1

2
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Production rate is defined as the number of work units completed per hour. It can be
calculated for
batch production,
job-shop production, and
mass production typologies.
In order to determine the production rate, the time a
work unit spends being processed or assembled—that is,
its cycle time & it has three components
Production rate tells us the number of work units a production system
can complete in a given time frame (e.g. per hour).

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Tp...min/pc

Pc/hour

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Manufacturing Lead Time is the total time required to process a certain
part or product through the plant.

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 Manufacturing Lead Time

Raw Work in Finished

Materials Progress Goods
Machine
Group

Transport Stores Inspect

•Operating Times
•Non-operating Times

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Variable cost is one that varies in proportion to the level of production output. As output
increases, variable cost increases, example includes direct labor, raw material, and electric
power to operate the production equipment.
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 Breakeven Point

Method 1:
Manual
Costs

Method 2:
Automated
FC2

Breakeven Point

FC1

Quantity, Q
It is typical that fixed cost of the automated method is high relative to the manual method and
variable cost of automation is low relative to the manual method
Manual method has cost advantage in the low quantity range while automation has advantage
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for high quantities
Factory overhead: cost of operating the factory other then direct labour and
materials i.e. Plant supervision, shipping and receiving, factory depreciation,
equipment depreciation, material handling etc.
Factory overhead is treated as fixed cost
Corporate Overhead: is cost not related to manufacturing activities i.e. Sales
and marketing, accounting department, legal counsel, engineering etc

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Product selling price

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All costs are classified into four categories:
1) Direct Labor 2) Material, 3) Factory overhead and 4) corporate overhead
Objective is to calculate overhead rate or burden rate and is to used in the
following years to allocate overhead cost to a process or product as a
function of the direct labor costs associated with that process or product
(Training or skills example)

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 Automation System – Building
Blocks

1.Sensors
2.Analyzers
3.Actuators
4.Drives

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 Automation is the technology by which a
process or procedure is accomplished
without human assistance
Program Control
Instructions System

Transformation
Set of commands that specify the
Process
sequence of steps in the work
cycle and the details of each step
CNC part program, Robot
program, AS/RS program, etc. Power

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Control System

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Industrial/Manufacturing Automation & Control

Industry: Systematic Economic Activity that could be

related to manufacture/service/trade

Automation: automation is a set of technologies that

results in operation of machines and systems without
significant human intervention and achieves performance
superior to manual operation

Control: control is a set of technologies that achieves

desired patterns of variations of operational parameters
and sequence for machines and systems by providing the
input signals necessary

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 Two terms – Automation and Control

Main function of the control system is to ensure

that the outputs follow the set points. However
the automation systems may have more
functionality, such as computing set points for
control systems, monitoring system performance,
plant start up or shutdown, job and equipment
scheduling etc.

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 Automation Levels

Enterprise
Level 4
Control

Plant Control
Level 3
(Production, Quality, …)

Level 2 Cell Controller

(Supervisory Control)

Level 1 Machine Controller

(Automatic Control)

Level 0 Device Control

(Sensors/Actuators)

Machine/Process

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Level 0: Lowest Level of the Industrial Automation - directly interact with machine or
process and get signals- Infect sensors and actuators acts as an eyes and arms to the
controllers, the sensors and actuators forms the base layer of the pyramid and therefore
is called “level 0” layer.

Level 1: this layer consist of automatic control and monitoring systems which drives the
actuators using the process information given by sensors. This is called level 1 layer

Level 2: This layer drives the automatic control systems by setting target/goal/set points
to the controller. Supervisory control looks after the equipment, which may consist of
several control loops

Level 3: this layer is to control the operation of particular shop floor . Also make various
decisions like production targets, resource allocation, task allocation to machines,
maintenance management etc.

Level 4: More management functions are controlled in this layer. Deals with more
commercial and less technical activities like supply, demands, cash flow, product
marketing etc. New product development, R&D activates.

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 Levels % Automation

It is not necessary that all levels are perfectly automatic

Level 0: Sensors and actuators – Must be Automatic

Level 1: Mostly Automatic

Level 2: Some functions are automatic and some are manual

e.g. Power plant – control rooms – large computer
screens/monitors/ - humans are involved to monitor

Level 3: Mostly humans perform operations using powerful

tools – job of production manager, shift in charge

Level 4: Humans are involved using many software's or

computer tools to increase their productivity

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 Nature of Technologies at each level
Level 0: Sensors & Actuators: Hardware Oriented e.g. Actual sensing elements, electronic
circuits, microprocessor
Software are very close to hardware and are written very specifically for the hardware
Embedded Technology – H/W, S/W

Level 1: Special or General Purpose Hardware – PLCs, DCS etc and software runs on these
specific hardwares but the nature of the software is real time software – output must be
generated within a given amount of time

Level 2: H/W are general purpose – computers but the software has to interact with external
world so soft nature of softwares are used e.g., to generate a graphs, update inventory levels etc

Level 3: off-line updates – abstract view of the production factory – how many parts produced,
weather functional or not functional? Etc...
Level 4: Similar to production level – level 3

In summary- enterprise control level, production control level and some part of the supervisory
control level is more industrial IT and sensors and actuators, automatic control and some part of
the supervisory control level is real industrial automation as its more hardware oriented.

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Off- line Enterprise

Spatial Scale/Time Scale

Level 4
Control

Plant Control
Off-line Level 3
(Production, Quality, …)

On-line- soft,
General Purpose Level 2 Cell Controller
Equipment (Supervisory Control)

Real Time S/W Level 1 Machine Controller

Special/General Purpose (Automatic Control)
Equipment
Embedded Tech,
Level 0 Device Control
H/W, S/W
(Sensors/Actuators)

Machine/Process
As we go up- spatial scale and time scale goes high –
At level 0: One sensor looks at one particular variable – in this way its scope is very limited,
however at shop floor level/production control level we have to look at number of machines
and each machine consist of number of sensors to control various parameters, in result the
scope of the level becomes high.
---- spatial scale increases
----- Time scale increase (short time scale of each sensor) 38
Automatic Control - Level 0 and 1
Input
Parameters Logical
(Level 2) Error Signal

Controller Actuators Inputs

Process

Feedback Signal
Sensors Output
Variables
 What is a Sensor System? Or Industrial Sensor System
To produce a information that actually represent a physical variable.
In modern Industry variety of sensors are available - size, weight, cost, complexity
and technology
Typical Sensor System consist of following three Functional elements

Signal Signal Target Signal

Sensing
Conditioning Processing Handling
Element
Element Element Element

Physical
Medium

Temperature (T)

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 Industrial Sensor – Needs to Contain

• Sensing Elements (Protected Elements e.g. Thermocouple

Sensor (Two wires) having Thermo well – Furnace – to avoid
wires to be destroyed
• Signal Conditioning and Processing
• Digital Processing
• Communication – Network Based
• Signal Protection and Transmission

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 Industrial Actuator System
Logical Input is just logical and is not able to bring physical change in the plant – the
information can not bring physical change – for example if we need to increase the
temperature in the furnace then by saying for passing some information will not be bring
any change – for this we need to change the speed of motor or increase combustion rate

Actuator Mechanisms
Set Output
Signal Processing Final
Points
& Power Hydraulic/ Actuation
Amplification Electric
Pneumatic System

Power Objects are

required to control very
Precisely, therefore
actuators are themselves
are feed back control
devices
Feed Back System
Sensors

Signal Processing – Certain Frequencies are required to eliminate – they may cause resonance,
vibration etc
Power Amplification - Actuators are devices that first produce motion from electrical signals,
which is further converted to other energy forms – electro hydraulic systems, electro pneumatic
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systems
 Level 1: Automatic Control
Load
Disturbances
Set
Point

Controller Actuator Plant

Sensor Noise

Sensor

Job of the controller is to maintain the set point

Why the set points are changed once the desired points are set carefully,
So the desired set points are changed due to few reasons
1) Load Disturbances – example of the metal cutting on the machine – once we set the speed
and feed rate of the machine and at some point the density of the material is changed, which
results decrease in the speed of the machine. Ultimately this will affect the quality of machining.
2) Actuator Saturation – can’t really give drive to the component 3) Sensor Noise
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