VHFNHF radar

Part I: Characteristics
by Heiner Kuschel
Low-frequency radars have the potential to counter stealth efforts and detect
low-flying targets beyond the horizon. This paper gives an overview of the
fundamental properties of radars a t metric wavelengths, based on research over
the past few years conducted a t the German Research Institute for High-Frequency
Physics and Radar Techniques (FGAN-FHR).Part 1 of the paper provides an analysis
of radar cross-section to underline the anti-stealth properties of the low-frequency
range and presents simulations as well as measurement results t o demonstrate
the beyond-the-horizondetection and foliage penetration capability of metric
waves. Specific clutter properties are highlighted. Part 2 will consider operational
aspects-target classification, electromagnetic compatibility, jammer
suppression-and applications.

1 Introduction 2 Radar cross-section of targets at VlUHF

With the advent of stealth technologies to reduce the
radar cross-section of military aircraft at conventional
radar frequencies, and the ability of military air vehicles
to fly at extremely low altitudes in terrain-data-guided
modes, the interest in low-frequency radars, which have
the potential to counter stealth efforts and to detect low-
flying targets beyond the horizon by diffraction
propagation, has increased. The favourable features of
low radar frequencies, however, can only be exploited if
sufficient emphasis is placed on measures to overcome
the drawbacks of using this frequency range, which result
primarily from an operationally limited antenna aperture
and a dense spectral coverage in this frequency band. The
applications of VHF/UHF radars in future air defence
systems can range from long-range stealth target
detection and tracking, as in a number of Russian built
radars, through cueing sensors for weapon system
radars, to short-range helicopter detection radar sensors
and passive or semiactive systems.
The advantages to be expected from the application of
lower radar frequencies can be determined from an
analysis of the radar crosssection of stealth targets, small
targets and helicopters, as well as from in-depth study of
propagation effects and their prediction at low
frequencies, including diffraction effects, multipath,
foliage shadowing, foliage penetration and clutter. These
matters are considered in Part 1of this paper.
In Part 2, to be published in a future issue of this
journal', operational aspects-classification, electro-
magnetic compatibility, jammer suppression and the
applications of VHF/UHF radar-will be considered.
The radar cross-section (RCS) of a target is related to its
shape and to its dimensions in terms of wavelengths. It is
strongly dependent on the angle at which the target is
viewed and the polarisation of illumination and reception.
In general, three frequency ranges can he defined
according to the dimensions of the target:
the Rayleigh region, where the target dimensions are
small compared to the wavelength
the resonance region, where the wavelength is of the
same order as the dimensions of the target-up to 10
wavelengths per target
the optical region, where the target dimensions are
large compared to the wavelength.
In the VHF/UHF frequency region, where wavelengths
range from 5 m to 30 cm, many military targets are in the
resonance region and the variation of their radar cross-
section with frequency displays maxima and minima
at wavelengths corresponding to dominant target
dimensions. Prediction of the RCS of a target in the
resonance region is more complex than in the optical
region, where geometric theory of diffraction (GTD) or
physical optics (PO) approximations can he applied.
Closed solutions for RCS problems in the resonance
region are only available for simple shapes; the RCS of
more complex targets is obtained from numerical
solutions of Maxwell's equations. Recent increases in
computing power have made it possible to generate
precise predictions of RCS using electromagnetic codes,
such as the method of moments (MOM) or fast multipole

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING JOURNAL APRIL 2002 61

 classical radar frequencies and can be regarded
as stealthy shapes. Fig. 2 shows examples of
conical and curved-wedge-likeshapes in military
air vehicles. For aerodynamic reasons missile-
type targets mostly feature conical shapes from
the nose-on viewpoint and are thus inherently
stealthy at the classical radar frequencies. For
these kinds of basic shapes, the radar cross.
section increases with the wavelength or the
square of the wavelength, respectively.
0 - -11 0 -'A Only simple shapes like the ones displayed in
Figs. 1 and 2 are amenable to analytical
a b
calculation of their RCSs; the RCSs of more
complex objects have to be determined
numerically. A l:l@scaled metallically conduct-
ing model of a rather simple object, resembling a

with scaled-model measurements

from DAWS and CELAR's full-
scale measurements has been the
result of a French-German co-
operation. It demonstrates that
the measurement and prediction
results for RCS structure,
absolute value and angular depen-
dence are in good agreement with
one another. Maximum deviations
0 - h' between scaled and full-scale
measurements of up to 4 dBm"
a
occur for the nose-on aspect.

Stealth objects and RAM at

VWHF
Additional tests were conducted
w a-12
with a full-scale model, coated
with standard dielectric radar
b absorbing material (RAM),
optimised for X-band. The effect
on the low-frequency RCS was,
as expected, negligible-below
Fig. 2 Simple shapes in military objects: (a) a wedge; (b) a cone 0.5 dBmZ. Radar absorbing

62 ELEC'LXONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING JOURNAL APRIL 2002

material as a measure to reduce the
RCS of military objects has to
be matched to the wavelength.
Dielectric absorbers can consist of
layers of absorbing material, whose
thickness has to he in the order
of 0.01 to 0.12.. At VHF/UHF
frequencies this is generally too
thick to be applied to air vehicles.
since it would change their
aerodynamic properties. Magnetic
absorbers can h e manufactured to
be effective in thinner layers;
however, they tend to be heavy and
eat up a considerable portion of the
target's payload, thus decreasing
its military efficiency drastically. a
Structural absorbers may be
considered efficient at low frequen-
cies, since they can potentially
afford the required thickness; it is,
however, not a simple task to
replace, for example, a pair of metal
fins on a rocket or missile by an
adequately strong and stable pair of
composite-material fins having
radar-absorbing properties at low 5
frequencies. Hence, the application
of state-of-the-art RAM, which can
0
reduce the RCS by an average of 10 m
n
dB over a fairly large bandwidth at
high frequencies, proves to be -s-w -5
.-
ineffective in the VHF/UHF bands.
-10
Other approaches to reducing the
monostatic RCS of a target are
based on shaping the target's geo- -1 5
metry so as to deflect the electro-
magnetic energy impinging on it -20 -
- C E U R calculations
into directions other than the -
-
DASA measuremenls
FGAN calculations
direction of illumination. Since this
cannot he achieved over the full
-25
- TCAR calculafionS
CELAR measurements

360" range of aspects of a target, -30

such stealth measures are generally
concentrated on a nose-on section of -35 i I I 1
about t 30" to 60" front aspect. 0 50 10 150
Scaled measurements of different bearing, deg
stealth target models have been
b
performed in an anechoic chamber
at DASA, Bremen, to analyse the
effect of shaping on RCS reduction Fig. 3 (a) Test object-a metallic cone with a rounded tip; (b) comparison of
simulations of test object with scaled and full-scale measurementsat 392 MHz
asafunction ofradarfrequency.The (Courtesy of DGA-CELAR)
results obtained from measurements
on a metallised l:l@scale model of an F117 type aircraft like that applied in the F117, impacts on the RCS of a
are considered in the following (see Fig. 4). The aircraft target.
geometry was obtained from open literature and hence Fig. 4 shows the so-called K-plane view for representing
the target model does not take into account fine structure the spectral distribution of the target's scattering
details and surface materials such as RAM,which are of properties as a function of the aspect angle (0"-360" for
less importance at VHF/UHF frequencies as had been 0" elevation). RCS values are indicated by colour coding
previously v e a e d . The model is thus regarded as a good and range from -18 dBm' (dark blue) to +24 dBm2 (red);
example for demonstrating how a faceted stealth scheme, the frequency ranges from 100 MHz on the inner circle to

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING JOURNAL APRIL 2002 63


Fig. 4 K-plane RCS of F117-like target (Courtesy of EADS, Bremen)
l GHz on the outer circle. The aspect angle corresponds
to the target geometry sketch in the centre of the
diagram. The scaled measurement results presented in
Fig. 4 show that the attempt to reduce the target's RCS
has been successful in the ? 70" section around the nose-
on aspect and for the frequency range above 400 MHz.
High RCS values covering the whole frequency range
occur when the direction of illumination is perpendicular
to the front or back edges of the wings or other dominant
structures of the fuselage. In the nose-on section,
however, an increase in the RCS can be seen at VHF
frequencies around 100 MHz and at UHF frequencies
around 400 MHz due to resonance effects. It can be
concluded from the above measure men^ results that
surface facet shaping to deflect radar energy off the
illumination direction is only efficient if the dimensions of
a single facet surface are large compared to the
wavelength. At wavelengths of the order of the facet's
dimensions, or larger, the fine structure of the target no
longer dominates the RCS, rather the strength of the
radar echo return is dependent on the target volume.
Hence, such stealth techniques can be efficient at high
radar kequencies but are ineffective at VHF/UHF
frequencies.
As another example, Fig. 5 shows the variation with
frequency of the RCS, averaged over a t 60" nose-on
range, of a smaller missile having a different geometry.
Also shown is a sketch of the target and a photograph of
the scaled model that was measured in an anechoic
chamber at Thorn-EMI, UK. Resonances in the frequency
range between 100 and 400 MHz can be seen, as well as a
decrease in the RCS of more than 10 dB over a decade of
frequencies.
64 ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING ~TOURNAL APRIL 2002
Helicopter echoes and their specijcs
a t V/UHF
Helicopters are another class of
targets that can cause detection
problems for ground-based radars,
especially in a low-level flight
approaching from below the horizon
or in a hovering mode before pop up
for target acquisition or launch of a
aspect weapon. The beyond-thehorizon
angle
detection capabilities of V/UHF
radar, specifically against heli-
copters, will be discussed later,
when dealing with propagation
properties. Here, the helicopter
radar echo will be considered in
more detail.
When a helicopter is in a hovering
+ mode without motion relative to the
radar, the fuselage echo is, in
general, embedded in clutter from
the surrounding ground features.
Thus, it is difficult to detect since it
cannot be discriminated from
ground clutter through a Doppler
shift. The helicopter's rotor, how-
ever, provides Doppler modulation
of the radar echo and this can be exploited to detect and
even to identify a special type of helicopter, provided that
it is adequately processed in the radar. If the helicopter
rotor is regarded as a linear array of point reflectors, the
rotor echo can be modelled as a sequence of blade flashes
that occur whenever a rotor blade is perpendicular to the
direction of radar illumination. A blade flash sequence like
that resulting from the modulation of a radar signal by a
rotor illuminated parallel to its plane of rotation can be
described theoretically as a function of time in the b a s e
band domain by consecutive ( s i d / z (Le. sinc function)
returns. The modulation function of a single blade flash of
a two blade rotor can thus be written as:
sp = sinc(kLcos(9) x sin(2i~f~t)) (1)
where L is the rotor diameter, fH is the rotation rate, Q is
the elevation angle, and sinc(n) = (sitvc)/x.
Since in the time domain the consecutive blade flashes
follow a periodic function, their Fourier transform is a
periodic function too, featuring equidistant spectral lines
limited by the maximum forward and reverse blade tip
velocity. The separation of the spectral lines, however, is
only dependent on the rotor characteristics, namely the
rotation rate and the number of rotor blades. Hence, since
the width of the spectrum of a rotor process is dependent
on the radar frequency, as is the Doppler frequency shift,
the number of equidistant spectral lines per rotor
spectrum is dependent on the radar wavelength. Fig. 6
shows exaniples of rotor spectra for the same helicopter,
measured at Sband, UHF and VHF. For even-bladed
rotors, the reflection condition is always met at the same
instant by an approaching and a receding blade, causing
 -15
0 m 400 600 8cQ 1wO

frequem,MHr
a

view from A
b

Fig. 5 (a) RCS, averaged over d 60". of a generic missile. (b) Schematic diagram and (c) photograph of the missile (UK
Crown Copyright)

blade flashes that have both positive and negative Doppler
contributions. In the case of an odd-bladed rotor, the
reflection condition will be met by either an approaching
or a receding blade and thus an odd-bladed rotor shows
alternating blade flashes of positive and negative Doppler
content. The flash period and the flash duration, however,
are different for odd- and even-bladed rotors:
l/(NfH)even number of blades
flash period TH=
{
l/(ZNh) odd number of blades
(3
Most helicopters fly with an almost constant rotor
speed that varies only a few percent from its nominal
rotation rate. They are generally designed for a forward
speed of about 200 km/h, avoiding supersonic noise of the
forward blade tips during flight. Thus, the rotor process
can cover velocities up to Mach 1. Many MTI (moving
target indicator) radars operating at the classical radar
frequencies have pulse repetition frequencies (PRFs) that
are too low to meet the Nyquist criterion for sampling the
rotor process adequately. For example, at a wavelength of
10 cm a PRF of 6.6 kHz would be required. Operating at
too low a PRF means that not every blade flash will be hit

flash duration At -
i k/(ZxfL) even number of blades

U(4nhL) odd number of blades

where L is the rotor diameter, N is the number of blades

(3)
by a radar pulse, so that information on the target will be
lost. At low frequencies (VHF/UHF), where the Doppler
shift is considerably smaller (660 Hz at Mach 1and a radar
frequency of 300 MHz) or the blade flashes broader, and
unambiguous ranges are higher, the PW needed for
andfi is the rotation frequency. helicopter detection can easily be chosen so that at least

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING JOURNAL APRIL 2002 .. 65


Doppler frequency, HZ
a Multipath
-125&1000-750 400-250 0 250 500 750 1000 1250
Doppler frequency. H L
b smooth enough to cause multipath
~ o p p l efrequency,
i Hz
c
Fig. 6 Helicopter echo spectrum at (a) 5-band, (b) UHF and (c) VHF
(normalised signal power versus Doppler frequency in Hz)
two pulses are placed on each blade flash. Additionally,
since the main beam of the radar is, in general,
comparatively broad due to mobility restrictions on the
antenna, the radar dwell time is large also with sufficiently
high update rates. Hence, with a rotation rate of
3 s/revolution and beam widths in the order of ZO", the
resulting dwell time of about 170 ms is sufficient for
detecting at least two blade flashes from any documented
helicopter during one dwell period of the radar. Thus,
66 ELECTRONICS B COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING JOURNAL AF'IUL 2002
VHF/UHF radar sensors are well suited to
detecting hovering helicopters, even when
they are below line-of-sight, as will be shown
later, handing sector information to a weapon
system radar, which can then engage the target
immediately at popup, so saving search time, or
even locating the helicopter target itself using
superresolution methods or monopulse
techniques, e.g. with phased-array antenna
systems, to obtain a better target direction
measurement.
3 Propagation effects
In microwave radar design, the propagation
effects that need to be taken into account are
atmospheric refraction and absorption, rain
attenuation, and niultipath over smooth
surfaces such as water. Low-level target
detection is generally limited to the line-of-
sight at microwave frequencies. At lower
frequencies, in the VHF/UHF range,
atmospheric absorption and attenuation by
precipitation can be neglected, while multipath
becomes a bigger problem, even over land,
since the surfaces involved tend to act more as
smooth reflectors at these wavelengths. At low
VHF frequencies, even forest canopies can be
interference. Comparative measurements,
conducted with FGAN-FHRs (the German
Research Institute for High-Frequency Physics
and Radar Techniques') experimental VHF
radar LARA (LArge wavelength RAdar) have
shown that in the lower VHF range (around
60 MHz) a deep multipath null can occur in the
horizon plane; at frequencies in the upper VHF
range (about 216 MHz) degradation due to
multipath has not been found. Close below the
horizon, to about 300 ft below the line-of-sight
(LOS), full recovery of the signal strength was
observed at low VHF frequencies, while at
higher VHF frequencies a moderate
degradation of about 5 dB per 100 ft was
discovered below LOS. Fig. 7 illustrates the
trial geometry and Figs. 8 and 9 show the
measured receiver power (PE)at frequencies
of 63 and 216 MHz, respectively, together with
calculated values for the same frequencies as a
function of target height above and below LOS,
using a d~fractionplus multipath model. Calculations are
indicated by a solid line with squares. Triangles indicate
the measured values.
Ve'erificationof low-leuel target detection
Verification of the beyond-the-horizon detection
capabilities of VHF/UHF radars was achieved during a
binational French-German measurement campaign
conducted with the experimental low-frequency radars
LARISSA and SACHEMZ,3using low-
flying helicopters as targets. During
the socalled VERENA trials H, n. agl
(Verification Experiment for V/UHF
Radar performance Evaluation in 4w -Tk&
Non-lineof-sight Applications), heli-
copters were measured while
approaching the radar site in a terrain-
following flight on partly below-the 260
horizon paths. In addition to radar E
target echo measurements, the actual i
E
target position was monitored with D
c
DGPS (Differential Global Positioning
System) equipment installed on the
helicopter. Thus, the measured target
echo was always related to the actual 0
target position so that the propagation
. .
factor could be extracted after Droner
calibration for the target's RCS. Three Fig. 7 Trial geometry
approach paths were chosen in the
vicinity of FGAN, where the experi-
mental radars SACHEM and LARlSSA
were located. Of these, path D2 was
what was referred to as a 'tactical 500 -
approach, a flight path following a 400-
valley with little vegetation and a few 300 -
man-made obstacles such that the
r 200 -
helicopter could stay below l i e o f - . .
sight for almost all its approach. At the 2.-0
100 -

measurement location at FGAN, the e 0-

two radars were located close beside -1w -
one another so that the measurements -200 -
from both systems could be
compared. Fig. 10 shows an overall
view of the measurement scene,
PE. dB
indicating the locations of LARISSA
and SACHEM (in the left foreground),
and the dropoff point in front of the I
long-range track and imaging radar Fig. 8 Measurementsat 63 MHz
TIRA inside the large radome at
FGAN. Fig. 11 shows the D2 flight
path as viewed from the helicopter.

Apfilication ofike measurement results 500

The measurement results demom
strate the beyond-thehorizon (BTH)
detection capabilities of VHF radars.
Since the propagation factor was E
z- 200
calculated from the calibrated E
received-power saniples, generated .g 100
c
by the low-power, high-PRF coherent
pulse integration processing of the
LARlSSA experimental radar, the
performance capabilities of an arbi-
-100

-200
.. I I I
trary VHF radar operating at the -90 4 5 40 -75 -70 -65 4

measurement frequency can be PE, dB

obtained, given the free-space
detection range capability for the
measured target. The BTH detection
performance for an arbitrary target Fig. 9 Measurementsat 216 MHz

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING JOURNAL APRIL 2002 67


Fig. 10 Overall view of the measurement site
can he obtained if the relatioship hetween the RCSs of the
measured and chosen targets is known. As an example,
the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of a short-range low-
frequency radar, designed for the detection of helicopters
at 21 km with a false-alarm probability of 1W and a
probability of detection of 98%, was calculated from the
measured target returns. In the example, given in Fig. 12,
the propagation factor measured on the 50 m flight
altitude approach on path D2 was inserted into the radar
equation to obtain the SNR of the generic VHF short-
range radar. The detection capability clearly exceeds 98%
for the total measurement path of 7 km.The location of
the experimental radars is indicated by the 0 km mark at
the right end of Fig. 12. Hence, at frequencies in the
VHF/UHF range, the surplus energy resulting kom an
excess freespace detection range can he used to detect
and locate targets helow the optical horizon.
I--
Fig. 11 Flight path D2
68
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATI~
4 Forest obstacle attenuation
The propagation of electromagnetic
waves through and above forest areas
plays an important role not only for
communication services on the ground
but also for the configuration and
performance evaluation of radars for the
detection of hovering helicopters beyond
terrain obstacles. Currently used forest
propagation models are generally based
on the assumption of a distance-
dependent propagation loss inside the
forest, which yields reasonable results if
the antennas are within the forest. In
situations where the antennas are close to
the forest, different propagation
phenomena occur and the above models
no longer suffice.
Hence, a study was made to develop a
propagation model that would adequately
describe the forest propagation loss if
both antennas were close to the forest. Measurements
were conducted on a forest patch, the structure of which
was known through stereo-photogrammetric height
measurements, during different seasons and different
weather conditions.A model was then developed in which
the dominant forest structures-edges and spikes-
were modelled as Fresnel- Kirchhoff diffractionscreens4.
This approach was later extrapolated into a continuous
loss model with diffraction edges at the boundaries of the
forest5.
This generalised forest model is in agreement with the
precise model to within less than 4 dB for antenna heights
ranging from 3 to 15metres over a wide frequency range.
It is also io good agreement with the measurements.
Attenuations well below the predicted values are
measured in winter, when less foliage obstructs propa-
gation and the ground is snow covered. The model,
derived from measurements on one forest
path, has been validated on numerous
other paths in the region.
It is suitable for incorporating into a
, terrain-data-basedpropagation prediction
model since it only requires forest data,
which is available in such a database.
5 Foliage penetration
The properties of low-frequency radar can
also he attractive where foliage is to he
penetrated by electromagnetic waves in
order to detect targets inside forested
areas. This is especially the case for
airborne platforms performing ground
surveillance or SAR (synthetic aperture
radar) missions such as the Swedish
system CARAl3A.Y. To assess the
problems of foliage penetration in a rather
inexpensive way, advantage was taken of a
ON ENGINEERING JOURNAL APRIL2002

55 r
I I I I
7 6 5 4
distance, km
a
300 r
50' '
7
I
6
1
5
I
4
distance lo transmitter, km
b
terrain geometry in which a transmitter was located on
the slope of a valley and could illuminate a forest area
across the valley on the opposite slope, imitating the
situation of an airborne platform that illuminates the
forest from above. The frequency dependence of the
foliage attenuation on the slant path was measured using
a receiver inside the forest at different heights. Ageneral
conclusion that can be drawn from the measurements is
that foliage attenuation increases with radar frequency
and that its average value can he modelled, for example,
by exponential decay models7. In situations like the one
described, where a potential target is to be detected inside
a forest, close to the forest's boundary, however,
multipath reflections at surfaces outside the forest cause
strong fading and must not be neglected.An illustration of
the foliagepenetration propagationpath is given in Fig. 13
together with measurement results for different receiver
heights (3,5 and 7 m) inside the forest over a frequency
range from VHF to 1G H 9 .
The oscillatory variation of multipath with frequency
that can be seen in Fig. 13 can even be modelled ifprecise
terrain information with a resolution of less than a wave
length is available. This is not the case for today's digital
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING JOUFNAL APRIL 2002
Fig. 12 (a) SNR for
generic VHF short-range
radar and (b) path and
profile of BTH
helicopter flight
I I I
3 2 1 0
I
3
I
2 1
I I
0
terrain databases and forest cover is generally only
digitised as a surface feature with a constant height and
possibly a predominant type of vegetation-deciduous or
coniferous. Radar designers can therefore only try to deal
with multipath fading using frequency diversity-Le.
operating at multiple frequencies in parallel or
sequentially to average the fading-or high-resolution
largebandwidth signal processing approaches to resolve
the direct from the multipath target echo, if the low-
frequency foliage penetration advantage is to be
exploited.
6 Clutter properties
In situationswhere a ground-basedVHF radar is located in
hilly terrain and beyond-thehorizon d~fraction
propagation provides target detection behind ground
obstacles and vegetation, clutter may also occur in
shadowed areas. Thus, as a first step in analysing the
clutter situation of the LARISSA VHF experimental radar,
potential clutter areas were predicted using FGAN-FHR's
radar coverage prediction tool DARWIN9 and measured
with the IARISA radar. DARWIN is based on the
69
Fig. 13 (a) Foliage
propagation path and
(b)measurement results

dista&e to the forest=554.6m

-.
0
,- 90
m I I I I I 1 1
= 80 I
0 100 200 300 400 5M) 600
distance, m

VERENA 2; horizontal polarisation: distance to forest = 554.6 m: forest depth = 59-4 m

# ME0
-5

"
-1 .._ I I I I I I I I U
VHF frequency 1 GHz
b

application of a tropospheric propagation modePo to a
digital terrain database. The DHM745 terrain database
provides digital terrain elevation data with a resolution of
about 30 x 30 m in central Europe.
The LARISSA experimental radar system2was used for
the measurements in its standard chirp pulse
configuration with a pulse duration of 16 us, a PRF of
3 kHz,a radar beamwidth e=20" and a range resolution
of AR = 78 m. The LARISSA signal processing provides
coherent pulse integration over a burst of 512 pulses,
corresponding to an integration time of about 170 ms. A
Fourier transform yields 512 Doppler channels with a
resolution of 5.86 Hz. Discrete angle measurements were
taken with an azimuth spacing of 5", well below the
antenna beamwidth. A data flow of about 1 second was
recorded for each angular position and the data were
analysed offline.
Spatial distribution of clutter echoes
A comparison of clutter measurements and terrain
structures shows that strong clutter returns correlate
with terrain slopes directed towards the radar. This can be
observed at a distance of about 5 km to the north-west
(270"-360") and at 9 to 12 km to the south-west
(180"-210°). A part of this area, shown in Fig. 14, lies
below lineof-sight, indicating that low-frequency radar
will also have to deal with clutter from beyond-the-horizon
areas. Flat terrain, illuminated at grazing incidence, as
observed to the north-west (270"-360") at distances
beyond 6 km, leads to considerably smaller values of
clutter, which may also result from the sidelobes of strong
clutter returns from other distances. Due to the large
radar antenna beamwidth of 20", neither the influence of
point scatterers like buildings and power lines pylons nor
that of different vegetation can be precisely defined. It is,
however, important to be aware of the dynamic range of
possible ground reflectivity. In Fig. 14 the areas of strong
clutter returns are shown as fractions of rays.
Spectral analysis of VHF clutter
The clutter spectrum shown in Fig. 15 can be regarded

IO ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING JOURNAL APRIL2002

as representative for strong clutter returns as
measured at different azimuth angles and at distance, km
different ranges to the location of LARISSA The 0 5 10 15 20 25
largest clutter power measured after coherent
integration of one burst of 512 pulses was in the
order of 80 dR above the noise floor. It can be
seen that the clutter power is concentrated in the
Doppler 0 channel.

Coherency of measured VHF clutter

Considering the change in amplitude and
phase of a clutter return within one radar burst
and between consecutive bursts gives an
impression about how stable or coherent the
clutter is over a period of time. At ranges and
azimuth angles for which there is high clutter
return, it is assumed that the fluctuation of the
received signal will depend primarily on the
clutter and that noise may be neglected. For a latitude, deg
coherency analysis of strong clutter returns. the I47" " 117" " I "247" i " " 347 4i7
"+
received pulses are normalised to the maximum heighf above NN, m
of the pulse amplitudes and plotted in the
Tx lalitude: 50.37.2 poiarisalion: horizontal
complex plane as the imaginary versus real part Tx lmgitude: 7.7.55 Rx height: Om
of the pulses. Fig. 16 shows the orientation of the Tx height: 170 m conductivity of ground 0.015
512 pulses of one burst in the complex plane for max range: 50 km dielectric constanf: 15
frequency: 238 MHz sample distance: 15 m
four strong clutter range cells. Each of the four
range cells, containing strong clutter, displays a
close accumu'ation around a centre Of gravity. Fig. 14 Strong clutter returns correlated to terrain.
The amplitude, as well as the phase of clutter
echoes from one range cell vary little. In a microwave clutter situation are attractive features for future radars.
radar, clucer echoes from the same area would show a These features make it worthwhile to examine in detail
much larger cloud of returns around the centre of gravity, the deficiencies of low-frequency radars, which are due
indicating stronger fluctuations. mainly to a limited antenna aperture, mobility
At low freauencies. even bevond the integration time constraints, and dense coverage of the hand. These
for one burst, the clutter returns
still remain coherent in the
real-imaginary plane. Fig. 16 also
shows the continuous change of
the complex clutter pointer from
burst 1 (black dots) to burst 10
(red dots) for the four range cells.
The pointer is normalised to the -10
maximum return found within the
m
two bursts and four range cells. .o
$ -15
Coherent clutter map processing 1a
can exploit the stability of k -20
VHFAJHF clutter to remove 5
-
u
clutter contributions from measured
target data".
2- -25
?
-30
7 Conclusion
-35
This paper bas examined the
properties of the VHF/UHF range
-40
that make it a promising frequency 0 20 40 80 80 1W 120 140 180 180 200
range for radar applications. Anti-
Doppler channels of I96 Hz
stealth capability, an ability to
detect targets beyond the horizon
by diffraction, penetration of
foliage and a comparably stable Fig. 15 Typical clutter spectrum

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING JOURNAL APRIL2002 71


Re
Fig. 16 Change of pointer from burst 1 to burst 10
problems will be considered in Part 2 of this paper, which
will also present measures for dealing with jamming and
providing electromagnetic compatibility with other users
and present an approach to target classification in a
frequency range where imaging techniques are hardly
applicable. I wave propagation through foliage',Radio Sci., 1982, 17, (5).
Acknowledgments
The collaboration of our French partners from DGA-
CELAR and Tbomson-Airsys in the French-German co-
operation on low-frequency radar is gratefully
acknowledged. In particular Yvonnick Hurtaud,
Christian Cavallerie and Bernard Olivier have made
very valuable contributions. T h e contributions of the
following members of the German VHF radar team are
also appreciated: Josef Worms, Dieter Schneider, Peter
Knott, Hans-Jiirgen Biickmann and J. Kruse and his
colleagues from EADS. Discussions with and
encouragement from Dr. Alfonso Farina are also
appreciatively acknowledged.
References
1 KUSCHEL, H.: 'Aspects and applications of VHF/UHF
radars. Part 2: Applications', Electrun. Cummun. Eng.J.,2002,
14 (to be published)
2 KLISCHEL, H.: 'LARISSA. a large wavelength radar with
interference dependent spectral signal adaptation'. Proc. IEE
Radar Conf. '92, Brighton, UK, 12th-13th October 1992,ZEE
Cunf Publ. No. 365, pp.316319
3 CAVALLAR,C., KUSCHEL. H., et a!.: 'On the verificationof
beyond the horizon detection capabilities of V/UHF radars'.
hoc. SEE Int. Radar Conf., Brest 1999
4 GROBKOPE J.: Wellenausbreitung I u. 2' @I-Hochschulta-
schenbucber nos. 141 and 539, Mannheim, 1970)
72 ELECTRONICS& COMMUNICATION ENGINEERINGJOURNAL APRIL 2002
Heiner Kuschel received a
Dipllng degree in Electrical
Engineering from the technical
university RWTH Aachen in
1980. In January 1981 he joined
the Research Institute far High
Frequency Physics (FHE now
FHR) of I'GAN in Werthhaven,
since when he has worked in
several Gelds of radar research.
Since 1985 his work has
conceneated on VHF/UHF
radar. He has led several
research projects and studies with the experimental radar
syystemsI~andI~SSAandIscurrentlyleadingaprojecton
low-frequency passive radar with the experimental system
MELISSA. He has been the German representative in several
NATO-KTO (DRG) studies and is currently chairing the NATO-
RTO-SFT task group T G Z l on 7 h e impact of emermng
technolodes on air defence radar.
Address: Research lnstltute for High Frequency Physics and
Radar Techniques (FHR) of FGAN, Neuenahrer StraDe 20,
D-53343 Wachtberg, Germany.
E-mail: kuschelWfgan.de
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FGAN, 1997
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. and MSSON, B.: 'Development of VHF CARABAS 11SAR'.
Proc. SPIE, 2747, Orlando, 1996, pp.48-60
7 BROWN, G. S., and CURRY, W. J.: 'A theory and model for
pp.1027-1034
8 SCHNEIDER, D.: Terrain related multipath analysis of
critical parameters'. FGAN-FHR Report No. 18, FGAN, ZOO0
9 SCHNElDEQ D.. and MULLER, ST.: 'Dokumentation der
Programmsoftware DARWIN'. FGAN-FHR Report No. 17,
KAN,2000
10 LONGLEY, A. G.. RICE, P L. ef ai.: 'Predictions of
tropospheric radio transmission loss over irregular terrain'.
ESSA Tech. Report ERL 79ITS 67, Access No. AD-676874,
1968
I1 KUSCHEL, H.: 'Measurement, analysis and processing of
VHF ground clutter'. IEEE Int. Radar Cod. 2000,Alexandria.
VA USA 7th-12th May 2000, pp 352-358
OIEE: 2002
First received 8th August and in final form 22nd December 2001.
1 Retrieve Remote data without wires!