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03 Comment
Contents 31 Vibration mitigation
Farhod Hamidov, BICO Drilling Tools, Inc., and
February 2018
Volume 11 Issue 02
ISSN 1757-2134
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Comment David Bizley, Editor
February 2018
Contact us
david.bizley@oilfieldtechnology.com Editorial
Managing Editor: James Little
james.little@oilfieldtechnology.com
O
il prices have been on a little bit of a rollercoaster in recent Editor: David Bizley
weeks. At first, prices were pushed up into the high US$60s david.bizley@oilfieldtechnology.com
and then over US$70 by a weakened US dollar. However, Editorial Assistant: Laura Dean
unexpected turbulence in US and global stock markets has since laura.dean@oilfieldtechnology.com
collapse of the economy. This isn’t a concern that markets aren’t going to do well, this is Administration: Nicola Fuller
nicola.fuller@oilfieldtechnology.com
concern that the economy is actually doing much better than expected and so we need to
Reprints:
re-evaluate.”4 Risky as it is to make predictions, the general agreement seems to be that the reprints@oilfieldtechnology.com
trend is temporary and that market fundamentals will see oil prices continue to rise.
Speaking of which: US oil production is booming once again, returning to a peak last
seen 47 years ago, as shale producers rush to make the most of the highest prices seen in Palladian Publications Ltd,
15 South Street, Farnham, Surrey GU9 7QU, UK
several years. Figures from November last year show output at 10.4 million bpd, just slightly Tel: +44 (0) 1252 718 999 Fax: +44 (0) 1252 718 992
below the all-time US record set in November 1970. “For decades the only question was Website: www.oilfieldtechnology.com
how fast are US oil imports going to rise […] Now global oil markets have been put in a
bottle and shaken up, and new patterns are emerging,” said Daniel Yergin, Vice-Chairman of
IHS Markit.5 Whilst a weakened dollar topped up prices over recent weeks, the bulk of the
support behind current prices comes from the production cuts made by OPEC and its allies.
If rampant shale production begins to weigh down on prices, it’s likely the group will feel
the need to react – whether that will be by making further production cuts or flooding the
market is hard to say. The only thing that’s clear is that once again, the industry finds itself
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Diary dates
Hydrocarbons discovered SBM Offshore kicks off
20 - 22 February, 2018 in Oyo-NW Well for Liza FPSO
IP Week Erin Energy Corporation has completed SBM Offshore has announced that the
London, UK the drilling of the Oyo-NW well. Based on first-steel cut event has officially kicked
E: joanne.mcbratney@hg3.co.uk
preliminary evaluation, it has discovered off work for the construction of the
www.ipweek.com
hydrocarbons in the Miocene Formation. topsides for the Liza floating, production,
The well is located approximately 9.5 km storage and offloading (FPSO) vessel
05 - 08 March, 2018 northwest of the Oyo Central field on the project at the Dyna-Mac yard.
GEO 2018 company’s offshore Nigeria block 120. This phase was marked with a
Manama, Bahrain Currently, well-suspension activities two-day safety-engagement event
E: fawzi.alshehabi@ubm.com are being completed so the well can hosted by SBM Offshore management
www.geo2018.com be re-entered in the future for possible in collaboration with the two Singapore
production. yards to underline the priority of
06 - 08 March, 2018 The well was successfully drilled to upholding the highest health, safety,
the proposed total vertical depth subsea security and environmental (HSSE)
IADC/SPE Drilling Conference
Fort Worth, USA (TVDSS) of 12 218 ft and penetrated standards on this project.
E: drillingconf@experient-inc.com multiple sand units with total gross “With the topsides fabrication now
www.spe.org thickness of 260 ft in the depth range from running in parallel with the tanker
7052 - 10 873 ft TVDSS as interpreted from conversion, the construction phase is
wireline log data. proceeding as planned,” says Bernard van
27 - 29 March, 2018
Preliminary evaluation of the Leggelo, SBM Offshore FPSO Managing
AAPG Global Super Basins well data shows that the two main Director. “SBM is proud of its safety
Houston, USA sand units, the Miocene U7.0 and record over the 34 FPSO projects that it
E: customerservice@aapg.org.
U8.0, with a gross thickness of has completed to date and we aim for
https://superbasins.aapg.org/2018
~83.6 ft are hydrocarbonbearing. Work has continuous improvement on the Liza
commenced to estimate the discovered project. We will strive to meet and exceed
20 - 23 May, 2018 volumes and to determine the relevant ExxonMobil’s world-class standards and
AAPG ACE 2018 appraisal and development programme. expectations for safety on this project.”
Salt Lake City, USA
E: convene@aapg.org
https://ace.aapg.org/2018
Spirit Energy to drill new well at key UK field
Web news Spirit, one of the top independent oil and gas operators in Europe, is to drill a new well at
highlights the Chiswick field in the Southern North Sea to bring around a further 50 billion ft3 of gas
on stream.
Ì ExxonMobil aims to triple Permian The new well, which represents a £75 million investment from Spirit, will be drilled by
production by 2025. Noble’s Hans Deul jack-up rig, one of five rigs Spirit Energy has on hire in 2018 – accounting
Ì Third successful well result on the
for 10% of the active rig market in Europe.
The Chiswick field is part of Spirit Energy’s Greater Markham Area, which also includes
SM 71 development.
the Markham, Grove and Kew fields. Combined, the Greater Markham Area fields produced
Ì Total announces major deepwater 23 billion ft3 of gas net to Spirit in 2017.
discovery In the Gulf of Mexico. Fraser Weir, North Sea Director at Spirit Energy, said: “Having already produced billions
Ì Petrotechnics: digitalisation key to of cubic feet of gas since coming on stream 11 years ago, we are delighted that the hard
operational excellence. work and collaboration of our teams in both the UK and the Netherlands has led to us
continuing our investment in the Chiswick field and extending the life of a key part of our
portfolio.
To read more about these articles “This is just one part of a busy rig programme for Spirit Energy in Europe this year, as
and for more event listings go to: we explore for fresh discoveries, maximise the potential of existing fields and plug wells
which have ceased production.”
www.oilfieldtechnology.com The infill well at Chiswick, which first came on stream in 2007, will be the fifth well drilled
in the field, and the first since 2010. The Hans Deul will start preparatory work in April.
!
World news February 2018
Nostra Terra announces permitting for three new BP makes two new
Permian Basin wells North Sea discoveries
Nostra Terra, the oil and gas exploration and production company with a portfolio of assets BP has announced two new exploration
in the USA and Egypt, has announced the acceleration of its plans for developing its assets in discoveries in the North Sea. Capercaillie
the Permian Basin. is located in Block 29/4e in the Central
On 27 December 2017, Nostra Terra announced its intention to initiate the permitting North Sea, and Achmelvich is located in
process for a new well at one of the company’s 24 drill-ready locations across its Permian Block 206/9b west of Shetland.
acreage. However, with legal completion of the new Senior Lending Facility expected to take BP fully owns Capercaillie, while the
place before the end of January 2018 (announced on 8 January 2018), which provides the Achmelvich well partnership comprises
company with immediate access to US$1.2 million of funding, the Board has now decided to BP (operator, 52.6%), Shell (28%) and
increase the number of permits it applies for from one to three. Chevron (19.4%).
The increase in the number of permitted drilling locations would enable Nostra Terra to Both wells were drilled by the
drill new wells in quicker succession. The company intends to review various options in this Paul B Loyd Junior rig in Summer 2017.
respect, including the possibility of securing a drilling rig beyond the initial well. Such an The Capercaillie well was drilled to a
approach could have the benefit of reducing the overall costs of drilling the individual wells total depth of 3750 m and encountered
by spreading certain fixed expenses. light oil and gas-condensate in Paleocene
Matt Lofgran, CEO of Nostra Terra, commented: “Confirmation of the new Senior Lending and Cretaceous-age reservoirs. The well
Facility could prove to be a catalyst for exciting growth for Nostra Terra. We are an ambitious data is currently under evaluation.
and nimble company. Our strategy over the last 18 months has been to take advantage of The Achmelvich well was drilled to a
depressed oil prices, by securing assets that are both economic at lower oil prices and provide total depth of 2395 m and encountered
further development and exploration upside. As previously announced, we estimate our oil in Mesozoic-age reservoirs. Evaluation
assets in the Permian Basin to have a 2:1 ROI at US$40 oil. At higher oil prices we could not be and interpretation of the well results is
more excited to drill.” ongoing to assess future options.
Subsea 7 awarded SDX Energy Inc. discovers Shell agrees to sell stake
contract offshore Norway gas in ONZ-7 well offshore Thailand
Subsea 7 S.A. announced the award of a SDX Energy Inc., the North Africa focused Shell Integrated Gas Thailand Pte Ltd
sizeable contract from Statoil for the Johan oil and gas company, has announced and Thai Energy Company Ltd, affiliates
Castberg field development, located 240 km that a gas discovery has been made at its of Royal Dutch Shell Plc, have agreed
from Hammerfest in Norway. ONZ-7 development well on the Sebou to an asset sale of their 22.2222%
The contract comprises the design, permit in Morocco. interest in the Bongkot field and
coating, fabrication and installation of a The ONZ-7 well was drilled to a adjoining acreage offshore Thailand to
53 km rigid flowline including 34 km of total depth of 1167 m with five m of net PTT Exploration & Production Public
pipe-in-pipe flowline. Project Management conventional natural gas pay in the Hoot Company Limited (PTTEP) and PTTEP
and engineering will commence formation. The well came in on prognosis International Limited, a wholly-owned
immediately at Subsea 7’s offices in but reservoir quality exceeded initial subsidiary of PTTEP, for a transaction
Stavanger, Norway. Fabrication will take expectations, encountering porosity in value of US$750 million.
place at Subsea 7’s spoolbase at Vigra, the pay section of 35.3%. The transaction is expected to
Norway and offshore operations will be The well will now be completed, complete in the second quarter of 2018,
carried out in 2020. tested and connected to existing subject to completion conditions as
Phil Simons, Subsea 7’s Vice infrastructure. prescribed in the agreement.
President North Sea and Canada, said, “We are very excited to be able The agreement is for Shell’s stake
“We are pleased to have been awarded to announce another discovery, the in Blocks 15, 16 and 17 and Block
this key project by Statoil and to be fourth from five wells drilled to date G12/48. Following the completion
part of the further development of in our nine well Moroccan campaign,” of this transaction, PTTEP’s stake in
the oil and gas infrastructure in the Paul Welch, President and CEO of SDX, Bongkot will increase to 66.6667%,
Barents Sea, delivering regional content commented. “For this well we used our with the remaining 33.3333% owned
in the North of Norway. This award draws own high resolution 3D seismic data, as by Total. PTTEP is the current operator
upon Subsea 7’s substantial experience in we have for the other successful wells of Bongkot. This announcement has
safely and effectively delivering rigid pipelay and as we will for the remainder of the no impact on Shell’s other business
projects.” campaign.” interests in Thailand.
Since 1924, the American Petroleum Institute has been a cornerstone in establish-
ing and maintaining standards for the worldwide oil and natural gas industry. Our
work helps the industry invent and manufacture superior products consistently,
provide critical services, ensure fairness in the marketplace for businesses and
consumers alike, and promotes the acceptance of products and practices globally.
API Standards enhance the safety of industry operations, assure quality, help keep
costs down, reduce waste, and minimize confusion.
They help speed acceptance, bring products to market
quicker, and avoid having to reinvent the wheel every
time a product is manufactured. Start your project from
a place of safety. Start today at API.org/Compass.
Copyright 2018 – American Petroleum Institute, all rights reserved. API and the API logo are trademarks or registered trademarks
of API in the United States and/or other countries.
Coming in from
the Cold
David Bizley, Oilfield Technology, discusses
recent developments in the Russian oil and
gas sector.
10 |
A
lthough Russia cannot exactly be called an ‘oil state’ – akin working with OPEC and others to establish and enforce widespread
to the likes of Saudi Arabia, for example – its economy has, production cuts. The Russian oil and gas sector, and consequently the
for decades, been underpinned by revenues generated from Russian state, is currently faced with a variety of challenges. These
vast domestic oil and natural gas reserves. To get a rough idea of challenges come from across the political and economic spectrum,
just how important hydrocarbons are to the Russian economy, one ranging from sanctions, to the impact of the shale industry, to declining
only needs to look at a few key statistics. Hydrocarbons accounted production from maturing fields. This article aims to provide an
for 64.99% of the country’s exports in 20141, and accounted for overview of some of these factors and consider how the Russian oil and
over 16% of GDP in 20122. Five of Russia’s ten largest companies gas industry might evolve over the coming years.
(by market cap) are based in the oil and gas sector, with Rosneft
and Gazprom holding the first and second spots respectively.3 Oil prices and OPEC
Consequently, the health of Russia’s stockmarket and the value of its The dramatic fall in oil prices from the end of 2014 struck a heavy blow
currency, the ruble, are closely tied to the success of the oil industry to the Russian economy. Weaker global demand and surging US shale
and global oil prices. production provided the conditions for a ‘perfect storm’ as the global
It is little wonder then that, since the downturn, Russia has balance of supply and demand was completely upended. With Russia
become more involved in attempts to stabilise global oil prices, losing roughly US$2 billion in revenue per dollar reduction in oil prices,
the country’s finances came under intense pressure, with economic
forecasts for 2015 showing growth forecasts being slashed and warning
of an imminent recession. However, much like Saudi Arabia and other
major oil producers, there was initial reluctance to cut output. Energy
Minister, Alexander Novak was quoted at the time as saying, “If we cut,
the importer countries will increase their production and this will mean
a loss of our niche market.”4
By the beginning of 2016, low oil prices (and other factors) had
caused Russia’s GDP to fall by 3.7%,5 prices were near their lowest
levels for years (~US$30) and output from US shale had failed to die off
as expected. It is perhaps unsurprising then, that by the OPEC meeting
of 30 November that year, Russia had indicated its willingness to take
part in production cuts. Oil prices immediately surged to over US$50
on the news, and have continued to be supported by the so-called
OPEC+ cuts ever since. On 30 November 2017, Russia and OPEC agreed
to continue the cuts until the end of this year in an effort to remove the
last of the supply glut. Paradoxically, the problem that Russia now faces
is the risk of prices rising too fast. Russia has been lobbying its OPEC
allies to provide clear guidelines on exactly how and when the cuts
will be repealed; getting the timing wrong would likely result in supply
shortage, skyrocketing prices and a renewed surge of output from the
US. For now, Russia and OPEC have agreed to wait until this year’s June
meeting before making any adjustments.
Sanctions
In the wake of Russia’s involvement in the 2014 Crimea Crisis and
subsequent annexation of the Crimean Peninsula, many Western
governments enacted punitive sanctions against various aspects of
the Russian economy. Key amongst the areas impacted was the energy
sector, a high-profile target because of its importance to the Russian
economy.
The sanctions have affected the Russian energy industry across
two key areas: technology/expertise and financing.
As a result of the sanctions, three Western ‘supermajors’, Shell,
Total, and ExxonMobil, were forced to withdraw from multiple projects,
taking with them the technology and expertise that they had been
| 11
brought in to provide. In response, Russian companies have sought to Ì The Armur Gas Processing Plant, which is on track to
see its first phase completed in 2021, has a price tag
leverage domestic expertise, and ‘go it alone’, but as the country seeks
of US$22.1 billion. At full output, Armur will produce
to expand production in harsher and more remote areas, such as the 42 billion m3 of natural gas and related products annually.
Arctic, the problems caused by a shortage of advanced technology are
only likely to become more acute.
Ì Gazprom is undertaking a US$1.5 billion modernisation of
its Moscow oil refinery, which is scheduled for completion in
With regard to the impact on financing and foreign loans, sanctions 2020.
have made it increasingly difficult for Russian operators to invest in
new projects. New offshore operations, particularly those in the Arctic,
Ì Gazprom is also leading the development of Russia’s first true
Baltic LNG hub at Ust-Luga. The US$18.5 billion project is
are expensive and therefore likely to be amongst the hardest hit. set for completion in 2022 - 2023 and will be able to produce
Ongoing operations are likely to suffer too, as Russian producers are 10 - 15 million t of LNG annually.
unable to finance field developments and infrastructure improvements. Ì Lukoil and the Iranian National Oil Company have been
Inevitably this will result in reduced output and, consequently, reduced working on the exploration and development of the Caspian
revenues. Some estimates show that the Russian economy will lose Sea. Lukoil’s recent completion of a new well has added some
approximately US$170 billion as a combined result of low oil prices and 5 million tpy to the output of the Vladimir Filanovsky field.
financial sanctions.6 Ì Exploration is also continuing throughout Siberia, which still
has significant potential for as-yet-undiscovered resources.
Current trends Estimates put exploration and development expenditure for
this region at US$50 billion over the next five years.
Despite the challenges posed by sanctions and low oil prices, the
Russian energy industry continues to see new projects come to fruition. According to analysis by GlobalData, US$79.4 billion will
A shining example of this is the giant Yamal LNG project, which be spent on Russian oil projects over the next four years alone.
began loading its first seaborn shipment in early December. The The analysis also shows that 16.4 billion bbls of oil will be
Yamal LNG project encompasses natural gas production, liquefaction produced from 1565 Russian oilfields over this time period – with
and shipping. The project’s LNG plant has an annual output of 636 million bbls coming from new fields. Rather than boosting
16.5 million t and is supplied by the South Tambey field, which has production to higher levels, Russia’s ambition seems simply to
probable natural gas reserves of 926 billion m3. keep output stable. Anna Belova, Senior Oil & Gas analyst for
Cut off from many Western sources of financing, the US$27 billion GlobalData, commented on the expenditure, “This is to ensure
project was largely funded by Chinese banks. A key selling point of the that the country’s production remains at 11 million bpd. Russia
project was its location; situated in Sabetta on the Yamal Peninsula has 34 key oil projects and 14 gas projects in the development
in the Russian Arctic, LNG shipments can reach China in as little as pipeline. The contribution of new fields to the already producing
15 days. By contrast, the traditional route that skirts around the edge of oil and condensate fields, will have Russia maintaining its oil
Europe and through the Suez Canal can take up to a month. President production for over four years.”14
Putin was quoted as saying, “When this project began, several people
made a list of reasons why it would not work. There were risks. But you Summary
can see it has been a success […] This is a crucial event, not just for Despite the an adverse economic environment, sanctions,
energy but for the whole use of the Arctic […] and the northern route.”7 and maturing fields, Russia remains a key player in the global
Chinese investment in the Yamal LNG project is a sign of an upstream industry. The billions of dollars of investment in new
emerging trend that has seen Russia move its export focus away fields and the establishment of strategic links to burgeoning Asian
from European markets and towards Asia. As China, hungry for fossil markets look set to keep it that way for some time.
fuels and seeking alternatives to coal power, continues to drive up
demand, Russia has made plans to cut oil shipments from its Baltic References
1. ‘What did Russian Federation export in 2014?’ - http://atlas.cid.harvard.
sea port of Pimorsk by 160 000 bpd.8 Other signs of Sino-Russian
edu/explore/?country=186&partner=undefined&product=undefined&produc
cooperation include the 2017 purchase of a US$9 billion stake in tClass=HS&startYear=undefined&target=Product&year=2014
Rosneft PJSC by CEFC China Energy Co. Rosneft, which is set to supply 2. ‘World Development Indicators: Contribution of natural resources to gross
domestic product’ – https://web.archive.org/web/20141022042737/http://
the Shanghai-based company with over 60 million t of oil over the wdi.worldbank.org/table/3.15
coming five years.9 Whilst the majority of Russian crude oil exports go 3. ‘Top 20 Russian Stocks by Market Cap’ – http://eqibeat.com/top-20-russian-
stocks-market-cap/
to Europe, China is the single largest destination at a national level,
4. ‘Falling oil prices: Who are the winners and losers?’ - http://www.bbc.co.uk/
receiving over 1 million bpd.10 news/business-29643612
5. ‘Russia’s GDP falls 3.7% as sanctions and low oil price take effect’ - https://
www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jan/25/russias-gdp-falls-37-as-
Looking ahead sanctions-and-low-oil-price-take-effect
Until recently, the outlook for Russian oil production was far from 6. ‘How Have Sanctions Affected the Russian Oil Sector?’ - https://www.
diplomaatia.ee/en/article/how-have-sanctions-affected-the-russian-oil-
ideal. For much of the last decade, production has only grown at a sector/
little over 1% annually. Growth has slowed considerably since the 7. ‘Russia ships first gas from $27bn Arctic project’ - https://www.ft.com/
early 2000s as output from maturing fields in Western Siberia has content/515d451c-dc11-11e7-a039-c64b1c09b482
8. ‘Russia-China Oil Friendship Makes Crude Costlier for Europe’ - https://
declined.11 Even with the development of fields in Russia’s Far East, www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-01-02/russia-s-oil-friendship-
Eastern Siberia, and the Russian Arctic, it seemed that a decline in with-china-makes-crude-costly-for-europe
9. Ibid.
output was inevitable. However, much to the surprise of analysts, the 10. ‘Russia exports most of its crude oil production, mainly to Europe’ - https://
impact of maturing fields has been significantly dampened by wide- www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=33732#
ranging efficiency improvements and production from new fields 11. Simola, H., & Solanko, L., Bank of Finland, BOFIT, ‘Overview of Russia’s oil
and gas sector’, (19 May, 2017).
coming online more quickly than had been anticipated.12 12. Ibid.
Even though the uncertain political environment and volatile 13. ‘7 must-see Russian oil & gas projects for 2018’ - https://www.mioge.ru/
en-GB/press/news/4882.aspx
market have increased the risks involved in major projects, Russia 14. Belova, A., GlobalData, ‘Russia’s investment will ensure stable supply of
has many underway. Some examples include:13 Russian crude through 2021, says GlobalData’, (1 February, 2018).
S
ince the collapse of oil prices four years ago, North American
oil companies have had to improvise on many levels in
order to stay afloat. Much has been made of their efforts to
slash daily rig rates and pare out unnecessary expenses. In the last
two years, breakeven prices for most major shale basin plays have
dropped almost 50%.
Advances in drilling technologies have played a pivotal role.
Starting long before the bit even touches rock and stretching
through punching hole and fraccing, innovations are reducing
costs, increasing drilling efficiency and augmenting production
and ultimate reserves.
It all starts with well planning. Major service companies
offer integrated suites of software that mine seismic, rock and
production data using advanced algorithms in order to determine
‘sweet spots’ of high hydrocarbon content, optimal well-spacing
patterns, length of well laterals, stimulation patterns and surface
processing facilities.
Schlumberger, for instance, recently introduced a new,
digital-based exploration and development platform. The DELFI
environment sits in the Google Cloud Platform and contains
over 1000 3D seismic surveys, 5 million wells, and 400 million
production records from around the world.
In conjunction, the company also unveiled DrillPlan, a new
drilling and completions application. It operates in the Cloud,
| 15
allowing clients to collaborate with geoscientists, engineers, For Baker Hughes, the focus is on reducing stick slip, in which
drillers and completion services in order to enhance well design, the bit sticks while the drill-string rotates, causing acceleration
drilling and completion of wells. and deceleration of the two components. Stick slip can damage
DrillPlan is also designed to incorporate new information equipment, decrease productivity and raise drilling costs.
in order to continuously improve the efficiency and quality Baker Hughes devised the TerrAdapt diamond bit, which can
of every well drilled. “We are delivering a radical new way of automatically adjust the depth-of-cut (DOC) as it encounters
working that will give our customers faster and higher quality different rock strata. The bit contains cartridges with moving
drilling plans by enabling the automation of repetitive tasks and pistons that are attached to the DOC elements. When the bit
validation workflows leading to a more coherent approach,” said encounters stick-slip, the cartridges extend within milliseconds.
Davin Rennick, president of Schlumberger’s Software Integrated The bit was tested in the Delaware basin, where operators
Solutions (SIS). were having difficulties drilling through interbedded layers
According to SIS, the application was field tested for one of shale, limestone and salt, causing downhole tool failures.
year in West Texas and Canada by seven O&G companies. The The TerraDapt bit completed a 1000 m section 27% faster than
companies were able to customise the software to their specific standard polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC) bits with no
needs, significantly reducing the time needed to deliver well damage to the bottom hole assembly.
planning programmes. Smith Bits, a Schlumberger subsidiary, developed
the AxeBlade ridged diamond bit to improve ROP in shale
Rigs formations. The bit combines the shearing action of a
Automated drilling rigs (ADRs) are now the norm for conventional PDC and the crushing action of a roller cone bit in
North American fleets. The traditional derrick has been order to penetrate rock with 30% less force than conventional
superseded by a self-erecting, hydraulic-telescoping mast. The PDC bits. Shell tested the bit on an offshore Louisiana field,
mast itself has a hydraulic top drive built in, and is equipped using a rotary steerable system to cut 13 674 ft in 45 hours, at an
with a torque wrench and automatic pipe handler. Conventional average ROP of 305 ft/hr, a 100% improvement over the field’s
manual tongs have been upgraded to hydraulic power tongs. median.
Rig functions are controlled by hand-operated joysticks Halliburton’s new Cruzer bits have small diamond rolling
that raise, lower and stop the traveling block, and operate the elements on the bit face that reduce the coefficient of friction.
pipe-handler rotation. Drilling information can be displayed The rollers help maintain DOC control while reducing equipment
in real time, and compared to historical performance in order wear and tear. An operator using the bit to drill the Bakken
to consistently optimise weight on bit (WOB) and rate of formation in the Williston basin in North Dakota was able to drill
penetration (ROP). a horizontal well’s curve in just 14 hours, the fastest run in any
Operators prefer ADRs because they dramatically reduce well in the area.
non-productive time (NPT). A conventional rig may require
20 loads to move from site to site; comparable ADRs can have as Drill pipe
little as four, with the self-erecting mast and other components Aluminium drill pipe (ADP), is gaining prominence as the versatile
mounted onto trucks, trailers and skids. Some rigs that are material proves itself in demanding unconventional plays. ADP,
designed to drill multiple wells on the same pad use a hydraulic manufactured by Alcoa, Germany-based OFDS, and others, has
system in the substructure to ‘walk’ the rig at speeds of 3 - 10 m/hr a superior strength-to-weight ratio when compared to steel drill
between wells. These innovations can add 45 - 75 drilling days per pipe (SDP) of a similar size.
year compared to a conventional rig of similar capabilities. Because ADP is up to 40% lighter than SDP, friction from
ADRs also punch hole faster. According to Rystad Energy, contact between the drill string and borehole is minimised,
a consultancy, the average drilling speed in US shale plays has which in turn decreases torque and drag load and makes
increased almost 60%, from 500 ft/d in 2014 to nearly 800 ft/d in 2016. extended laterals easier to control.
Rig metrics are expected to improve dramatically when In a field experiment conducted in the Eagle Ford shale, four
the next generation of drill rig automation enters service. similar wells with 7000 ft laterals were tested with combinations
Precision Drilling, based in Calgary, recently announced that it of the two materials. ADP had significantly improved rates of
is moving forward with the full commercialisation of its process penetration and reduced torque in the lateral borehole compared
automation control (PAC) technology throughout its fleet. to SDP.
Traditionally, a rig crew makes thousands of decisions while a rig
is drilling a well. PAC offers an improvement in drilling efficiency, Mud
as it uses specialised applications to automatically make those Drilling mud has several functions, including reducing friction
decisions. The technology has been tested in over 70 wells, with and transporting cuttings to surface. Unfortunately, it can also
great success. penetrate reservoirs during drilling, causing damage. A team
“We expect this technology will generate 5 - 8% reduction of oil and gas professionals and researchers at the University
in drilling time for our customers and create an incremental of Calgary have come up with a series of clay nanoparticles
revenue stream for Precision while enhancing market share in that can be added to drilling mud in order to make drilling for
the competitive advantage for our Super Series rigs,” said Kevin hydrocarbons less expensive and more efficient, while reducing
Neveu, CEO of Precision Drilling, during a recent investors’ reservoir damage.
conference. One nanometre (nm) is equal to one billionth of a metre. At a
scale of 1 - 100 nm, particle properties are governed by quantum
Drill bits mechanics, as opposed to gravity and electro-magnetic forces.
The latest generation of drill-bits now contain moving parts to Calgary-based nFluid devised processes that produce bespoke,
enhance ROP and extend bit life. high-quality nano-compounds for drilling muds. Pilot clients
I N D U S T RY L E A D I N G
PERFORM ANCE &
V E R S ATI L IT Y
FOR OVER 49 YEARS
DO
D OB
BUSINESS
USINESS T HE SCIENTIFIC
THE WAY
INCREASING
MAGNETIC RANGING
ACCURACY
Georgy Rassadkin, Douglas Ridgway,
Clinton Moss, Scientific Drilling International,
USA and Canada, discuss increasing the
accuracy of magnetic ranging by using
simultaneous gyro referencing.
T
he results of magnetic ranging consist of the direction and distance to the target.
If directional survey data for a well, where the ranging tool is located, is available
and the well has some inclination, it is convenient to use gravity highside toolface
of the ranging system to define the direction to the target in the north-east vertical (NEV)
coordinate frame. The use of an azimuthal magnetic toolface is unacceptable because it will
not be accurate due to the magnetic interference coming from the target.
In order to make it possible to drill ahead, a typical industry practice is to run a
survey tool (such as a wireline gyro) and a ranging tool separately. Then, the azimuth
measurements from an independent gyro survey combined with a gravity highside toolface
of an independent ranging tool are used to define the direction of the ranging tool reference
axis in the NEV coordinate frame. This is a sufficient solution if the environment of the
measurements has significant inclination.
However, when the wellbore with a magnetic ranging tool is near vertical, the use of
the gravity highside toolface is problematic. There is no guarantee that both independent
systems will be positioned the same in a vertical well. A slight deviation in the position
will result in discrepancies in azimuth and lead to an incorrect ranging tool reference axis
representation within the NEV coordinate frame. Also, the gravity highside toolface is hardly
defined at vertical.
The solution to this problem is to combine and align both gyro and ranging systems
in one tool-string and use azimuthal gyro toolface to define the orientation of the ranging
probe within the world NEV coordinate frame.
| 19
Methodology
This article discusses the downhole ranging results of two distinct
magnetic ranging methods, where the magnetic sensor package has been
combined with a north-seeking rate gyro for direct determination of sensor
orientation.
Method 1
The first described method is a solenoid based ranging system. This
method was successfully used to drill a precisely parallel wellbore in close
proximity to a previously drilled vertical well. A total vertical depth of both
boreholes was about 500 m. The borehole separation was 5.8 m at surface
and requested to be 4.7 m (+/-0.65 m) centre-to-centre at TD.
Due to the tight tolerance set by the client, the drilling wellbore could
not be confidently positioned with respect to the reference well using
conventional survey methods. Even when the gyro-while-drilling system
was used to survey the drilling well, a 2 sigma error associated with
GWD surveys of the drilling well and MWD surveys of the reference well
could cause +/- 3 m positional uncertainty at TD, much higher than the
allowed tolerance (Figure 1). The ranging uncertainty in this case was only
Figure 1. Conventional survey position uncertainty. Reference well +/- 0.15 m.
(grey), drilling well (orange). The ranging system setup consisted of two major parts: the signal
receiving components located in a drilling well and the magnetic field
source located in a reference well. A sensor section of the receiving part
of the ranging system was based on the gyroMWD string consisted of a
tri-axial magnetometer package, a tri-axial accelerometer package, and a
north-seeking rate gyro package. All sensor sections were rigidly connected
and aligned with each other meaning all these components were set to the
same high-side reference (matching BHA scribe line).
Method 2
The second described method is at-bit-while-drilling ranging. The objective
of the job was to safely pass by a vertical well while drilling a horizontal
well in close proximity. The modelled 2 sigma uncertainty for the MWD
surveys (OWSG MWD+IFR2+MSA) at horizontal was so large (Figure 2) that
it would be impossible to confidently solve this problem without ranging.
The ranging system consisted of a magnetic field detecting probe
rigidly connected and aligned with a north-seeking rate gyro sensor
package located in the cased vertical well and a magnetic bit sub included
into a BHA located in the drilling well.
Conclusion
The results demonstrate that simultaneous gyro measurements can
improve magnetic ranging accuracy by up to ten-fold over previous
methods. The described technique is an effective solution when
magnetic ranging measurements need to be performed in a vertical
and magnetically perturbed environment. The applications for the Figure 4. Vertical well with the ranging assembly inside (blue). MWD
described technique include, but are not limited to, relief well drilling, surveyed path with ellipses (OWSG MWD+IFR2+MSA) – (blue). Ranged
plug and abandonment, collision avoidance/risk mitigation, civil and position oriented via interpolated prior survey (light grey). Ranged
mining projects. position oriented via simultaneous gyro measurements (dark grey).
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Colby Champagne and Katie Poché,
Frank’s International, USA, explore recent
developments in casing and drilling technology.
T
he confluence of a currently troubled market and the growing
trend of offshore reservoirs becoming deeper, some reaching
30 000 ft, has precipitated significant adaptations in the offshore
drilling sector. In search of solutions, deepwater operators have had to
reconcile the necessity of more complex (and expensive) well designs
within the framework of strict budgetary constraints. To that end,
operators are seeking technological innovations to improve traditional
drilling and completions techniques and yield more efficient and safer
operations.
Reviews of current practices indicate that certain procedures within
a drilling operation are inefficient and dangerous, thereby warranting
reconceptualisation. The transition from casing to drill pipe equipment,
for example, is fraught with time-consuming, high-risk activities.
Specifically, the techniques employed to land casing strings necessitate
switching bails and swapping casing handling equipment for drill pipe
| 23
handling equipment. Additionally, the casing fluid management
tool must be rigged down, and a drill pipe fluid management tool
must be rigged up in its stead.
Traditionally, the bail and tool change out requires at least
1 - 4 hrs to complete. On average, an hour of non-productive
time (NPT) costs deepwater operators US$42 000. Over the life
of a well, at this rate, landing several casing strings with their
associated NPT adds up to a substantial cost.
Another time-related issue pertains to how long the wellbore
is left open during the casing-to-drill pipe transition period.
Ideally, once the rig crew has begun running casing, advancing
the string to the bottom of the wellbore is achieved as quickly as
possible to minimise open-hole exposure. While swapping tools,
the wellbore is frequently left open for longer than an hour. The
longer a wellbore is left open, the more susceptible it becomes to
such mishaps as well degradation, wall damage, and filter cake
build-up. Such a setback could prove critical in that it may cause
the string to become lodged downhole or prevent the casing
from reaching the bottom of the well. Without casing to support
the hole, the risk of wellbore collapse greatly increases, along
with a potential cost to the operator in the millions of dollars.
In addition to exorbitant cost, the casing-to-drill pipe
transition period as currently executed carries a high degree
of safety risk. The rig-up/rig-down process regarding bails and
Figure 1. VERSAFLO tool in casing configuration. tools is one of the most dangerous tasks performed during
a deepwater drilling operation, due to the excessive manual
handling of equipment and the extended personnel exposure
within the red zone. The fact that four to six rig-hands are
required to execute this task – as opposed to only one or two
for connection make-up/break-out – compounds the risk factor.
In the Gulf of Mexico (GoM) region alone, from 2014 to 2016, an
average of 4.6 incidents occurred per year specifically during the
rig-up/rig-down process. Furthermore, 16% of all field incidents
in the GoM region take place during the casing-to-drill pipe
transition period.
Ì Rig up casing flow back tool and other casing Ì Rig up VERSAFLO tool and other casing handling of 6 ⅝ ft FH connection
handling equipment. equipment. landing string/drill pipe
Ì Run casing. Ì Run casing. followed by 74 stands of
Ì Rig down casing elevators – 30 minutes. Ì Rig down casing elevators – 30 minutes. the TT-585 connection size
Ì Rig down casing flow back tool – 20 minutes. Ì Remove casing adapter from VERSAFLO tool – 20 landing string/drill pipe
Ì Rig up drill pipe flowback tool – 30 minutes.
Ì
minutes. without the need to make
Ì Rig up drill pipe elevators – 20 minutes.
Ì
Rig up drill pipe elevators.
a cup change between
Ì Pick up and make up hangar.
Ì
Pick up and make up hangar.
the tapered string. In this
Ì Rig down casing spider.
Ì
Rig down casing spider.
case, the tool’s combined
Ì Rig up drill pipe spider.
Ì
Rig up drill pipe spider.
efficiency improvements
Ì Run landing string.
Run landing string.
resulted in a total RIH
RIH was found to take 10 - 13 minutes per stand of landing string/drill pipe
When using conventional methods, RIH was found to landing string.
take 17 - 19 minutes per stand of landing string. time savings of between
Break down: Break down: 12 and 14 hrs.
Ì Lift stand over stump and make up with iron Ì Lift stand over stump and make up with iron
Conclusion
roughneck. roughneck.
Ì Make stand up to the top drive. Ì Extend VERSAFLO tool shaft with extended range During this market
Ì RIH. packer cup seal into stand. downturn, and following
Ì Set slips. Ì RIH. the eventual recovery,
Ì Break off top drive from stand. Ì Set slips. operators will benefit
Ì Repeat. Ì Bleed off and retract VERSAFLO tool shaft. from new and advanced
Ì Change connection size of drill pipe. Ì Repeat. tools that offer improved
Ì Total time required to change over saver subs due Ì Rig down – 20 minutes. functionality, efficiency
to dismantle of the bell guides, gripper housing, Ì Remove packer cup assembly for drill pipe ID – and safety while reducing
reassembly and testing: 1 - 3 hrs. 2 minutes.
costs.
S
haped cutters for PDC bits are on the leading edge of advances bit, this in-depth understanding of drilling operations is driving the fine-
in drilling optimisation. Integrated, real world modelling and tuning of cutter geometries to meet demanding performance objectives.
testing are making unique cutter geometries a practical option This process depends on efficiently and reliably tying bit design
for fine-tuning bit performance. By precisely altering conventional to real world performance, so that R&D quickly translates to practical,
flat diamond tables, these shaped geometries change how the cutters low risk application. The complex development necessarily integrates
interact with the rock and create new opportunities for improving the full scope of bit design with rock modelling, drilling simulations,
drilling operations. and field data. With this capability, new ideas are explored, vetted, and
Two recent innovations include a concave high-efficiency shearing moved to the field with greater confidence and lower cost.
cutter and a raised profile, ridged cutter that ploughs the rock for A key component of the process is cutter design and ongoing
higher penetration rates. The two cutters are in the first phases of studies of how variations in geometry affect the cutter’s interaction
field-testing, including drilling in the competitive Delaware Basin in with the rock. Varel Oil & Gas Drill Bits is exploring a wide scope of
West Texas. Results from the rig support modelling and laboratory shaped cutters using its ‘Ideal Modeling Package and Cutter Technology
studies showing significant gains in efficiency and penetration rates. Suite’ (IMPACTS), lab tests, and field-testing.
| 27
Cutter geometry Angles of attack
Conventional planar cutters consist of a flat, two-dimensional PDC cutters are mounted on the bit body at a fixed relief angle. This
diamond table supported by a tungsten carbide substrate. In angle determines the angle at which the cutter face engages the
contrast, shaped cutter diamond tables have three-dimensional formation. The angles are typically the same: a 20˚ relief angle yields
geometry. Varel’s concave SCOOP™ and raised profile TRIFORCE™ a 20˚ back rake.
cutters illustrate the broad scope of shapes and cutting forces Back rake angle is specified at manufacture to achieve specific
being developed. The concave geometry uniquely varies cutter performance characteristics. A lower back rake angle is more
aggressiveness to produce a highly efficient shearing force for greater aggressive and typically used in softer formations. In harder
ROP. In contrast, a raised profile ridge improves ROP by focusing formations, a higher, less aggressive back rake angle helps reduce
energy to deeply fracture the rock. vibration and cutter damage at the cost of lower ROP. However, back
rake is limited by constraints on the relief angle: too low and the
substrate of the cutter can be exposed to life-limiting wear; too high
and ROP suffers.
Hard or soft rock, the fixed back rake typically makes ROP gains
increasingly less efficient because a greater depth of cut (DOC) that
removes more rock requires increasingly more mechanical specific
energy (MSE).
Shaped geometries improve efficiency and other performance
characteristics by altering how vertical and shearing forces are
applied to the formation. The two new cutters do this primarily
by varying the effective back rake with DOC, or by pinpointing
force. Both approaches change the optimal cutter back rake angle
compared to flat cutters. Studies show a 5˚ change in back rake
generally produces a greater reaction force than with flat cutters. The
optimal back rake of the shaped cutters is higher (less aggressive) at
20˚ or more compared to the typical 12 to 15˚. The result is a gain in
efficiency that produces a higher ROP for an equivalent weight on bit.
Figure 1. The concave SCOOP cutter improves efficiency with a variable Effective back rake
effective back rake depending on the depth of cut. Concave SCOOP cutters eliminate the fixed link between relief angle
and back rake angle. While the cutter’s relief angle is fixed, its concave
geometry produces an effective back rake that varies depending on
the DOC. The radius of the concave surface describes this changing
back rake angle relative to the point at which the cutter contacts the
formation – the DOC. A cutter with a fixed relief angle of 20˚ may
have a back rake of between 0 and 20˚ across its concave radius. As
the cutter shears deeper into the rock, its concave face presents a
progressively higher effective back rake for high-efficiency shearing
force. As a result, greater ROP is achieved with the same weight on
bit.
The concave cutter also optimises back rake without
compromising the relief angle. For example, at an initial 2 mm DOC,
the effective back rake is equal to 5˚. Doing this with a traditional flat
cutter would dictate a 5˚ relief angle. This angle would soon expose
Figure 2. The raised profile TRIFORCE cutter improves ROP by focusing and wear the carbide substrate, generating a large reaction force and
force on a single point to deeply fracture the rock. heat that would accelerate cutter wear.
Figure 3. A polished point highlights the focused force of the TRIFORCE cutter in before (left) and after images during tests.
A global industry
requires a global
publication
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Figure 4. The concave cutter efficiency advantage in vertical and shear forces improved with DOC, as shown by the diverging lines.
N
and Sachin Rajadhyaksha & Meghan Paulson,
V
H
ole cleaning has always been a challenge while drilling high angle or horizontal wells. Prior to tripping
out of a horizontal well, effective hole cleaning is essential to reduce the risk of stuck pipe while
tripping out with the BHA and running the casing/liner to bottom. Typically, high angle/horizontal
wells are drilled in the laminar flow regime. As a result, the flow rate is not sufficient to stir up the cuttings that
are laying on the low side of the wellbore. Therefore, in order to achieve effective hole cleaning, additional
energy is required in the form of high speed rotation.
Many unconventional horizontal wells utilise rotary steerable tools with a downhole motor, to drill the
lateral section. Once off bottom, rotating with high surface RPM (in addition to motor generated RPM)
has caused significant damage and/or failure of downhole tools as result of high lateral
vibrations. Furthermore, rotating big bend setting motors for extended periods
of time with high RPM has also proven to be damaging
to the motor and has
| 31
caused LIH incidents. This introduces additional well cost in the form of A flow bypass tool above the BHA will ensure that a higher
tool repairs, additional trips. flowrate can be achieved by eliminating the BHA (motor, MWD and
If it were possible to increase the flow rate to a point where the RSS) and bit pressure losses from the circulating system providing
flow regime in the annulus converts from laminar to a turbulent the hydraulics capability. Additionally, since the high flowrate
regime, the turbulent flow itself would be sufficient to stir up the will not be seen by the BHA components, they are not required
cuttings from the low side of the wellbore to achieve the hole to be designed for these high flowrates. Once at TD or prior to
cleaning objective. This would ensure that additional energy in a trip, this bypass tool can be activated to increase the flowrate
the form of high off bottom surface RPM is no longer required for above the critical velocity to achieve turbulent flow in the annulus
hole cleaning, cutting down the additional well cost as result of and thus provide effective hole cleaning without inducing and
tool failures/damages. However, this is usually not possible due to damage/failure to the BHA.
BHA and hydraulics limitations that prevent pumping at very high
flowrates. Turbulent flow
The Reynolds number (NRe) is a dimensionless number that is used
to determine whether a fluid is in laminar or turbulent flow.
Where:
V – Annular velocity.
ρ – Fluid density.
τw – Shear stress at the wall.
The critical Reynolds number which indicates the onset of
turbulence is calculated based on the below:
Figure 1. PBL activation procedure. Drilling mode flow to bit (left), vinyl
activation ball seated (centre), open position flow through ports (right).
Where, n – Power law index.
The power law index is based upon the FANN 35 curve which
will determine what Reynolds number is required to achieve the
transition from laminar to turbulent.
As a general rule of thumb, a Reynolds number of >2100 is
required to achieve the transition and >3000 is required to achieve a
fully turbulent regime.
The Reynolds number is dictated by the following parameters:
Ì Drilling fluid density.
h The higher the density, the higher the Reynolds number.
Ì Fluid rheology.
h The lower the viscosity (thinner the fluid), the higher the
resultant Reynolds number.
Figure 2. PBL de-activation procedure. Steel de-activation balls Ì Annular velocity.
dropped and pumped down pressure up (left), balls sheared through h The smaller the annular flow area, the higher the Reynolds
seat tool reset (centre), drilling mode flow to bit (right). number for a flowrate (sensitive to hole washouts).
h The higher the flow rate, the higher the Reynolds number.
Considerations
To design for turbulent flow as a primary means of hole cleaning, the
following things need to be considered in the well design:
Ì Hydraulics – The pressure losses should be calculated to
determine the highest flow rate possible with the bypass sub.
Ì Rheology – The low-end mud rheology (Fann 35 100, 6 and 3 rpm
values) should be designed to be as thin as possible. This thinned
mud rheology is not required while drilling the high angle section
and can be achieved towards the end of the section prior to
circulating the hole clean.
Ì Reynolds number – The Reynolds number should be calculated
to determine if turbulent flow can be achieved and its sensitivity
to changes in mud rheology and hole size. If the hole is
excessively over gauged turbulent flow might not be achievable.
Ì ECD impact – The higher flowrates after opening the bypass sub
will result in a significantly higher ECD. The ECD impact should
be calculated and evaluated against the minimum fracture
Figure 3. Fast Ball (left). Fast Dart (centre). Split Flow (right). gradient in order to avoid losses.
Ì Tool will close when pumps are turned off. Flow rate 250 gpm 375 gpm
Ì Large no-gos to allow third party ball passage. Standpipe Pressure 5984 psi 6084 psi
Ì Autolock option to trip dry pipe. Mud weight 16.05 ppg 16.05 ppg
Ì 100% fluid bypass when activated. ECD 16.90 ppg 17.73 ppg
and extended reach wells. The Split Flow Dart option is designed Annular Flow Regime (across 4 in. DP) Laminar Turbulent
to enhance hole cleaning ability while not pumping excessive fluid
Table 2. Case Study 2.
through the MWD/LWD, RSS (rotary steerable system), drilling
Drilling PBL activation
motor or drill bit causing possible washouts and difficulty steering.
(flow through BHA) (BHA bypassed)
Additionally, it provides a cooling effect on sensitive components
Flow rate 250 gpm 400 gpm
of the BHA, thus helping reduce the detrimental effect of the
bottomhole temperature. This simple and reliable system can save Standpipe Pressure 5400 psi 4560 psi
operators large amount of rig time, reduce BHA damage and repair Mud weight 12.50 ppg 12.50 ppg
costs, and result in overall cost savings (Figure 3). ECD 16.14 ppg 20.00 ppg
Case Study 2
US land well drilled
to 10 000 ft MD
(5000 ft TVD) in
6 ⅛ in. hole size – 7 in.
casing set at 4000
ft MD. The 6 ⅛ in.
hole was drilled with Figure 4. PBL application - hole cleaning - Figure 5. PBL application - hole cleaning .
Motor + RSS BHA drilling scenario - 6 3/4 in. hole run no. 3 .
34 |
oday’s well completions and interventions present unique challenges as operators
move to more remote locations, logistical issues, high-pressure high-temperature
(HPHT) wells, complex subsea and wellbore conditions have demanded new and
innovative technologies. With the current economic environment in the industry today,
more than ever before, producers want to reduce risk, increase completion efficiencies
and maximise production, all of which must be done at lower cost. TETRA Technology has
developed a range of technologies to help operators meet these challenges.
| 35
Completion fluid case study oil based mud (SOBM) was displaced without any fluid property
The fluid was employed in the Gulf of Mexico on four deterioration. The fluid was tolerant to low levels of seawater
ultra-deepwater completions where the operator was unable contamination, with fluid clarity equal to that of a standard brine,
to produce into a host facility without removing zinc from the staying at a nephelometric turbidity unit (NTU) measurement below
production stream. Alternative solutions, such as extended 5. The operator also used it as a packer fluid.
flowback to temporary storage or caesium formate, were not viable
cost-effective options. The job required 14.5 - 15.0 ppg completion Combination with CaCl2
brine, for use at a well depth of 30 000 ft (9150 m) in a water depth The completion fluid with calcium chloride added was developed
of more than 7200 ft (2200 m) and a seabed temperature of 39˚F to solve the problem of using and storing higher density calcium
(3.8˚C). The completions were installed successfully, and the chloride in low temperature environments. It is a solids-free brine
fluid performed as designed with no issues during 15 000 psi BOP and can be formulated to densities up to 11.8 ppg and a TCT down
test, including no problems with true crystallisation temperature to < -40˚F. The fluid can also be formulated as a reservoir drilling
(TCT) or pressure crystallisation temperature (PCT) throughout fluid. This allows operations the opportunity to continue the use
well operations. The completion fluid displayed no compatibility of higher density calcium chloride year-round without having to
issues with lost circulation material, polymers and the synthetic convert to higher cost bromide fluids. The fluid system can be
delivered in liquid form, or can be blended onsite into the operator’s
existing fluid by adding TETRA’s Galatea™ additive.
Developments
While the current generation of this completion fluid system can
be produced up to a density of 15.4 ppg and covers a large portion
of the global well density requirements. TETRA is in the final
phases of the development of the next generation systems to meet
ever-increasing well density requirements. TETRA CS Neptune HDD
completion fluid system is capable of a density up to 15.7 ppg and
the XHDD completion fluid system will push the density limit up to
17.0 ppg.
The HDM completion fluid system is a monovalent version of the
fluid system that will meet the operator density requirements up to
13.2 ppg when a divalent fluid is not compatible with the reservoir.
Case study
An operator in the Gulf of Mexico requested a solution to displace
a 17.3 ppg diesel oil-based mud (OBM) system with 17.2 ppg zinc
bromide based completion fluid on a platform in 380 ft of water. The
wellbore consisted of a tapered casing string with 9 7/8 in. and 7 5/8 in.
casing with a 5 1/2 in. liner, with a measured depth of 19 370 ft and a
maximum deviation of 30˚. The well was displaced using a tapered
work string of 5 in. pipe, 3 1/2 in. pipe and 2 7/8 in. pipe, bit and casing
scrapers. The drilling rig had minimal completion fluid pit capacity,
so solids removal and filtration efficiency were critical factors.
Figure 3. BOP jelling tool post displacement.
To reduce risks and operating costs, the operator requested
a system that would maximise displacement efficiency and
Table 1. TETRA OilFix filtration service calculator.
minimise post-displacement fluid system clean up.
A direct displacement using the fluid blend was Volume to filter (bbls) 2904
recommended, followed by completion fluid treated with ZCB
– a mixture of polymers designed for use in zinc bromide-based Oil and grease content (mg/L) 423.00
completion fluids.
Pounds per barrel oil and grease (lb/bbl) 0.1481
The ZCB-treated completion fluid following the TADS spacer
train successfully agglomerated and transported fine solids Total pounds of oil to be removed (lb) 429.9372
to the shale-shakers for removal of the flocculated solids. The
TETRA O-LoK C required (lb) 215
solids reduction prior to DE filtration resulted in longer filtration
38 |
Building
Better
Mousetraps
W
hile it is up for debate whether he actually said it, Ralph in poorly consolidated or salt formations. In lost circulation scenarios, the
Waldo Emerson is attributed with the quote: “Build a better high viscosity at low shear limits fluid invasion as EnerSEAL enters narrow
mousetrap, and the world will beat a path to your door.” As fractures and thickens (Figure 3).
the unconventional market demands cost-saving innovation, companies
are seeking the next great idea to further lower costs and improve Direct emulsions
performance. Historically, direct emulsion systems were employed to drill depleted,
One can imagine any number of revolutionary chemistries in a loss-prone regions by reducing the mud weight below that of water. These
research lab, but the greatest impacts for today’s market build upon the systems feature a water-continuous phase with a dispersed oil phase,
promising technology of the past that failed to mature or never found typically diesel or mineral oil that reduces the overall density of the fluid. A
the right application. Innovative reinvention of these building blocks has stabilising surfactant maintains the dispersion to prevent separation of the
resulted in millions of dollars saved through faster drilling, reduced losses two immiscible phases.
and elimination of casing intervals. Direct emulsion applications, such as those in depleted reservoirs,
were cost-sensitive. The inclusion of an expensive non-aqueous phase
Mixed metal hydroxide (MMH) made utilisation unattractive even with the opportunity to mitigate losses.
From their introduction nearly 30 years ago, MMH systems offered In many projects, a few wells employed a direct emulsion system, only to
exciting fluid properties: low pump pressures, excellent hole cleaning, and revert back to drilling with water as a cheaper option.
resistance to lost circulation all with highly favourable health, safety and Direct emulsion systems faded into the background with periodic
environmental profiles. While MMH demonstrated promise, limitations requests and a similar adoption and abandonment cycle for depleted
quickly became apparent. Improper treatment or contaminants reservoirs and other loss-prone formations. The Permian Basin presented a
irreversibly disrupted the MMH network, resulting in a near-instantaneous unique challenge where a direct emulsion system would help with density
collapse of suspension properties, which transformed the shear thinning control, but in this case as a saturated salt system to drill through a salt
fluid and gave it water-like characteristics. One failed system in the field section.
was sufficient to eliminate MMH as an acceptable fluid option for most While the concept remains, the surfactant chemistry to address these
operators. concerns required further development. Surfactants feature an oil-soluble
An MMH system works through the charge interaction between MMH tail end and a water-soluble head which lowers the surface tension
crystals and clay platelets. This charge interaction facilitates its unique between the insoluble phases. In the old freshwater systems, plenty of free
properties where at high shear, viscosity remains relatively low, while at water made identifying properly soluble surfactants a simple task. With a
low shear, viscosity is high (Figure 1). saturated salt system, new surfactant chemistry was required to ensure
MMH technology always demonstrated great potential but addressing fluid stability (Figure 4).
the drawbacks appeared insurmountable as the industry returned to Extensive testing of a number of surfactants and surfactant blends
generic systems. Ultimately, the discovery of an inhibitor package enabling led to the development of the EnerLITE direct emulsion system, enabling
MMH systems to tolerate a wide variety of contaminants revitalised a once simultaneous density control and salt inhibition. The system enables
dormant technology. With the introduction of the EnerSEAL MMH system, it the elimination of a casing string isolating a salt formation layer, helping
is possible to address challenges that benefit from MMH properties without reduce drilling time, material costs, and waste volumes. This also
the potential failure mechanisms that limited widespread adoption. removes the necessity of earthen pits, which are prohibited in many
Figure 2 compares a conventional MMH system against EnerSEAL areas.
with 0.25 lb/bbl lignite contamination. Note the dramatic reduction in
rheological properties for the conventional system. It is this stability that Low clay systems
opens mixed metal hydroxide technology to new applications. As laterals extend further, the window between drilling equivalent
EnerSEAL is well suited for challenging hole-cleaning scenarios, circulating density (ECD) and fracture gradient narrows in key formations.
including milling and large diameter deviated wellbores. Another key Customers continue to investigate the potential for longer and longer
benefit is the limited turbulence at the wellbore face to reduce washout wells as rig capabilities and drilling optimisation improvements make the
| 39
concept a potential reality. To improve hole-cleaning in longer laterals,
many rigs have upgraded pumps to 7500 psi. This accounts for the friction
pressure loss across a longer drill string and wellbore, but the fracture
gradient of the formation remains the same. Lower ECD becomes more
critical as elevated pressure requirements draw closer to the strength of
the formation.
In the offshore market, clay-free and low-clay systems boast minimal
ECDs, particularly as they relate to the temperature variations between
the seabed and downhole. While the unconventional market does not
Figure 1. Left: MMH crystals adhere to the bentonite platelets by ionic
face these conditions, minimising organophilic clay additives aids to lower
exchange in which the naturally occurring cations on bentonite are
exchanged with MMH. This forms a strong association on the face of the clay ECDs through a reduction in overall solids within the system. Introduction
platelets. Right: The MMH complex entangles a network of clay platelets. The of polymeric viscosifiers provides sufficient rheology for hole-cleaning
electrostatic charge maintaining the network readily breaks with shear. This without the elevated plastic viscosity found with excess clay additions.
is what provides the unique rheological properties of MMH systems. The EnerREACH low-clay system was developed with a new viscosifier
to provide the necessary suspension and control ECDs where necessary
– customised to the demands of the land market. Key design elements
include contaminant tolerance, compatibility with base fluids, and system
reuse before dilution. This technology was designed to account for the
demands of land with inspiration from offshore.
The toolbox
Last year, a technology company called Juicero, which had raised over
US$120 million to produce a machine that squeezed fresh juice from
individual packets, closed its doors. During a product review, it turned out
that hand-squeezing the packets made the same quality juice – in less
time. The machine was a classic case of a solution looking for a problem.
There is not one single fluid solution for all of the drilling challenges.
It is essential to have the right tools in the toolbox for any number of
requirements and optimise system properties for well conditions.
Information is critical to identify the best available option. From there,
Figure 2. Conventional MMH versus EnerSEAL rheology at 120˚F with 0.25 laboratory testing, hydraulic simulation, and a mud programme define the
lb/bbl of lignite. best properties and contingency plans.
Summary
A look towards fluid solutions of the past has inspired new solutions for
today. Research will continue on ‘blue-sky’ innovation, but reviewing
Figure 4. Left: A surfactant features a hydrophobic (oil-loving) tail and a promising technologies and addressing their unsolved issues proves
hydrophilic (water-loving) head. Right: The new approach with the EnerLITE an effective pipeline to added value for customers. These technologies
system was to feature a surfactant that created a stable dispersion of oil in continue to deliver when matched with the right applications and the right
saturated brine versus older freshwater systems. people in the field to ensure success.
FASTER,
are improving the safety
and efficiency of drilling
operations.
GREENER
C
rude oil prices fell sharply since
July 2014 from a level of about
US$110/bbl to approximately
US$30 - 35, rising to US$60/bbl
in late 2017. As a result, major
oil and gas companies have
postponed investments in high
cost exploration projects and
are searching for new ways to shape
their future. Although crude oil prices are
slowly recovering, innovation aimed at improving
efficiencies is needed more than ever before and
developing new technologies is crucial to bringing down
exploration and production costs. The focus on customer needs
creates an ongoing demand for technical solutions that are safer,
smarter, cheaper, and more efficient.
Often it is a completely new solution, sometimes a simple
‘no-brainer’. However, the focus should always be on improving the
process on board: faster, easier and safer, with the ultimate aim to
make operations profitable. With current oil prices, it is crucial to
achieve cost reductions. With this knowledge in mind, technologies
are being developed that should allow operators to keep producing
offshore oil and gas in a viable manner, well into the future.
| 41
real and effective opportunities. With this in mind, Huisman developed sub-structure, making the entire drilling system roughly 15 m lower on a
so-called ‘robotic manipulators’, which are connected to a drilling tower. drill ship than was previously possible. This way, the disadvantages of a
These manipulators should be seen as robots equipped with a range of higher drill tower and the related centre of gravity are eliminated.
tools controlled by a computer. Human thought and action are completely
excluded. For example, the computer is instructed to run 5000 ft of pipe in A new generation
the borehole and start. No further action is needed by the crew. In cooperation with drilling contractors and operators, Huisman has
Another solution is, for example, the running of longer drill pipe demonstrated that the implementation of the 180 ft stands in combination
stands. Drill ships usually run stands of 90 ft or 135 ft. Huisman introduced with automation can result in 20 - 30% timesavings compared to a
running of 180 ft stands. Longer stands have two advantages: fewer traditional system. When a drilling operation of approximately 100 days
drilling connections and higher tripping speeds. Today it is possible to can be reduced to 70/75 days, significant savings can be realised. In the
automatically trip at 5600 ft/hr. A handling system suited to run these future, it is envisioned that fewer people will be required on board drill
lengths and speeds has also been developed. ships. Although precise personnel reductions cannot yet be given, it is clear
Simply adding computers and robotics to a traditional drilling system that automation will pave the way for reduced manpower. Automation
is not the best approach to automation, however. One has to start with will also require a different type of human being with new skill sets. In
the process and then design the process such that it can be automated. the offshore industry a shift is being seen in crews on board. Veterans
So Huisman has critically and thoroughly studied the entire pipe handling are leaving due to attrition and new crews are forming from a relatively
process around the drill tower. Work was begun under the premise that young generation that just left their PlayStation surroundings to come
if a system were designed around a process, then the end result would on-board. This younger generation does not consist of men connecting
automatically be more efficient. The study resulted in development of pipes with huge wrenches but of well-educated young people who have
a new handling method, not only using a new design of drill tower for grown up with the phenomenon of automation. An example of this was on
180 ft stands of pipe, but also a design that eliminated the conventional a drillship featuring Huisman’s Multi-Purpose Tower. The tower is designed
to maximise productivity and safety. During a recent project off the coast
of Brazil, the drilling system was managed by two men just in their thirties.
The duo knew exactly how the system worked and how they could operate
it to get the maximum efficiency. The entire operation went flawlessly and
significant time savings were realised, something many operators can only
dream of nowadays.
Testing
It is a challenging time for the newest generation drill ships, which are and
will become idle as operators postpone drilling in anticipation of better
times. Due to the large amount of available drill ships it has become a
fierce market in which day rates are put under pressure. Similar to the
philosophy of Huisman, contractors should, therefore, differentiate
themselves by offering the very latest generation drilling systems with the
latest in time saving and safe automation. That may be in the form of new
Figure 1. Huisdrill 12000 with flush deck fore to aft and Dual build ship or by a major retrofit of an existing ship. With an installation of
Multi-Purpose tower with 180 ft stands and robotic manipulators. a completely new, safe and cost-effective drilling system, the vessel will
be able to fully comply with the requirements oil companies will demand
for efficient operations. The challenge now is to prove in practice what
was claimed in theory. Drillers want to see first before they buy. That is
why Huisman recently built a full-scale 90 m high fully automated drilling
tower, capable of handling 55 m (180 ft) stands and 46 m (150 ft) risers and
with the ability to simulate dynamic vessel movements at its production
facility in Schiedam, the Netherlands: the Huisman Innovation Tower (HIT).
All the new automated systems and equipment are implemented on the
HIT, so they can undergo thorough testing in a simulated real operational
environment.
Conclusion
The HIT has demonstrated fully automated tripping speeds of greater
than 5600 ft/hr with 180 ft stands of drill pipe, all while swaying the tower
in dynamic mode +/-2% to simulate real operational conditions. Future
testing includes the introduction of a modular top drive system that
by-passes the load path around the top drive for drilling/running casing
and an efficient iron roughneck that is aimed at setting the new standards
for precise tubular make-up and break-out in semi and fully automated
modes. The idea behind the HIT tower is to be able to fully vet new
innovations in near-real operational conditions. This will allow operators
to not only witness testing protocols but to gain hands-on experience
Figure 2. Huisman Innovation Tower, HIT, located in Schiedam, the and prompt future innovations aimed at safely increasing operational
Netherlands. efficiencies and reducing well delivery costs.
W
ellbore isolation is critical during all phases of production, as well as during interventions.
Unfortunately, conventional flow-control methods frequently fail to obtain a high-integrity
seal when deployed in mature wells where the nipple profile is damaged. In fact, the
average success rate of conventional methods in these applications is only around 40%.
The primary reason for this high rate of failure is that traditional completion
installations require nipple profiles, which are pre-installed within a completion string
and have accompanying locks to isolate wellbores. This setup introduces a few major
challenges. For example, the nipple profiles in conventional flow-control tools create
44 |
restrictions in wellbores. Additionally, as wells age, easy run-in and retrieval even in extreme environments.
corrosion and erosion damage and wear down nipple The plug is available for tubing sizes from 3.5 to 7 in.
profiles and cause locks to fail. and can be deployed using industry-standard setting
For these reasons, the long-term integrity of locks has tools on any conveyance method – slickline, electric
historically been a challenge throughout the industry. line, wireline, or coiled tubing (CT) – for operational
Because of the poor track record of conventional flexibility and efficiency. Most operations use slickline
flow-control methods, operators are increasingly and a non-explosive setting tool, which means that these
switching to an alternative qualified barrier system that interventions are typically completed within 24 hours.
has significantly higher success rates as well as the added The large slip area distributes stress evenly throughout
flexibility of setting barriers anywhere within the tubing the tubing as the slip system engages and anchors into the
string, independent of a nipple profile. tubing, which minimises the risk of tubing damage. The
A new standard method for isolating wellbores is to optimal slip-to-casing contact also reduces the possibility
install monobore completions and use retrievable bridge of deformation to the slips. An extended slip retainer
plugs. Retrievable plugs are not associated with the increases stability during deployment and retrieval.
inherent problems of nipple profiles and locks. However, The multi-durometer packing element system has a
until now, the maximum pressure rating for a retrievable primary sealing element as well as back-up elements that
plug has been 7500 psi (51.7 MPa). As production continues seal the extrusion gap between the outside of the plug
to expand into more challenging environments and the and the inside of the casing. The body lock rings retain the
number of high-rate gas wells grows, operators require hydrostatic boost system pressure within the element and
a retrievable well barrier that can withstand extreme prevent the plug from moving once it has set and sealed.
operational demands while avoiding nonproductive time. All of this contributes to a reliable, V0-rated seal that holds
pressure from above and below for the duration of any
DEVELOPING A RETRIEVABLE WELL BARRIER operation, and protects the bidirectional, low-stress slip
FOR EXTREME CONDITIONS system from debris contamination.
In 2016, Weatherford decided to develop a retrievable Another key aspect of the new plug is the retrieval
well barrier with an expanded operational envelope. The method. The majority of retrievable plugs release in
R&D team began by looking at ways to improve the overall response to upward force. However, this creates a
design. potentially dangerous situation. During an operation,
Unlike comparable technologies available for pressure can accumulate and become trapped underneath
high-pressure, high-temperature (HPHT) wells, this new the plug, and when the plug is pulled up, operators risk an
plug does not require any restriction-creating nipple uncontrolled release of hydrocarbons.
profiles for setting and sealing within the completion Instead, the new plug has a built-in safety feature that
string. The result is a monobore barrier. requires two steps: first shifting down to equalise pressure
The plug has five components: a slip system that below and above the plug, and then jarring up to release
anchors the plug to the tubing; body lock rings to retain and retrieve the plug. A standard retrieval tool is run into
the setting pressure; an element system that provides an the wellbore and latches onto the plug. This shifts the
enhanced seal; an inner mandrel that facilitates setting, internal sleeve of the plug downward to the open position
pressure equalisation, and retrieval by means of an internal and enables the differential pressure to flow, where it is
sleeve; and an outer mandrel to which all components are equalised into the wellbore by means of a flow area in a
rotationally locked. controlled operation. At this point, the plug remains in the
This simple, robust, single-chassis design helps set position.
minimise moving parts and makes the plug suited for The plug has a large inside diameter (ID) to
remote, hostile environments, where field redress and accommodate the pressure-equalisation process. The
repairs must be performed independent of an assembly flow area entering and exiting through the ports exceeds
facility. Furthermore, the plug can easily be modified for the flow area of the plug ID for debris tolerance in
different tubing sizes at the wellsite using a conversion kit. overbalanced applications. Once pressure below and
Next, the team looked at the most common above the plug are equal, no force can blow the plug up
applications that would require this plug and determined or down the well and cause a potentially catastrophic loss
the optimal size and conveyance methods to meet operator of well control. A straight upward pull using as little as
needs. The small maximum outside diameter (OD) of the 3000 lb (1361 kg) of force releases the plug and causes the
new plug enables smooth passage through typical wellbore slip system to retract. This minimal force enables the use
restrictions without catching and becoming stuck, or of slickline for retrieval. As a result of these features, the
snapping the wire used in conveyance. This allows for retrieval process can be completed within just hours.
®
MAGAZINE
Comprehensive, technical and analytical coverage
of the fertilizer sector worldwide.
Figure 1. The ISO Extreme retrievable well barrier is qualified to ISO 14310 V0 standards for gas-tight isolation.
I
n industries characterised by extreme operating environments that push materials, components,
equipment and tools to the edge of their design capabilities, companies are challenged to continually
seek economically viable ways to improve performance, safety and competitiveness.
From sour service and high pressure high temperature (HPHT) finds to shale and deepwater plays,
oil and gas operators are increasingly moving into new, remote and hostile frontiers, which by their
very nature present significant challenges.
For example, bearing the brunt of shock loads and high pressures, components can
become deformed, causing fracture, chipping and catastrophic equipment malfunction.
In addition, seawater, sour oil and gas containing aggressive H2S, other grades of crude
containing CO2, and acidic fluids can quickly cause corrosive attacks which, especially when
48 |
combined with abrasion or erosion, can significantly accelerate to attack the substrate. Sealing can improve the corrosion
corrosion and lead to the premature failure of parts and tools. performance, but there are several limitations including – in the
case of organic sealants – maximum use temperature.
ENGINEERING A SOLUTION Plus, as the coating wears, deeper, previously-concealed
Existing coating alternatives range from high velocity pores that were not sealed will eventually open.
oxy-fuel (HVOF), hard chrome plating (HCP) and physical The pore-free CVD coating’s performance was confirmed
vapour deposition (PVD) to emerging processes such as in accordance with ASTM B117-07a standard. Here, mild steel
electroless-nickel composite plating and explosive bonding. plates were coated with HCP, HVOF, and CVD coatings, and were
However, although successful in some applications, each subjected to 480 hour neutral salt spray tests. The HCP samples
has its limitations. were badly corroded and were removed from test after just
The Hardide-T chemical vapor deposition (CVD) coating 288 hours of exposure. HVOF-coated samples showed heavy
– typically used in the oil and gas industry – is proven to rust stains and the coating blistered due to intensive corrosion
outperform these alternatives in a number of critical areas. of the steel plate beneath. The CVD samples showed only light
This coating belongs to a novel family of nano-structured staining.
tungsten/tungsten carbide coatings that are used on Unlike soft anti-corrosion coatings, CVD offers the
components subjected to high levels of wear, erosion, additional benefit of enhanced wear and erosion resistance in
corrosion, galling and shock loading. temperatures up to 750˚F, beyond the capabilities of organic
The coating can be used in applications calling for smooth coatings and sealants.
external and internal surfaces, and on many complex shapes,
including downhole tools, fraccing tools, retrievable packers, GALLING PREVENTION
actuators, control valves and subsea pumps. The CVD tungsten carbide coating’s galling resistance was
The CVD coatings are crystallised atom-by-atom from tested using a Phoenix TE77 high-frequency reciprocating test
low-pressure gas media, producing a uniform, pore-free coating rig.
which does not need to be sealed. The absence of porosity is a The test uses the reciprocating dry sliding movement of
result of the highly mobile reaction products filling micropores a cylinder on a flat plate with loads gradually increasing from
and defects in the coating as it grows. 10 N up to 800 N – equivalent to 810.2 MPa contact pressure –
The gas phase of the CVD process enables internal surfaces and monitors the coefficient of friction (CoF), where above 1.0
and complex designs to be coated, which allows this technique indicates severe galling.
to coat non-line-of-sight surfaces and geometries where In comparison with a baseline control test using a stainless
alternative spray coatings cannot be used. steel pin, which was stopped due to sample seizure after
The dispersed tungsten carbide nanoparticles give the reaching critical 1.0 CoF quickly with just a 65 N load when
material enhanced hardness, which can be controlled and a CVD-coated pin was tested against a coated plate, the dry
tailored to give a typical range of between 800 and 1600 Vickers friction coefficient remained low, stablilising at around 0.2.
hardness (HV) for different coating types. The CVD coating is Importantly, no galling was observed even under the
typically applied at a thickness of 50 microns (0.002 in.). maximum load this test rig could produce.
IMPROVED
PERFORMANCE
In testing, the CVD coating
outperforms alternatives in areas
including enhanced protection
against corrosion, wear, erosion,
acids, and other chemically
aggressive media. It also displays
improved fatigue life and
toughness.
DURABAND®NC
wear, corrosion, and erosion were all
critical. Plus, the coating needed to be
durable, and be able to be polished to
an extremely smooth finish.
All these properties were crucial to
preserving the tool’s metal-to-metal
seal, which needed to operate
reliably over hundreds of cycles in
CONCLUSION ~
Less Tripping
In industries like oil and gas where
components are pushed to the extreme,
companies need to continually seek
~
Less Downtime
ways to safely improve performance.
Providing exceptional wear and ~
More
corrosion resistance combined with
toughness and ductility, increasing Productivity
wear and erosion resistance, CVD
coatings add value to components and
reduce operational costs by saving
downtime, and increasing productivity.
Outperforming other alternatives,
and using new materials technology,
these coatings are a significant advance
www.hardbandingsolutions.com
hbs400@hardbandingsolutions.com
February 2018 Oilfield Technology | 51
UNDERWATER
INNOVATION
JOHN SMYTHE, FAIRFIELDNODAL, USA, EXPLAINS HOW SAFETY, EFFICIENCY
AND DATA QUALITY DRIVES THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW TECHNOLOGY IN
OCEAN BOTTOM NODES.
S
eismic acquisition using ocean bottom nodes (OBN) has seen steady growth since the first
commercial surveys in 2004. Although conceptually simple, nodes are highly engineered
autonomous seismic recording devices that feature a housing (rated for depth down to
4000 m), an accurate atomic clock, four component sensor package, lithium-ion batteries and
flash memory data storage. OBN systems are not burdened with cables or connectors, a
weakness in ocean bottom cable (OBC) systems that is often associated with technical
downtime maintenance.
Once deployed, nodes are capable of continuously recording seismic data for
extended periods, sometimes months, during which time the sources are towed and
52 |
activated at the sea surface. With precise knowledge of the the ability to repeat a subsequent monitor survey. In the
source activation time (from a ship board GPS reference case of deepwater OBN acquisition, receiver positions are
time), synchronised with a precision internal atomic clock precisely reoccupied by node deployment using remotely
in the node, the individual seismic records can be extracted operated vehicles. 4D repeatability also benefits from
upon node retrieval and readied for further processing. ‘carpet-type’ shooting as source positioning constraints
However, the type of node and method of deployment and can be relaxed in very high-density OBN source geometries.
retrieval differ depending on water depth. FairfieldNodal’s The reliability of node positioning, improved access around
Z3000™ deepwater nodes are large, delivered to the surface obstructions and superior image differentiates OBN
seafloor with a high-speed loader (HSL), and subsequently from any other acquisition system for 4D seismic.
transferred to a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) for
deployment on a pre-planned grid designed to meet the SHALLOW WATER OBN: INCREASED
survey’s imaging objectives. In shallow water, smaller Z700® EFFICIENCIES DRIVE NODE TECHNOLOGY
nodes are deployed to the seafloor and retrieved using an DEVELOPMENT
acoustically monitored passive rope. ZXPLR™ is a new node The market realities of recent years have motivated oilfield
capable of deployment in deep or shallow water, and is operators to focus on maximising the productive capacity of
designed to enhance safety, efficiency and scalability of OBN existing fields. OBNs provide a flexible and scalable solution
operations. for production seismic in all water depths. The value of the
seismic data and the quality of the information it provides
DEEPWATER OBN FOR PRODUCTION SEISMIC directly correlates to reduction of risk and uncertainty in
Adoption of OBN technology has followed increased
demand for high quality seismic data necessary for reservoir
management in deepwater basins like the Gulf of Mexico,
Brazil and West Africa. In these basins, complex seafloor and
salt overburden present significant imaging problems. Those
problems are compounded by dense surface infrastructure,
extreme water depth and simultaneous field operations
that challenge seismic acquisition using multi-vessel,
wide-azimuth towed streamer (WATS) and traditional ocean
bottom cable. OBN acquisition is now the primary seismic
tool for deepwater field development where well costs are
high, HSE risk exposure is great and uncompromising image
quality is required.
Additionally, growth in OBN acquisition has been driven Figure 1. Co-located, Kirchhoff pre-stack depth migrated seismic
by the widespread adoption of time lapse or 4D seismic lines from the shallow water Gulf of Mexico. (a) Legacy, narrow
for reservoir management. All of the Z3000 deepwater azimuth OBC data. (b) Full azimuth node (FAN) data. Note the clear
OBN surveys, conducted over the last 13 years, have been imaging improvements around the salt dome flanks as a result of
baseline or 4D monitor surveys. 4D surveys can be flexibly
improved acquisition.
designed according to imaging and monitoring objectives.
Full field surveys, acquired every year or two, measure
large-scale reservoir properties that change slowly over
time. Smaller surveys designed to measure the effects of
water injection in the vicinity of a wellbore, using only a
subset of the full field nodes, can be deployed quickly and
efficiently. The changes in reservoir properties over time
and the resulting change in seismic response, known as the
4D signal, give critical information to reservoir management
teams about:
Ì Pore pressure.
Ì Pore fluid type and saturation.
Ì Undrained reservoir compartments.
Ì Water flood sweep efficiencies. Figure 2. FairfieldNodal’s ZXPLR system. Automated back deck
systems improve safety and efficiency during node deployment
The degree to which the 4D signal can be measured and retrieval. The system can be configured for deepwater
depends on the quality of the initial or baseline survey and (pictured) or shallow water acquisition.
Figure 4. Deepwater Z3000 images from the Julia Field in Walker Ridge area of the Gulf of Mexico. (a) This image was formed using all nodes from
the field acquisition geometry, 400 m x 400 m. (b) An image formed using a reduced node dataset, 800 m x 800 m. The favourable comparison has
important implications for large-scale deepwater OBN acquisition.
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www.oilfieldtechnology.com
Liane Smith, Wood, UK,
explains the need for asset
intelligence to achieve
reliability, productivity and
financial control.
58 |
T
he oil and gas sector is broad and diverse. Every
organisation is unique. Strategies, priorities, structures and
objectives vary widely.
Nonetheless, the same questions are heard again and again.
The precise formulation of the questions, the order in which they
are asked, and the priority given to each will certainly alter each
time.
Operators are increasingly focussed on reaching production
targets, especially when the challenges of ageing assets require
an increase in operating expenditure. Whilst specific asset
types, condition and company priorities vary, there is a common
desire to make the correct decisions regarding capital and daily
operating budget; ensuring successful asset management at
minimum cost. There is also the need to make the best use of the
available data, to have a 360˚ view and to have confidence that
the best intelligence is being brought to business decisions. But
how to achieve this best practice is not always known or clear.
| 59
Ì The scope of any software: from a tight focus on specific
first time. This enables the organisation to put a common
monetary value on a diverse set of processes or requirements, and
physical assets, to the generation of large-scale, or even
company-wide, asset and business-decision support. so make valid comparisons based on equalised criteria in order to
achieve financial control around existing and proposed physical
Plot typical software systems and functionality against these assets. This gives management the freedom to make decisions
two criteria on a graph and it gives an overview of the breadth of that enable technical and engineering staff to meet corporate
asset intelligence. This covers the scope from individual pieces objectives.
of data from single equipment, through to a financial dashboard
overview of the whole enterprise (Figure 1). Achieving asset intelligence
In this framework, specialist software products and
comprehensive business workflows across all aspects of Gap analysis and roadmaps
operations, maintenance, condition assessment, integrity The first aspect of achieving asset intelligence is around processes
management, staff training and competency, data analysis and and procedures. To ensure that achieving asset intelligence is
visualisation are linked and integrated. itself a carefully targeted use of funds, a detailed gap analysis is
Most organisations do not have all of the systems shown in needed. Focusing on existing IT systems and business processes,
Figure 1, nor do they necessarily need them all to achieve asset the result is a proposed roadmap, which shows how gaps will be
intelligence. However, what asset intelligent organisations do filled, integration achieved and chosen objectives delivered.
share are the predictive and financial analytics capabilities shown
in the top right corner. Dashboards, big data and visualisation
Finding ways to collate, analyse and then present data in an easily
Asset intelligence in action accessible, easily understood and easily actionable way is key to
To achieve asset intelligence, organisations need to be able asset intelligence. Addressing data management and presentation
to interrogate information generated by their systems using issues is therefore the second step of asset intelligence.
higher-level data-analysis across an integrated data-set. This With data coming in from many different sources, interpreting
presents information from one system in the context of data those data-sets and presenting them in a holistic way represents
coming from all other systems, and provides managers with a significant step forward from the capabilities of current siloed
numbers, insights and context for effective decision-making. systems.
The following example shows how organisations could However, the sheer volume of data that is now available
experience significant business value by implementing asset exacerbates the challenge of siloed systems. That data
intelligence. volume is only set to increase with the Internet of Things (IoT),
Consider a not untypical scenario in which senior management IT/OT convergence, and technologies supporting ‘Industry 4.0’.
are facing requests from: the maintenance engineers who need Organisations are at the point where true business or asset insight
confirmation to go ahead with their proposed schedule; the is at inverse proportion to data volumes.
investment department, who want to commence work on a Rather than investing in huge new systems, a light framework
brownfield project; and the integrity management team, which is can be implemented over the top of existing platforms to provide:
considering changing operating parameters to extend the life of a Ì Reliability analysis based on all the lifetime data in asset
given asset with some negative impact on current productivity. integrity, maintenance management and other related
Withdrawing funding from, or directing funding to, any systems.
of these will have an impact on the organisation’s assets. An Ì Predictive analytics to support informed, evidence-based
asset intelligent organisation, however, can make decisions decision-making.
that best match organisational strategy, while planning for any Ì A data visualisation dashboard to present benchmarking and
consequences that will arise further in the future. performance against chosen metrics across all assets.
In other words, decision-makers can compare the cost of Ì A task-based graphical user interface that shows a
continuously updated and re-prioritised set of tasks.
immediate action against the cost of delayed action for the
Conclusion
Achieving asset intelligence is vital in an increasingly
data-driven environment. While it builds on the advantages
delivered by existing systems such as integrity-management,
maintenance-management, and asset-management solutions,
it goes beyond the day-to-day management of physical assets.
Instead it focuses on delivering an integrated, holistic view of the
organisation and the daily interactions between individuals and
departments, in which value can be derived from newly available
data, and financial resources directed to areas where they will
achieve desired outcomes most efficiently.
Web-based tools enable the successful integration of data
sources with conventional, predictive and proactive analytic
capabilities. When combined with data visualisation and reporting
capabilities and management controls, and supported by robust
methodologies operators can achieve asset intelligence – a step
Figure 1. The landscape of asset intelligence. change in the way they view and manage core assets over time.
A
s operators strive to increase efficiencies, Yet, for all the benefits of multiphase meters, two key
meet production targets and ensure the obstacles to widespread multiphase meter deployment
cost-effective delivery of hydrocarbons, greater today are the changing field conditions (and a lack of
insight into flow regimes, flow rates and the multiphase flexibility in addressing them) and cost.
measurements of oil, gas and water from the well is
critical. Process conditions and water salinity
Such information on a well’s production Many oil and gas wells today are being produced over a
capabilities determines the levels at which the well wider range of process conditions with more water and
can produce, pre-empts any flow assurance issues, other liquids present in the flow in addition to high gas
and anticipates changes in well and field output. It is volume fraction (GVF) and increased examples of water
also central to royalty and fiscal allocation, where flow salinity.
control and measurement are crucial to apportioning In such cases, there are questions as to whether
royalties to different field owners. existing multiphase metering technologies can adapt
| 61
to such fluctuating conditions and still identify accurately and quickly Thus, at a time in the industry when accessing real time flow rates
when formation water, for example, is entering the flow – important and ensuring that wells are performing to their optimal potential
information for flow assurance purposes. has never been more important, operators are having to make
In addition, few multiphase meters in the past have given enough compromises.
prominence to water salinity. Salinity measurement tells the reservoir
engineer whether formation water is entering the flow and helps the Technology innovations – changing process
process engineer adjust injection rates of scale and corrosion inhibitors. conditions
With a lack of confidence on multiphase meters’ ability and The good news, however, is that many technology innovations are
flexibility to adapt to different process conditions and detect salinity, taking place to ensure more flexible and cost-effective multiphase
operators in the past would simply estimate how much hydrate metering. Take the issues of changing process conditions.
inhibitor (such as methyl ethyl glycol, or MEG) they would have to Over the last few years, wet gas meters have emerged that can
inject into a gas well to prevent hydrates. This tended to result in a very provide accurate subsea measurements of hydrocarbon flow rates
limited flow assurance strategy. and water production in challenging conditions. The enhanced
Roxar Subsea Wetgas Meter, for example, provides the earliest
Too expensive? possible detection of water in the wellbore, resulting in more accurate
Secondly, there is the perception that multiphase meters are unwieldy production measurement, reduced risk in regard to water formation,
and expensive, with many operators put off by the scale and potential and improved flow assurance.
expense of such deployments as well as the inability to change Salinity measurement is also paramount, with Emerson having
solutions mid-course. In addition, there is the possibility that such recently introduced the Roxar Subsea Wetgas Salinity System – particularly
meters will not last for the lifetime of the field. suited to high GVF/wet gas flows that characterise wet gas fields.
With the alternative to multiphase metering – well testing – unable Whereas traditional formation water detection was based on
to provide real-time flow rate information, operators are often left indication values that would increase as more saline water entered the
in the unenviable position of having to choose which wells warrant flow, the new system provides quantitative and qualitative real time
multiphase meters. measurements in many types of field conditions.
The system, which is a key element of the Roxar Subsea Wetgas Meter,
is based on microwave (MW) resonance technology that ensures an
instant response to changes in conductivity of the flow stream. Small
pockets of formation water leaking into the flow can therefore be
detected instantaneously.
As a result, the operator can quickly identify production threats,
develop effective scale, corrosion and hydrate prevention strategies,
and ensure optimal production. It is wet gas meters’ new capabilities
in such field conditions that will play a key role in their even wider
deployment.
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