 1 1 q 0.
E14) j = (0,l) is a vector along the y-axis. Thus, our line should be parallel to j.
+
Therefore, the required equation is r = a+ a j = (1,O) a (0,l) = (I ,a), a E R.
E15) The required equation is r = i + a (i+j+k-i) = i + a Q+k)
= (1,0,0) + a (Oil,l) = ( l , a , a ) , a ER.
When a = 1, we get the vector (1,l ,I). Its direction cosines are l l n , llfi,
1 1 a
E16) The required equation is r = i + s(j-i) + t(k-i), where s, t R. This gives us
+
r = (1,0,0) s (-1,1,0) + t(-l,0,1) = (1-s-t,s,t).
E17) First we put the equation of the plane in the form r.n = d, where n is a unit vector
and d r 0.Now li+j+k[ = f i ~ h e r e f o r e l, / f l ( i + j + k ) l = 1, and hence,
l / f l ( i + j + k ) isa unit vector. :., ( - 1 / f l ) (i+j+k) is also a unit vector. Now
the given plane's equation is r.(i+j+k) = -5
* r.(- l l f i ) (i+j+k) = 5 i n
Thus, the required distance is d = 5 / f i
E18) The centre of the sphere is (0,0,0), and radius is 13. The given plane is
r.(2/7 i + 3M j + 617 k) = 5, in the form r.n = d . Therefore, the radius of the
circular section is ,h32 - s2= 12.