Welding Parameters

COE 114.
03
WELDING PARAMETERS
THE TRAINING MATERIALS CONTAINED IN THIS MANUAL WERE DEVELOPED FOR THE SAUDI ARABIAN OIL COMPANY (SAUDI ARAMCO) AND ARE INTENDED FOR
THE EXCLUSIVE USE OF SAUDI ARAMCO EMPLOYEES ENROLLED IN PROFESSIONAL ENGINEERING DEVELOPMENT COURSES. ANY MATERIAL CONTAINED IN
THIS MANUAL WHICH IS NOT ALREADY IN THE PUBLIC DOMAIN MAY NOT BE COPIED, REPRODUCED, SOLD, GIVEN, OR DISCLOSED TO THIRD PARTIES, OR
OTHERWISE USED, IN WHOLE OR IN PART, FOR PURPOSES OTHER THAN FOR USE IN SAUDI ARAMCO’S PROFESSIONAL ENGINEERING DEVELOPMENT
COURSES WITHOUT THE PRIOR WRITTEN CONSENT OF THE VICE-PRESIDENT, ENGINEERING SERVICES, SAUDI ARAMCO.
COE 114.03 REVISIONS
Date Description Page(s)
November, 1998 Complete Revision All
a
COE 114.03 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
OBJECTIVES
Terminal Objective
.............................................................................................................................
Enabling Objectives...........................................................................................1
INFORMATION
Introduction........................................................................................................2
Most-Commonly Used Base Metals in the Oil and Gas Industry

Base Metal Definition.....................................................................................
Base Metal Types and Properties..................................................................
Iron Carbon Reactions...................................................................................
Weld Joint Designs and Symbols.......................................................................

Types of Weld Joints......................................................................................
AWS Weld Symbols.......................................................................................
Welding Consumables........................................................................................
Types of Welding Consumables....................................................................
AWS Classifications.......................................................................................
Storage and Handling Requirements............................................................
Heat Input Effects................................................................................................

Parameters.....................................................................................................
Effects of Heat Input.......................................................................................
Heat Treatment Effects........................................................................................

Preheat...........................................................................................................
Postweld Heat Treatment...............................................................................
EXERCISES
Exercise 1: Identify the Most-Commonly Used Base Metals in the Oil and
Gas Industry........................................................................................................
Exercise 2: Identify Weld Joint Designs and Symbols......................................
Exercise 3: Identify Welding Consumables.......................................................
Exercise 4: Describe Heat Input Effects.............................................................
Exercise 5: Describe Heat Treatment Effects....................................................
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WORK AIDS
Work Aid 1: How Identify the Most-Commonly Used Base Metals in the Oil
and Gas Industry ................................................................................................
Work Aid 2: How to Identify Weld Joint Designs and Symbols..........................
Work Aid 3: How to Identify Welding Consumables..........................................
Work Aid 4: How to Describe Heat Input Effects................................................
Work Aid 5: How to Describe Heat Treatment Effects.......................................
EVALUATION............................................................................................................
BIBLIOGRAPHY.......................................................................................................
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Full Penetration Weld Joint.................................................................
Figure 2. Common Crystal Structures in Metals................................................
Figure 3. Process of Solidification......................................................................
Figure 4. In-Process Plate Groove Welding......................................................
Figure 5. Weld Temperature Profiles..................................................................
Figure 6. Thermal Cycles...................................................................................
Figure 7. Iron-Carbon Alloy Phase Diagram......................................................
Figure 8. Fillet Welds.........................................................................................
Figure 9. Complete Penetration Butt Weld Nomenclature.................................
Figure 10. Single-Groove Butt Welds..................................................................
Figure 11. Double-Groove Butt Welds.................................................................
Figure 12. Partial Penetration Welds...................................................................
Figure 13. Combination Weld...............................................................................
Figure 14. Stud Weld............................................................................................
Figure 15. Components of a Weld Symbol..........................................................
Figure 16. Standard Location of Elements on a Weld Symbol............................
Figure 17. Arrow Side Fillet Weld Symbol...........................................................
Figure 18. Both Side Fillet Weld Symbol.............................................................
Figure 19. Unequal Leg Fillet Weld Symbol........................................................
Figure 20. Intermittent Fillet Weld Symbol...........................................................
Figure 21. Staggered Intermittent Fillet Weld Symbol.........................................
Figure 22. Single-V Groove Weld Symbol...........................................................
Figure 23. Double-V Groove Weld Symbol..........................................................
Figure 24. Single-U Groove Weld Symbol...........................................................
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Figure 25. Partial Penetration Single-V Groove Weld Symbol............................
Figure 26. Partial Penetration Double-V Groove Weld Symbol..........................
Figure 27. Combination Square Groove/Fillet Weld Symbol...............................
Figure 28. Combination Single-V Groove/Fillet Weld Symbol.............................
Figure 29. Stud Weld Symbol...............................................................................
Figure 30. Various Types of Flux Cored Electrodes.............................................
Figure 31. Classification Method of Carbon Steel and Stainless Steel Flux-
Cored Electrodes................................................................................
Figure 32. Effect of Preheat on Cooling Rate......................................................
Figure 33. Typical Arrangement of Rope Resistance Heaters.............................
Figure 34. Typical Arrangement of Resistance Heating Pads.............................
Figure 35. Typical Arrangement of Ceramic Resistance Heater Pads................
Figure 36. Electric Resistance Heater System....................................................
Figure 37. To be used with Exercise 2, Questions 1 and 2.............................83
Figure 38. To be used with Exercise 2, question 3..............................................
Figure 39. To be used with Exercise 2, Question 4.............................................
Figure 41. To be used in Exercise 2, Question 6.................................................
Figure 45. To be used with Exercise 2, Question 10...........................................
Figure 46. Evaluation Figure 1.............................................................................
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. AWS/ASME, Section II, Part C Classification of Coated ....Carbon

Steel Welding Electrodes..................................................................
Table 2. Typical Welding Current Ranges For Mild Carbon Steel Electrodes
...........................................................................................................
Table 3. ASME Construction Standard Preheat Temperature Requirements

.......................................................................................................67
Table 4. Preheat Temperature Ranges for the Four Thicknesses Ranges

Listed In AWS D1.1........................................................................68
Table 5. ASME Construction Standard PWHT Temperature Requirements ..
LIST OF EQUATIONS
Equation 1. Heat Input............................................................................................
Equation 2. Carbon Equivalent Formula................................................................
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COE 114.03 OBJECTIVES
TERMINAL OBJECTIVE
Upon completion of this module, the participant will be able to
describe welding parameters.
ENABLING OBJECTIVES
In order to accomplish the Terminal Objective, the Participant
will:
 Identify the most commonly used base metals in the oil

and gas industry.
 Identify weld joint designs and symbols.
 Identify welding consumables.
 Describe heat input effects.
 Describe heat treatment effects.
Note: definitions of words in italics are contained in the Glossary.
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COE 114.03 INFORMATION
INTRODUCTION
This Module provides information on several of the most
important parameters that are associated with welding
operations. The emphasis on base metals and heat affects of
welding is to introduce the Participant to the metallurgical
properties of welding. The information on weld joint designs,
symbols, and welding consumables provides additional
background on welding parameters and operations.
This Module contains the following topics:
 Commonly Used Base Metals in the Oil and Gas Industry

 Weld Joint Designs and Symbols
 Identifying Welding Consumables
 Heat Input Effects
 Heat Treatment Effects
2
COMMONLY USED BASE METALS IN THE OIL AND GAS

INDUSTRY
This section contains a discussion of the most commonly used
base metals in the oil and gas industry and, specifically, in
Saudi Aramco. The information in this section provides
background on welding-related base metal considerations and
includes the following topics:
 Base Metal Definition

 Base Metal Types and Properties
 Iron Carbon Reactions
Base Metal Definition
A base metal is the metal or metals that are to be welded. More
specifically, the term base metal refers to the portion of the weld
joint that has not been affected by the welding thermal cycles.
Welding joins two pieces of metal to provide a single piece with
mechanical properties that are equivalent to the mechanical
properties of the original pieces. However, the two pieces of
base metal that are joined are not always the same material. In
some cases, the two base metals have completely different
chemical and mechanical properties. In other cases, the base
metals are of different product forms such as a forging and a
seamless pipe.
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Base Metal Types and Properties

The most common types of base metals that are used in the oil
and gas industry are broadly classified as follows:
 Carbon steels
 Low alloy steels
 Stainless steels
Each of these common types of base metal have numerous
sub-classifications that are called alloys, types, or grades. The
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and the
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) have classified all types
of base metals to help identify the huge number of base metals
that are available to the oil and gas industry, as well as other
industries. This classification system uniquely identifies the
chemical composition, mechanical properties, and product form
of the base metal. Each of the three common base metals that
are used in Saudi Aramco will be discussed in greater detail in
the sections that follow.
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Carbon Steels
Carbon steels are alloys of iron and carbon in which the carbon
content is less than 1 percent, the manganese content is less
than 1.65 percent, and the copper and silicon content are each
less than 0.60 percent. Normally, other alloy agents are only
present in residual amounts. The properties and weldability of
carbon steels mainly depend on the carbon content. Other
elements have a limited effect on the properties and weldability
of carbon steels. Increased carbon content in a carbon steel
leads to increased hardness and strength.
There are three types of carbon steel base metals as follows:
Low-carbon
Medium-carbon
High-carbon
Low-carbon Steels –0.10 to 0.25% carbon ( c ), and 0.25 to

1.5 % manganese (Mn). Low-carbon steels are widely used for
industrial fabrication and construction. These steels are easily
welded with all of the gas and arc welding processes.
Medium-carbon Steels –0.25 to 0.50% c, and 0.60 to 1.65%

Mn. Medium-carbon steels are readily weldable if proper
preheat (300°F to 500°F) and postweld heat treatment is
applied to the weldment. These steels are easily welded with
all of the gas and arc welding processes.
High-carbon Steels –0.50 to 1.03% c, and 0.30 to 1.00% Mn.

High-carbon steels are readily weldable if proper preheat
(400°F to 600°F) and postweld heat treatment is applied to the
weldment. These steels are easily welded with all gas and arc
welding processes.
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Low Alloy Steels

Low alloy steels are designed to provide a combination of
higher strength, better corrosion resistance, or improved
notch toughness compared to conventional carbon steels. In
accordance with the American Iron and Steel Institute, steel is
considered to be a low-alloy steel when any of the following
conditions exist:
 The amount of manganese is greater than 1.65 percent.

 The amount of silicon is greater than 0.60 percent.
 The amount of copper is greater than 0.60 percent.
 A definite minimum quantity of any of the following
elements is specified or required in alloy steels:
aluminum, boron, chromium up to 3.99 percent, cobalt,
columbium, molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tungsten,
vanadium, or zirconium.
 Any other alloying agent is added to obtain a desired
alloying effect.
Low alloy steels are readily weldable if proper preheat and
postweld heat treatment are applied to the weldment. Low alloy
steels are easily welded with all of the arc welding processes.
Stainless Steels
Stainless steels iron-base alloys with excellent corrosion
resistance. Stainless steels do not rust, and they strongly resist
attack by a great many liquids, gases, and chemicals. All
stainless steels contain iron as the main element and chromium
in amounts that vary from about 11 percent to 30 percent. The
chromium provides the corrosion resistance. A thin film of
chromium-oxide forms on the surface of the metal when the
metal is exposed to the oxygen in the atmosphere. This
chromium-oxide film acts as a barrier to further oxidation. In
general, stainless steels have a lower melting temperature and
higher coefficient of thermal expansion than carbon steels.
Stainless steels are divided into the five following groups:
 Austenitic
 Chromium Martensitic
 Chromium Ferritic
 Duplex
 Precipitation-hardened
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Austenitic Stainless Steels – are the most commonly used

welded stainless steel in Saudi Aramco facilities. Austenitic
stainless steels provide excellent corrosion resistance and are
not magnetic. Among stainless steel groups, austenitic
stainless steels are the easiest to weld because preheat and
postweld heat treatments are not required.
Chromium Martensitic Stainless Steels – are magnetic steels

that contain 12 to 14 percent chromium and up to 0.35 percent
carbon. Low carbon chromium martensitic stainless steels are
readily welded. Welding of the higher carbon alloys generally
requires preheat and postweld heat treatment.
Chromium Ferritic Stainless Steels – are also magnetic and

readily welded; however, the gas welding processes are not
recommended.
Duplex (ferritic-austenitic) Stainless Steels – combine the

corrosion resistance properties of austenitic S. S. grade,
especially stress corrosion cracking (SCC), and the mechanical
properties of the ferritic stainless steel grades. However,
welding duplex stainless steels requires careful control over the
selection of welding wires/electrodes, heat input, and interpass
temperature in order to ensure a weld joint with similar
metallurgical, corrosion resistance, mechanical properties as
that of the base metal.
Precipitation-hardened Stainless Steels – can develop high

strength with reasonably simple heat treatments; however, not
all of the precipitation-hardened stainless steels are readily
weldable. Precipitation-hardened stainless steels that are
readily welded require no preheat or solution annealing heat
treatment.
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Iron Carbon Reactions

Although an in-depth review of the metallurgy of a weld is not
practical in this introductory course, several key topics must be
addressed. The heat of welding changes both the structure of
the base metal and the weld metal itself. Some of these
changes occur while welding; other changes occur after the
metal has cooled. The following discussions will present
information about the properties and metallurgical
transformations of iron carbon reactions that occur while
welding carbon steels.
Fusion Zone
Figure 1 shows a full penetration weld joint and a typical
metallographic cross-section of a multipass welded joint with
topical areas pointed out. The fusion zone in Figure 1
represents the area of base metal that was melted while
welding. The boundaries of the fusion zone are between the
original weld bevel surface and the fusion line. The actual
fusion zone can only be determined through removal of a cross-
section of the weld to examine the metallurgical structure of the
base metal. The depth of the fusion zone depends on the
amount of heat applied to the weld joint while welding. When
more heat is applied to the weld joint while welding, the fusion
zone will be wider. When less heat is applied to the weld joint
while welding, the fusion zone is narrower. The heat applied to
the weld joint is controlled by the welding voltage, current, and
the electrode travel speed.
8
Figure 1. Full Penetration Weld Joint
9
Heat-Affected
Zone (HAZ)
The heat-affected zone (HAZ) in Figure 1 shows the portion of
the base metal that was not melted but whose mechanical
properties or microstructure were altered by the heat of welding.
The alteration of the microstructure can be increased grain size
as illustrated in the metallographic inset of Figure 1.
The boundaries of the HAZ are between the fusion line and
some point in the base metal. When heat is applied to a
weldment from the electrode, the heat also transfers into the
adjacent base metal. As the heat travels through the base
metal, the heat dissipates as it gets further from the weld. Even
though the temperature may not be great enough to melt the
base metal that is in the HAZ, the temperature is sufficient to
alter the microstructure and physical properties of the base
metal in the HAZ.
Base Metal
The base metal in Figure 1 shows the material to be welded;
and the base metal is shown as plate material. The boundaries
of the base metal include all of the material up to the HAZ.
Although the base metal is heated while welding, the amount of
heat is not sufficient to change the microstructure and physical
properties of the base metal. However, the heat can distort the
base metal, which could result in improper alignment of welded
components.
Melting Properties
Metals are crystalline solids whose atoms are arranged into
distinct structures. The most common crystalline structures that
are found in metals are face centered cubic (FCC), body
centered cubic (BCC), and hexagonal close packed (HCP).
These structures are shown in Figure 2. When metal is in a
liquid state (e.g., molten weld metal), the metal loses its
crystallinity and has no distinct structure or orderly arrangement
of atoms. The individual atoms move freely within the liquid.
The mobility of the atoms allows the liquid metal to yield to the
slightest pressure and to conform to the shape of the weld joint.
As heat is applied to the metal during welding, the thermal
energy increases the kinetic energy of the individual atoms.
When the kinetic energy of the atoms increases to a certain
level (the melting point temperature), the atoms overcome the
bonding energy in the crystalline structure and the atoms can
move freely.
10
Figure 2. Common Crystal Structures in Metals
11
Solidification
Properties
Crystalline solids are usually produced when a liquid metal
solidifies. Figure 3 illustrates the solidification process of liquid
weld metal on a solid base metal. This figure shows the initial
crystal formation, continued solidification, and complete
solidification. When molten weld metal starts to cool to its
solidification temperature, solid particles begin to form small
initial crystals, which are called dendrites. These small initial
crystals are already arranged in the specific atomic structure
that is characteristic of the particular metal. This dendritic
growth is a result of the hotter, solid material growing into the
cooler, liquid, weld metal and more readily dissipating the latent
heat of solidification. Solidification proceeds by the growth of
the dendrites into larger solid particles that are called solid
grains. As the amount of solid particles increases, the amount
of liquid weld metal decreases. As the grains grow, the
individual grains ultimately meet. The junction at the individual
grains is a random arrangement of the atoms, which is called
the grain boundary. The overall arrangement of grains and
grain boundaries in a metal makes up the unique microstructure
of that metal.
12
Figure 3. Process of Solidification
13
Thermal Cycles
The most important physical characteristic of a normal arc weld
is the weld's thermal behavior, which is the way in which the
temperatures change in the weld and in the heat-affected zone.
Welding is a dynamic process that causes rapid temperature
changes. These rapid temperature changes result in a complex
temperature environment that produces a wide variety of heat
treatments in a weld. Because the various heat treatments can
change some of the properties of metals, engineers need to
understand how temperatures change at and near a fusion
weld. Engineers also need to understand how a metal behaves
during and after welding.
In a butt weld, the electrode moves along the weld joint and
applies heat to a specific point. Because the base metal is cold
when welding is initiated, heat continually flows into the base
metal and away from the region that is heated by the welding
arc. The rate of heat flow into the surrounding base metal is
governed by many factors that include the physical properties
of the base metal and the rate of applied heat that is produced
by the welding arc. Figure 4 shows a plate groove weld in-
process with the base metal, solidified weld metal, and molten
weld metal identified. To see the effects of heat flow while
welding, a thermal "picture" of the weld puddle and plate at any
given instant must be examined.
Figure 4. In-Process Plate Groove Welding
14
Figure 5 is a thermal picture of a weld puddle and plate that

illustrates the effect of heat flow while welding and a graphic
illustration of the isothermal lines in the plate for a specific
direction of welding. Figure 5 also shows the temperature
profiles in a mild steel plate at a given instant while welding. In
the figure, the W represents molten weld metal; the shaded
area is the metal that is in the mushy stage and is bounded by
the liquidus temperature (2,795°F) and the solidus temperature
(2,714°F). The numbers 1 through 5 are reference points at
various locations from the centerline of the weld. As the
welding arc moves, the isotherms (lines of constant
temperature) move along with the welding arc and do not
change. The temperatures, 400°F through 2550°F, in Figure 5
are arbitrary temperatures that are used to indicate the
temperature differences of the isothermal lines. As the welding
arc moves, a wave of temperature is created that moves along
with the welding arc. The line W n-n' marks the location of the
peak temperatures at any distance from the centerline of the
weld at a given instant in time.
15
Figure 5. Weld Temperature Profiles
16
Figure 6 shows the thermal cycles that occur in the five

reference locations (from Figure 5) on an arbitrary scale of
temperature versus time (in seconds) to show relative
temperature effects. TM represents the melting point of the metal
that is being welded, and line n-n' marks the location of the
peak temperatures at any distance from the centerline of the
weld at a given instant in time.
Figure 6 also shows that each reference point is rapidly heated

to an elevated temperature, dwells momentarily, and then
rapidly cools. The shape of these curves will vary based on the
travel speed during the welding process. The following are the
general characteristics of thermal cycles:
 The peak temperature that is reached decreases as the

distance from the centerline of the weld increases.
 The time that is required to reach the peak temperature
increases as the distance from the centerline of the weld
increases.
 The heating and cooling rates decrease as the distances
from the centerline of the weld increases.
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Figure 6. Thermal Cycles
Phase
Transformations
Temperature differences cause the atoms of many metals to
vary their crystallographic structure. For example, the
crystalline structure of iron at temperatures below 1,670°F is
body centered cubic (BCC); at temperatures between 1,670°F
and 2,540°F, the crystalline structure of iron is face centered
cubic (FCC); and at temperatures between 2,535°F and
2,795°F (the temperature at which iron melts), the crystalline
structure of iron is again BBC. The change in crystalline
structure is formally called a phase transformation. However,
steel is primarily an alloy of iron and carbon. The presence of
carbon alters the temperature at which freezing and other
phase transformations occur. Iron-carbon alloys freeze over a
range of temperatures. Different liquidus and solidus
temperatures exist for each unique composition. As the carbon
18
content of steel increases up to 4.3% carbon, the liquidus and

solidus temperatures decrease.
Phase changes and solidification are best shown through use

of a phase diagram or an equilibrium diagram. A brief
explanation of the iron-carbon phase diagram provides insight
into the behavior of steels during welding thermal cycles and
heat treatment. Figure 7 shows an iron-carbon alloy phase
diagram with 0 to 5% carbon content. As previously mentioned,
iron exhibits two different crystalline structures (BCC and FCC).
Above 2,795°F, pure iron (0% carbon) is in a liquid state and no
crystalline structure exists. Below 2,795°F, pure iron solidifies
and has a BCC structure that is called "delta iron". As the
temperature is further reduced below 2,540°F, a transformation
occurs and the crystalline structure changes to an FCC
structure that is called "gamma iron". As much as 2.1% carbon
can be held in solution in gamma iron at a specific temperature,
which establishes a dividing point on the phase diagram; the
alloys of iron and carbon that contain less than 2.1% carbon are
called steels, and the alloys that contain more than 2.1%
carbon are referred to as cast irons. Below, 1670°F, the iron
transforms back to the BCC structure that is called "alpha iron".
To better understand the iron-carbon phase diagram, consider a

steel with a composition of 0.25% carbon. This steel is
indicated on Figure 7 by drawing a vertical line midway
between the 0.0 and 0.5% carbon line. Above approximately
2,768°F, the 0.25% carbon steel is molten. As the temperature
decreases, delta iron starts to form in the liquid. At just below
2,732°F, the delta iron transforms to austenite (a solid solution
of carbon in gamma iron) and molten metal. At about 2,696°F,
all of the liquid metal solidifies and the composition is austenite.
At approximately 1,500°F, the austenite breaks down and forms
a new phase at the grain boundaries. This new phase is almost
pure iron or ferrite. Ferrite formation continues until a
temperature of 1,340°F is reached.
19
Figure 7. Iron-Carbon Alloy Phase Diagram
20
WELD JOINT DESIGNS AND SYMBOLS

The following section identifies several of the most common
weld joints and associated weld symbols that are used at Saudi
Aramco. Welds are made at the junction of at least two
members. These weld junctions, which are called weld joints,
are the location at which two or more members are joined. The
placement of these members defines the weld joint design. The
American Welding Society (AWS) has developed a set of
standard weld symbols to represent all the different types of
weld joint designs that join members together. The information
in this section provides some background on several types of
welds and weld symbols. This information includes the
following topics:
 Types of Weld Joints

 AWS Weld Symbols
Types of Weld Joints

As was noted in Module COE 114.01, the five basic types of
weld joints are butt, corner, tee, lap, and edge. In some
instances, several types of weld joints may be used in
combination to complete a weldment. The specific weld joints
designs described in this Module include fillet, butt, partial
penetration, and stud. Several illustrations of each type of weld
joint will be presented in the following sections.
Fillet Weld Joint

A fillet weld joint is a joint between two members that are at right
angles to each other. The weld that joins fillet joints is called a
fillet weld and it has an approximately triangular cross-section.
Figure 8 shows a lap joint, a tee joint, and a corner joint with
fillet welds. Figure 8 also shows the nomenclature of fillet
welds including base metal, face of fillet weld, root of fillet weld,
toe of fillet weld, throat of fillet weld, equal leg fillet weld,
unequal leg fillet weld, and the leg and size of fillet weld.
21
Figure 8. Fillet Welds
Butt Weld Joint

A butt weld joint is a joint between two members that are
aligned approximately in the same plane. The weld that joins
butt joints is called a groove weld. Figure 9 identifies the
nomenclature of complete penetration butt welds including base
metal, face of weld, toe of weld, root of weld, external weld
reinforcement, and root reinforcement.
Figure 10 shows single-groove butt welds, including a single-

square groove weld, a single-bevel groove weld, a single-V
groove weld, and a single-U groove weld with complete
penetration.
Figure 11 shows double-groove butt welds including a double-

square groove weld, a double-bevel groove weld, a double-V
groove weld, and a double-U groove weld.
22
Figure 9. Complete Penetration Butt Weld Nomenclature
23
Figure 10. Single-Groove Butt Welds
24
Figure 11. Double-Groove Butt Welds
25
Partial Penetration
Weld Joint
A partial penetration weld joint is any joint design between two
members in which complete weld penetration is not possible.
Figure 12 shows a partial penetration single-square groove
weld, a partial penetration single-V groove weld, and a partial
penetration double-V groove weld. Figure 12 also shows the
unique nomenclature of partial penetration welds including root
penetration and joint penetration (also called the effective
throat). Joint penetration of a partial penetration weld is the
minimum distance (less any reinforcement) from the root of a
weld to the face of the weld.
Figure 12. Partial Penetration Welds
26
Combination Weld
Joint
A combination weld joint is any joint with more than one joint
design. The welds that join combination joints are known by
their individual names such as butt weld and fillet weld. Figure
13 shows the most common type of combination weld, a single-
V groove weld with a fillet weld cover. A single-V grove weld is
used almost exclusively to weld pipe nozzles to pressure
vessels. Figure 13 also shows the nomenclature of a
combination weld including base metal, root of weld, face of
weld, single-V-groove weld, and fillet weld.
Figure 13. Combination Weld
27
Stud Weld Joint

A stud weld joint is a joint between a metal stud (of any shape)
and a base metal. The weld that joins a metal stud to base
metal is called a stud weld. Stud welds have essentially the
same configuration as a fillet weld. Figure 14 shows stud joints
with different stud shapes and the stud welds. Figure 14 also
identifies the nomenclature of stud welds including base metal,
stud, stud weld, toe of weld, and size of weld.
Figure 14. Stud Weld
28
AWS Weld Symbols

The American Welding Society (AWS) Standard A2.4, Standard
Symbols for Welding, Brazing, and Nondestructive Examination,
is the standard for weld symbols in Saudi Aramco. A weld
symbol represents the weld joint on a drawing so that the
details of the weld joint do not have to be shown. The specific
weld symbols described in this Module include fillet, butt, partial
penetration, combination, and stud. To aid in the understanding
of these weld symbols, each weld symbol will include an
illustration of the desired weld detail that matches the weld
symbol.
29
Elements of a
Weld Symbol
Figure 15 shows the basic components of a weld symbol
including the reference line, arrow leader, tail, arrow side of the
reference line, other side of the reference line, weld-all-around
symbol, and field weld symbol. The reference line is the
horizontal line from which all elements of a weld symbol are
positioned. The arrow leader points to the joint to be welded.
The tail is used only if additional reference information needs to
be included. Weld symbols below the reference line are on the
"arrow side", and the weld is made on the same side of the joint
where the arrow leader points. Weld symbols above the
reference line are on the "other side", and the weld is made on
the opposite side of the joint from where the arrow leader
points. Weld symbols that are placed both above and below
the reference line are considered to be "both side", and the
weld is made on both sides of the joint where the arrow leader
points." The weld-all-around symbol means that a weld that
extends around a series of connected joints must be completely
welded around the entire series of connected joints. The weld-
all-around symbol is not required for circumferential butt welds.
The field weld symbol identifies those welds that must be made
in the field.
Figure 15. Components of a Weld Symbol
30
Additional elements can be added to this basic weld symbol to

provide more weld joint information. To establish uniformity
among all possible weld symbols, the AWS has standardized
the location of these elements on a weld symbol. Figure 16
shows the standard location of elements for any weld symbol
that includes the finish symbol, contour symbol, root opening,
groove weld size, depth of penetration, welding procedure
specification (or other reference), basic weld symbol, number of
spot, stud, or projection welds, pitch, length of weld, and groove
angle.
F in is h S y m b o l
C o n to u r S y m b o l G r o o v e A n g le ; In c lu d e d
A n g le o f C o u n te r S in k
R o o t O p e n in g ; D e p th o f F illin g fo r P lu g W e ld s
F o r P lu g a n d S lo t W e ld s
F
L e n g th o f W e ld s
G r o o v e W e ld S iz e
P itc h ( C e n te r - T o - C e n te r
D e p th o f B e v e l: S iz e o r S p a c in g ) o f W e ld s
S tr e n g th fo r C e r ta in W e ld s
S p e c ific a tio n , P ro c e s s ,
S ID E S ) A
o r o th e r R e fe re n c e
S (E ) R L -P
T
(B O T H
B a s ic W e ld S y m b o l
(N )
o r D e ta il R e fe r e n c e N u m b e r o f S p o t, S tu d ,
o r P ro je c tio n W e ld s
Figure 16. Standard Location of Elements on a Weld Symbol
31
Fillet Weld Symbol

The dimensions of fillet welds are always shown on the same
side of the reference line as the weld symbol, and they
generally identify the size of the weld, the length of the weld,
and the pitch of the weld. Figure 17 shows a weld symbol for a
5/16" fillet weld on the arrow side of the joint. Figure 17 also
shows the desired weld.
Figure 17. Arrow Side Fillet Weld Symbol
Figure 18 shows a weld symbol for a 1/2" fillet weld on the

arrow side of the joint and a 1/4" fillet weld on the other side of
the joint. Figure 18 also shows the desired weld.
Figure 18. Both Side Fillet Weld Symbol
32
Figure 19 shows a weld symbol for a 1/4" (Member A) by 1/2"

(Member B) fillet weld (unequal leg) on the arrow side of the
joint. Figure 19 also shows the desired weld. Because the
weld symbol convention does not provide sufficient detail, a
note is required when it is necessary to accurately locate the
1/2" leg.
Figure 19. Unequal Leg Fillet Weld Symbol
Figure 20 shows a weld symbol for a 1/4" intermittent fillet weld

on both sides of the joint that is 2" long with a pitch of 5".
Figure 20 also shows the desired weld.
Figure 20. Intermittent Fillet Weld Symbol
33
Figure 21 shows a weld symbol for a 3/8" staggered intermittent

fillet weld that is staggered on both sides of the joint and that is
3" long with a pitch of 10". Figure 21 also shows the desired
weld.
Figure 21. Staggered Intermittent Fillet Weld Symbol
Butt Weld Symbol

The dimensions of butt welds are also shown on the same side
of the reference line as the weld symbol. Butt weld symbols
generally identify the root opening, groove angle, contour
symbol, and finish symbol. Figure 22 shows a weld symbol for
a single-V groove weld with zero root opening, a reference to
WPS 16, a 60° included bevel on the arrow side of the joint,
and the desired weld.
Figure 22. Single-V Groove Weld Symbol
34
Figure 23 shows a weld symbol for a double-V groove weld with

a 1/8" root opening, a 60° included angle, a 3/4" depth of bevel,
a ground convex face. Figure 23 also shows the desired weld.
Figure 23. Double-V Groove Weld Symbol
Figure 24 shows a weld symbol for a single-U groove with a

1/16" root opening, a 40° included angle, and a 7/8" depth of
bevel on the other side of the joint. Figure 24 also shows the
desired weld.
Figure 24. Single-U Groove Weld Symbol
35
Partial Penetration
Weld Symbol
The dimensions of partial penetration welds generally identify
the root opening, groove angle, depth of bevel, groove weld
size, contour symbol, and finish symbol. Figure 25 shows a
weld symbol for a single-V groove weld with zero root opening,
a 60° included angle on the arrow side of the joint, a depth of
preparation of 1/4" and a weld size of 3/8". Figure 25 also
shows the desired weld.
Figure 25. Partial Penetration Single-V Groove Weld Symbol
Figure 26 shows a weld symbol for a double-V groove weld with

a zero root opening, a 60° included angle, a depth of bevel of
1/4" and a weld size of 7/16". Figure 26 also shows the desired
weld.
Figure 26. Partial Penetration Double-V Groove Weld Symbol
36
Combination Weld
Symbol
The dimensions of combination welds may include the root
opening, groove angle, depth of bevel, groove weld size,
contour symbol, finish symbol, fillet weld size, the length of the
weld, and the pitch of the weld. Figure 27shows a weld symbol
for a square groove weld (both sides) with zero root opening, a
weld size of 3/8", and a 1/4" fillet weld (both sides). Figure 27
also shows the desired weld.
Figure 27. Combination Square Groove/Fillet Weld Symbol
37
Figure 28 shows a weld symbol for a single-V groove weld

(both sides) with a zero root opening, a 60° included angle, a
depth of bevel of 1/4", a weld size of 9/16", and a 3/8" fillet weld
(both sides). Figure 28 also shows the desired weld.
Figure 28. Combination Single-V Groove/Fillet Weld Symbol
38
Stud Weld Joint

Symbol
The symbol for a stud weld is a circle with a cross in the center.
Figure 29 shows a stud weld symbol with a 0.25" stud diameter,
a pitch of 1", and five stud welds. The stud weld symbol does
not indicate the welding of a joint in the ordinary sense;
therefore, it has no arrow or other side significance. The stud
weld symbol must be placed below the reference line and an
arrow must clearly point to the surface to which the stud is to be
welded. As with other weld symbols, the dimensions must be
placed on the same side of the reference line as the stud weld
symbol. Because a stud weld symbol cannot locate the first
and last stud weld, the drawing must also specify the exact
location of the first and last stud welds that are in a single line.
In Figure 29, the first and last studs are positioned 3/4" from the
edges of the plate.
Figure 29. Stud Weld Symbol
39
WELDING CONSUMABLES
The following section will describe the identification standards
for welding consumables. Because there are so many types of
welding consumables, each type has been assigned a unique
classification number by the American Welding Society (AWS).
The information in this section provides some background on
welding consumable identification and includes the following
topics:
 Types of Welding Consumables

 AWS Classifications
 Storage and Handling Requirements
 Shielding Gases and Fluxes
Types of Welding Consumables

Several types of welding consumables, generally referred to as
"filler metal," are available for different welding processes and
materials. During welding, the filler metal melts in the heat of
the welding arc and is consumed in the finished weld. The
following basic types of welding consumables are described in
this Module:
 Coated Electrodes
 Bare Rods
 Bare Wires
 Flux Cored Electrodes
Coated Electrodes
Coated electrodes are the most popular type of filler metal that
is used in arc welding. Coated electrodes are also readily
adaptable to field welding applications that use the shielded
metal arc welding (SMAW) process. Coated electrodes have a
solid metal rod as core and the electrodes have a coating of
baked-on flux. The solid metal rod is made of various materials
such as carbon steel, low carbon alloys, stainless steel, and
nickel alloys. The formulation of the electrode flux is very
complex. The flux determines the usability of the electrode, the
composition of the deposited weld metal, and the specification
of the coated electrode. The original purpose of the flux was to
shield the welding arc from atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen.
Researchers determined that ionizing agents that are added to
40
the flux to help stabilize the arc to make the electrodes suitable
for alternating current. Researchers also found that silicates
and metal oxides helped to form slag. Slag improves the weld
bead shape due to the reaction at the surface of the weld metal.
In addition, alloy agents that are added to the flux improve the
strength and provide specific weld metal deposit composition.
Most recently, iron powder has been added to the flux to
improve the weld metal deposition rate.
Today, the flux on a coated electrode is designed to achieve the

following desirable characteristics. It is designed to:
 Provide a specific composition and enhance mechanical

properties of the deposited weld metal
 Reduce weld metal porosity
 Reduce weld metal cracking
 Provide a desirable weld deposit contour
 Provide a desirable weld metal surface finish (e.g., smooth
with even edges)
 Reduce undercut adjacent to the weld
 Reduce spatter adjacent to the weld
 Control slag in all positions of welding
 Provide a stable welding arc
 Provide penetration control (e.g., deep or shallow)
 Provide for immediate arc initiation and re-initiation
capabilities
 Reduce electrode overheating while welding
Two common types of coated electrodes are the cellulosic and
low hydrogen-iron powder. When burned in the electric welding
arc, the flux coating on a cellulose-sodium coated electrode
(e.g., E6010 and E7010) produces both CO 2 and hydrogen.
The solid metal rod of the cellulosic electrode must contain
sufficient deoxidizers to counteract the effects of oxygen from
the flux. The cellulosic-coated electrodes tend to have an arc
that produces deep penetration into the base metal. The weld
deposit is somewhat rough and the spatter is at a higher level
than other coated electrodes. Cellulosic-coated electrodes are
one of the earliest types of coated electrodes that were
developed. Cellulosic-coated electrodes are widely used for
welding cross-country pipelines, using the downhill welding
technique.
41
The low hydrogen-iron powder-coated electrodes do not use

cellulose, clays, asbestos, or other minerals that contain
combined water. These components are not used to ensure the
lowest possible hydrogen content in the arc atmosphere. The
low hydrogen-iron powder coated electrodes provide superior
weld metal properties, such as resistance to cracking, better
bead appearance, and improved strength with moderate
penetration.
Bare Rods
Bare rods are typically manufactured in 36" straight lengths with
diameters that range from 0.045" to 3/16". Bare rods were first
used with oxyacetylene welding to add filler metal to the weld
joint. Today, bare rods are predominantly used with the gas
tungsten arc welding (GTAW) process and the torch brazing
process. Bare rods are similar to the coated electrode in that
bare rods are made of various materials such as carbon steel,
low carbon alloys, stainless steel, nickel alloys, and aluminum
alloys.
Bare Wires
Bare wire electrodes are similar to bare rods except that bare
wire is manufactured in continuous lengths with diameters that
range from 0.020" to 1/8." The solid bare wire was developed
for use with automatic and semi-automatic welding processes
such as gas metal arc welding (GMAW), GTAW, and
submerged arc welding (SAW). The bare wire is wound onto
spools that range from 4" to 30" in diameter; however, for high
volume applications, the bare wire may even be provided in
large drums. Bare wire is similar to bare rods in that bare wire
is made of various materials such as carbon steel, low carbon
alloys, stainless steel, nickel alloys, and aluminum alloys. The
carbon and low alloy steel wires are also coated with a thin
layer of copper to prevent rusting and to improve the current
pick-up between the contact tip and the electrode.
Flux-cored
Electrodes
Flux-cored electrodes consist of tubular wire that is
manufactured in continuous lengths with diameters that range
from 0.045" to 5/32." The tubular wire is actually a metal sheath
that is filled with a flux material and alloying compounds.
Figure 30 shows several different types of flux-cored
electrodes. As with coated electrodes, the flux inside the
electrodes improves the welding characteristics of the
electrode. The majority of flux-cored electrodes are carbon
steel; however, some low carbon alloys, stainless steel, and
42
chromium-nickel alloys are also manufactured and used in flux-

cored arc welding (FCAW) applications.
Figure 30. Various Types of Flux-cored Electrodes
AWS Classifications
The American Welding Society (AWS) has established
specifications for filler metals and fluxes. Each specification
contains information about the chemical and physical properties
of the filler metal such as manufacturing, packaging, and
identification requirements; testing requirements and
acceptance criteria; and additional information about the use of
welding consumables. Currently, 30 specifications in the AWS
A5.x series prescribe the requirements for filler metals and
fluxes. These welding material specifications are identical to
the specifications in Section II, Part C of the ASME B&PV Code,
Specifications for Welding Rods, Electrodes, and Filler Metals.
Each AWS specification covers numerous types of

metallurgically similar filler metals. To readily identify each type
of filler metal, the AWS has developed a unique filler metal
classification system. The AWS classification system provides
a unique identification for all standard filler metals including
coated electrodes, bare rods, bare wires, and flux cored
electrodes. Due to the large number of AWS classifications and
variations within the classification system, only the most
43
common types of filler metal classifications will be described in

this module.
Coated Electrodes
The AWS classifications for carbon and low alloy steel-coated
electrodes are based on an "E" (electrode) prefix with a four or
five-digit number (EXXXXX). The first two digits (or three digits
in a five digit number) indicate the minimum required tensile
strength in the “as deposited” weld metal (not stress relieved)
in thousands of pounds per square inch. For example, 60 =
60,000 psi and 100 = 100,000 psi. The next to the last digit
indicates the welding position(s) in which the coated electrode
can make satisfactory welds: 1 = all positions and 2 = flat and
horizontal fillet welds.
Table 1 is a tabulation of AWS/ASME Section II, Part C

classification of E6XXX and E70XX carbon steel electrodes
which shows type of electrode coating, welding position , and
type of welding current and polarity. A tabulation of typical
welding current ranges for these carbon steel electrodes is
shown in Table 2.
44
Table 1. AWS/ASME, Section II, Part C Classification of Coated Carbon Steel

Welding Electrodes
AWS TYPE OF COVERING SATISFACTORY TYPE OF

CLASSIFI WELDING CURRENT
CATION POSITIONS(a) (b)
E60 Series Electrodes
E6010 High cellulose sodium (Organic) F, V, OH, H DCEP
E6011 High cellulose potassium (Organic) F, V, OH, H AC or

DCEP
E6012 High titania sodium (Rutile) F, V, OH, H AC or

DCEN
E6013 High titania potassium (Rutile) F, V, OH, H AC or DC

either
polarity
E6020 High iron oxide H-fillets AC or

DCEN
E6022( c ) High iron oxide F AC or DC

either
polarity
E6027 High iron oxide, iron powder H-fillets, F AC or

DCEN
45
INFORMATION
E70 Series Electrodes

E7014 Iron powder, titania F, V, OH, H AC or DC
either
polarity
E7015 Low hydrogen sodium F, V, OH, H DCEP
E7016 Low hydrogen potassium F, V, OH, H AC or
DCEP
E7018 Low hydrogen potassium, iron powder F, V, OH, H AC or
DCEP
E7024 Iron powder, titania H-fillets, F AC or DC
either
polarity
E7027 High iron oxide, iron powder H-fillets, F AC or
DCEN
E7028 Low hydrogen potassium, iron powder H-fillets, F AC or
DCEP
E7048 Low hydrogen potassium, iron powder F, OH, H, V- AC or
down DCEP
a. The abbreviations, F, V, V-down, OH, H, AND H-fillets indicate the welding
positions as follows:
F= Flat
H= Horizontal
H-fillets = Horizontal fillets
V-down = Vertical down
*V = Vertical
*OH = Overhead
*Note: For electrodes 3/16in.(4.8mm) and under, except 5/32 in. (4.0 mm) and under for
classifications E7014, E7015, E7016. And E7018
b. The term DCEP refers to direct current, electrode positive (DC reverse polarity).
The term DCEN refers to direct current, electrode negative (DC straight polarity).
c. Electrodes of the E6022 classification are for single-pass welds.
46
Table 2. Typical Welding Current Ranges For Mild Carbon Steel Electrodes
Electrode E6010 E6012 E6013 E6020 E6022 E6027 E7014 E7015, E7018 and E7024-1, E7048
diameter and and E7016,and E7018-1 E7024, and
E6011 E7027 E7016-1 E7028
in. mm
1/16 1.6 — 20 to 40 20 to 40 — — — — — — — —
5/64 25 to 60 25 to 60 — — — — — — — — —
3/32 2.4 a 40 to 80 35 to 85 45 to 90 — — — 80 to 125 65 to 110 70 to 100 100 to 145 —
a
1/8 3.2 75 to 125 80 to 140 80 t0 130 100 to 110 to 125 to 110 to 100 to 150 115 to 165 140 to 190 80 to 140
150 160 185 160
5/32 4.0 110 to 110 to 105 to 180 130 to 140 to 160 to 150 to 140 to 200 150 to 200 180 to 250 150 to 220
170 190 190 190 240 210
3/16 4.8 140 to 140 to 150 to 230 175 to 170 to 210 to 200 to 180 to 255 200 to 275 230 to 305 210 to 270
215 240 250 400 300 275
7/32 5.6 170 to 200 to 210 to 300 225 to 370 to 250 to 260 to 240 to 320 260 to 340 275 to 365 —
250 320 310 520 350 340
¼ 6.4 210 to 250 to 250 to 350 275 to — 300 to 330 to 300 to 390 315 to 400 335 to 430 —
320 400 375 420 415
5/16 8.0 a 275 to 300 to 320 to 430 340 to — 375 to 390to 375 to 475 375 to 470 400 to 525 —
a 425 500 450 475 500
a. These diameters are not manufactured in the E7028 classification
47
The AWS classifications for stainless steel coated electrodes

are also based on an "E" prefix with only a three-digit number
and a two-digit suffix (EXXX-XX). The first three digits
represent the American Iron and Steel Institute's (AISI)
numbering system for stainless steels.
The 300 series designates austenitic stainless steels and the

400 series designates martensitic and ferritic stainless steels.
The two digits in the suffix indicate the type of current and the
type of coating for the electrode. These two digits are similar to
the final two digits of carbon and low alloy steel coated
electrodes that were shown in Table 1. Most stainless steel
coated electrodes have suffixes of either 15 (lime coating) or 16
(titania coating).
For example, an E308-15 coated electrode is a 308 stainless

steel material that can be welded in all positions with dc+
(reverse polarity) only whenE308-16 can operate on AC or dc+.
E308-15 coated electrodes have a low hydrogen coating. In the
AWS classification E308L-15, the "L" represents a low carbon
version of the filler metal with a maximum of 0.03% C and a
minimum of 0.08% C for conventional grades.
Bare Rods and

Wire
The AWS classifications for carbon and low alloy steel bare
rods and wire have an "ER" prefix with a two or three-digit
number and a one or two-digit suffix (ERXXXS-XX). The "E"
indicates an electrode, and the "R" indicates a welding rod;
therefore, "ER" indicates either an electrode or a welding rod.
The first three digits "XXX" indicate the minimum required
tensile strength in thousands of pounds per square inch. These
three digits are similar to the first three digits of the carbon
coated electrodes. The "S" indicates a solid electrode or rod.
The one or two digits in the suffix indicate the chemical
composition of the deposited weld metal.
The AWS classifications for stainless steel bare rods and wire
have an "ER" prefix with a three-digit number (ERXXX). The
first three digits represent the American Iron and Steel
Institute's (AISI) numbering system for stainless steels. The
300 series designates austenitic stainless steels, and the 400
series designates the martensitic and ferritic stainless steels.
In the AWS classification ER308L, the "L" represents a low
carbon version of the filler metal.
Flux-cored
Electrodes
48
The AWS classifications for carbon and low alloy steel flux-
cored electrodes have an "E" prefix with a two-digit number "XX
and a one-digit suffix (EXXT-X). The "E" indicates an electrode
and the "T" indicates a tubular electrode. The first two digits
indicate the minimum required tensile strength in thousands of
pounds per square inch. These first two digits are similar to the
first two digits of the carbon-coated electrodes. The one-digit
suffix indicates the chemical composition of the deposited weld
metal, gas type, and usability factor. For example, an E70T-1
flux-cored electrode has a 70,000 psi tensile strength and it
uses CO2 shielding gas for flat position welding. The method of
classification of carbon steel and stainless steel electrodes for
flux-cored arc welding is illustrated in Figure 31.
49
D e s ig n a te s a n e le c tr o d e .
In d ic a te s th e m in im u m te n s ile s tr e n g th o f th e
d e p o s ite w e ld m e ta l in a te s t w e ld m a d e w ith
th e e le c tro d e a n d in a c c o rd a n c e w ith s p e c ifie d
w e ld in g c o n d itio n s .
In d ic a te s th e p r im a r y w e ld in g p o s itio n fo r w h ic h
th e e le c tro d e is d e s ig n e d :
E X X T- X 0 - fla t a n d h o riz o n ta l p o s itio n s

1 - a ll p o s itio n s
In d ic a te s u s a b ility a n d p e r fo r m a n c e c a p a b ilitie s .
In d ic a te s a flu x c o r e d e le c tro d e .
N o te : T h e le tte r " X " a s u s e d in th is fig u re a n d in e le c tro d e

c la s s ific a tio n s th is s p e c ific a tio n s u b s titu te s fo r s p e c ific
d e s ig n a tio n s in d ic a te d b y th is fig u r e .
(A) Carbon Steel flux-cored electrodes such as E70T-1

In d ic a te s a n e le c tr o d e .
D e s ig n a te c la s s ific a tio n a c c o r d in g
to c o m p p o s itio n
D e s ig n a te s a flu x c o re d e le c tro d e
D e s ig n a te s th e e x te r n a l s h ie ld in g
m e d iu m to b e e m p lo y e d d u r in g w e ld in g
( S e e N o te s )
E X X X T- X
(B) Stainless steel flux-cored electrodes such as E316T-3.
EXXXT-1 – designates an electrode using carbon dioxide shielding
plus a flux system.
EXXXT-2 – designates an electrode using a mixture of argon with 2%
oxygen plus a flux system.
EXXXT-3 – designates an electrode using no external shielding gas wherein
shielding is provided by the flux system contained in the electrode core (self-
shielding).
EXXXT-G – indicates an electrode with unspecified method of shielding, no
requirements being imposed except as agreed between purchaser and
supplier. Each producer of an EXXXT-G electrode shall specify the chemical
composition and mechanical property requirements for his electrode.
Figure 31. Classification Method of Carbon Steel and Stainless Steel Flux-Cored
Electrodes.
50
Shielding Gasses
and Fluxes
All welding processes require some protection for the molten
weld metal while welding. This protection is called weld
shielding and it takes the form of either shielding gas or flux.
The primary purpose of the shielding gas or flux is to protect the
molten weld metal from contamination by the oxygen and
nitrogen in the atmosphere.
Gases
Weld shielding gases are considered consumables and are
mostly used with the GTAW,GMAW, and the FCAW welding
processes. The quality of commercial shielding gases are
governed by specifications that were developed by the
Compressed Gas Association. Although argon and helium are
the only two inert gases that are available in sufficient
quantities to support welding operations, the inert gases argon,
helium, neon, krypton, and xenon are commercially available.
Argon – is an inert gas that is most widely used by Saudi

Aramco with the GTAW process. Because it is heavier than air,
argon forms a protective blanket over the weld area.
Helium – because it is lighter than air, it does not make a good

shielding gas when welding outdoors. If it is used, helium must
be highly controlled to ensure that the shielding gas can
actually protect the molten weld metal and not rise from the
weld and disperse. When butt welding the stainless and nickel
alloy steels, a purge gas must also be used to protect the
molten weld metal that is at the root of the weld.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)– This gas is most widely used by Saudi

Aramco to weld carbon and low alloy steels with the GMAW and
FCAW processes. Because CO2 contains oxygen, the filler
metals must contain sufficient deoxidizers to counteract the
effects of oxygen from the shielding gas. CO 2 is a used mainly
because of its relative low cost.
51
Fluxes
Fluxes are also considered consumables and are used mostly
with the SMAW, FCAW, and the SAW processes. The coatings
on carbon and low alloy steel electrodes may have from 6 to 12
of the following ingredients:
 Cellulose - to provide a gaseous shield with a reducing

agent. The gas shield that surrounds the are is produced
by the disintegration of the cellulose.
 Metal Carbonates - to adjust the basicity of the slag and to
provide a reducing atmosphere.
 Titanium Dioxide - to help form a highly fluid but quick-
freezing slag and to provide ionization for the welding arc.
 Ferromanganese and Ferrosilicon - to help oxidize the
molten weld metal and to supplement the manganese and
silicone content of the deposited weld metals.
 Clays and Gums - to provide the elasticity for extruding the
plastic coating material and to help provide strength to the
coating.
 Calcium Fluoride - to provide shielding gas to protect the
welding arc, to adjust the basicity of the slag, and to
provide fluidity and solubility of the metal oxides.
 Mineral Silicates - to provide slag and to give strength to
the electrode.
 Alloying Metals -to provide alloy content, (such as, nickel
molybdenum, and chromium) to the deposited weld metal.
 Iron or Magnesium Oxide - to adjust the fluidity and other
properties of the slag.
 Iron Powder - to increase the productivity by providing
additional metal to be deposited in the weld.
Through combinations of various amounts of the above
ingredients, an infinite variety of electrode coatings are
possible.
52
The flux in flux cored electrodes is essentially the same as the

flux on coated electrodes, however, to do the same job, more
flux is required on the coated electrodes than in flux cored
electrodes. When electrodes are manufactured, binders (other
ingredients) are added to keep the coating intact. The binders
allow for the extrusion f the coating. Because the flux on a
coated electrode contains additional binders a greater volume
of flux is required.
The flux that is used with the submerged arc welding (SAW)
process is separate from the filler metal. The flux is a granular
form that is made up of may of the same ingredients that were
listed previously for the SMAW coated electrodes. Three type
of SAW fluxes used are as follows:
 Fused Flux - the ingredients are dry mixed, melted in a

furnace at approximately 2,900F, and quenched to form a
glassy material. This material is then dried crushed, sized,
and packaged.
 Agglomerated Flux - - ingredients are wet mixed and dried
in a rotary kiln at approximately 1,800F to form small balls
of flux. After the flux balls are cooled the balls of flux are
sized and packaged.
 Bonded Fluxes - are very similar to the agglomerated
fluxes with the exception that the flux mixture is bonded at
a lower temperature. When alloy materials are not added
to the flux, the flux is considered “neutral”.
In accordance with the Saudi Aramco standards, agglomerated
fluxes and bonded fluxes should not be used because of their
high affinity for moisture. Welds that are made by using these
fluxes are know to develop weld metal hydrogen delay cracks.
53
Storage and Handling Requirements

The proper storage and handling of filler metals is crucial to
maintain the cleanliness and quality of the filler metal. The
storage of filler metal includes not only the packaging
requirements of the filler metal but also the interim storage
requirements of the packages until the filler metal is actually
used. The handling of filler metals refers to the following
movements:
 Movement of the filler metal from the receipt location to the

storage location
 Movement of the filler metal from the storage location to
the issuance location
 Movement of the filler metal from the issuance location to
the work location
Coated Electrodes
Because of the flux coating, coated electrodes can be easily
damaged when improperly stored or handled. Rough handling
in shipment or in storage can cause a portion of the flux coating
to crack loose from the solid metal rod, which can make the
electrode unsuitable for welding. When most coated electrodes
are bent, the flux coating will crack loose from the solid metal
rod. When opening a sealed container of coated electrodes,
the container must be inspected for evidence of damage. A
dented or punctured container can indicate possible damage to
the coating of the electrodes. When the solid metal rod is
exposed, coated electrodes should not be used.
Although coated electrodes may look similar, not all coated

electrodes have the same packaging and storage requirements.
When the flux coating is exposed to moisture for an extended
period of time, some coated electrodes may become unusable.
The popular low hydrogen coated electrodes are extremely
sensitive to moisture (e.g., rain, humidity). The cellulosic-
coated electrodes are less sensitive to moisture pick-up and
actually require moisture levels of three to seven percent to
maintain the flux coating. Today, the majority of coated
electrodes are packaged in hermetically-sealed metal
containers to prevent excessive moisture intrusion.
54
Coated electrode containers must be stored in a clean, dry

area. Coated electrode containers should be stored separately
by AWS classification. Once the low hydrogen coated
electrodes are removed from the container, the coated
electrodes must be placed in storage ovens at approximately
250°F to ensure that the coated electrodes do not absorb any
moisture. When the low hydrogen coated electrodes are
required to be taken into the field (for more than four hours) to
perform welding, the low hydrogen coated electrodes must be
placed in small portable storage ovens at approximately 150°F.
The lids on the portable storage ovens must remain closed at
all times except when electrodes are removed.
When the low hydrogen coated electrodes are used in the field
for less than four hours, the low hydrogen coated electrodes
must be kept dry but they do not need to be stored in a heated
oven. All low hydrogen coated electrodes that are exposed to
the atmosphere must be rebaked for a period of at least four
hours. Saudi Aramco welding standards specify the proper
rebake and storage temperatures for a variety of coated
electrodes. The cellulosic-coated electrodes do not require
storage in heated ovens, but they must be kept in a dry
environment. Coated electrodes should never be placed
directly on cold concrete or steel that can draw heat out of the
coated electrode and allow moisture to enter the coating.
Coated electrodes that become wet should never be used for
welding and must be discarded.
55
Bare Rods and

Wire
Bare rods and wire must be stored in sealed containers, which
must be placed in a clean, dry environment. Any bare rods or
wires with visible rusting or contamination must not be used for
welding and must be discarded. After removal from the sealed
containers, bare rods and wires must remain dry and clean in
the field. Contamination on bare wire can cause porosity in the
weld or operation difficulties in the wire feed mechanism.
Flux-cored
Electrodes
Flux-cored electrodes must also be stored in sealed containers
in a clean, dry environment. Any flux-cored electrodes with
visible rusting or contamination must not be used for welding
and must be discarded. After removal from the sealed
containers, flux-cored electrodes must remain dry and clean in
the field.
Contamination on flux-cored electrode wire can cause porosity

in the weld or operation difficulties in the wire feed mechanism.
Consideration must be given to the storage of flux-cored
electrodes in heated ovens based on the type of flux and the
electrode manufacturer's recommendations.
56
HEAT INPUT EFFECTS

The following section introduces the relation of heat input to
welding. Heat input will be described in terms of the welding
process variables that contribute to variations in the amount of
heat input to a weld. This section includes the following topics:
 Parameters
 Effects of Heat Input
Parameters
Heat is required for all welding processes to melt the surface of
the metal to be welded and the filler metal that is added to the
weldment so that coalescence can occur. The most common
heat source for welding is the electric arc.
The three key welding parameters affect the amount of heat

input to a weld are:
 The welding current

 The welding arc voltage
 The travel speed of the welding process
Preheat and interpass temperatures are additional variable that
can affect the amount of heat input to a weldment. Because
preheat is not directly associated with a welding process,
preheat will be described in the next section. Each of the three
welding parameters is described below.
Current
The current in a welding circuit is the amount of electric charge
that flows through the welding cable in one second. The
amount of electric per second that flows through the welding
cable is called an ampere and it is designated by the letter "I".
High welding current results in greater base metal penetration,
and a lower welding current results in shallow base metal
penetration. An increase in the welding current increases the
heat input to the weld. An increase in the welding current also
increases the melt-off rate of the electrode and improves
productivity because more weld metal is deposited.
57
Voltage
Voltage is the force that causes a current to flow. The measure
of electrical pressure is the volt. The difference in potential or
voltage causes the current to flow in an electric circuit. As
Equation 1 shows, both current and voltage affect the heat input
to a weld. The letter "V" is used to designate voltage. High
welding voltage results in greater base metal penetration, while
lower welding voltage is indicative of shallow base metal
penetration. An increase in the welding voltage increases the
heat input to the weld.
Travel Speed
The rate that a welding electrode progresses along a weld joint
while welding is called the travel speed. The letter "S"
designates the travel speed. Several welding variables affect
the travel speed, such as, the welding process, the position of
the weld, the welder, and the wire feed speed. Slow travel
speeds make wide weld beads with deep base metal
penetration. Fast travel speeds make narrow weld beads and
shallow base metal penetration. A decrease in the travel speed
increases the heat input to the weld.
Effects of Heat Input

The electric arc welding process uses a high temperature heat
source that can melt the base metals. An extensive difference
in temperature between a high temperature heat source and the
base metal can cause thermal expansion and contraction
between the base metal and the weld metal. The following are
some of the disadvantages of excessive heat input that can
affect weld quality:
 Warpage and distortion caused by high residual

differential shrinkage stresses
 Cracks caused by a reduction of ductility or a degree of
hardening
 Premature failure caused by the deterioration of the
toughness properties of the weld joint
 Premature failure caused by the loss of strength of certain
work hardened, quenched, and tempered materials
Even though the electric welding arc is a heat source that
moves continuously, steady state conditions are established
58
and the temperature distribution relative to the heat source is

relatively stable.
Because many variables are involved, the heat input-time-

temperature relationship (the thermal cycle of a weld) cannot be
precisely determined. However, fairly accurate estimates can
predict the effects of heat input from a specific welding process.
The total heat input to a weldment must be balanced to produce
the desired weld properties. Extra heat is required, over and
above the heat that is needed to melt the base metal and filler
metal, to compensate for the heat that is conducted away from
the weld and into the adjacent base metal. The heat input to a
weldment (in joules per inch of weld) by a welding process can
be estimated with Equation 1, located in Work Aid 4
EXAMPLE:
If a weld is to be made with the SMAW process and a 1/8"

coated electrode at 145 amperes, 22 volts, and a travel speed
of ten (10) inches per minute, the amount of heat input to the
weld could be estimated as follows:
 145  22  60

Heat Input   19,140 joules per inch
10
If a 5/32" coated electrode is used at 210 amperes and 24 volts

with a travel speed of only six (6) inches per minute, the heat
input is significantly increased.
 210  24  60

Heat Input   30,240 joules per inch
10
This heat input equation is used to calculate the heat that is

developed in an electric arc and can be used to compare
welding procedures when heat input is a consideration. The
base metal temperature changes in an arc welding operation
are much quicker and more abrupt than for most metallurgical
processes (e.g., heat treatments). The metallurgical reactions
from welding heat input do not follow the normal heat treating
relationships due to the short time duration at temperature.
More specifically, in the arc welding process, melting and
solidification occur very rapidly; and equilibrium is not achieved
as it is achieved in direct treatment processes.
59
HEAT TREATMENT EFFECTS

With some welding processes and materials, heat must be
applied to a weld prior to welding (preheat treatment). Other
welding processes and materials require the use of heat after
the welding is complete (postweld treatment). The information
in this section provides background on the heat treatment of
welds and includes the following topics:
 Preheat
 Postweld Heat Treatment
Preheat
Preheat is defined as the heat that is applied to the base metals
of a weld joint immediately before welding. The construction
standards that are associated with systems and components at
Saudi Aramco facilities identify the required preheat
temperatures for the various base metals. However, the
preheat temperature depends on many factors such as
chemical composition of the base metal, thickness, the ambient
temperature, and the welding process. Several methods of
preheat determination and application, along with typical
preheat requirements for commonly used materials, are
described in more detail below.
Purpose
The main purpose of preheat is to reduce the rate at which a
weld cools. The preheat of weldments has the following
advantages:
 Reduces shrinkage stresses in the weld and heat-affected

zone that lead to cracks
 A slower rate at which the weld metal cools through the
critical temperature range (approximately 1,600F to
1,330F), which prevents excessive hardening and loss of
ductility of both the weld metal and the heat-affected zone
(HAZ) due to formation of hard microstructure such as
martensite in carbon and low alloy steels.
 A slower rate at which the weld metal cools through the
400F range, which allows more time for any hydrogen
that is present to diffuse away from the weld and HAZ to
avoid underbead cracking
 Maintains sufficient heat at the weld area on highly
conductive or thick base metals
60
 Removes moisture from the weld joint

Figure 32 is a graph of temperature versus time that shows the
effect of preheat on a plate butt weld. As the graph shows, a
greater temperature drop in one second exists at a given
temperature (T1) when the initial temperature (T o) of the plate is
70°F than when To is 300°F. In other words, the cooling rate
(°F/sec) is slower when preheat is used. Preheat should also
be considered before thermal cutting (i.e., oxyacetylene
cutting). Thermal cutting tasks may include the preparation of
weld joint bevels, the removal of attachments, or the removal of
defective material. For thick carbon and low alloy steels,
preheat ensures that the base metal cools at a slower rate and
prevents excessive hardening (formation of hard martensitic
structure) and loss of ductility in the base metal.
Figure 32. Effect of Preheat on Cooling Rate
Methods
Several methods are available for preheat treatment. The most
common tools are oxyacetylene torches and electric resistance
heaters. The choice of the preheat tools depends on factors
such as the following:
 The preheat temperature

 The duration of the preheat cycle
 The size and shape of the weldment
 The need for a one-of-a-kind or a continuous production
preheat operation
For the majority of pipe welds, an oxyacetylene torch provides
sufficient preheat to support the welding operation.
Oxyacetylene torches are usually limited to small weldments or
61
circumferential pipe welds that are less than 12" in diameter

and that are less than 3/4" thick. For small weldments or
circumferential pipe welds, actual preheat temperature is
measured with a temperature indicating crayon. When an
oxyacetylene torch is used to preheat a weld, the surface of the
base metal is generally much hotter than the average
temperature in the base metal. When possible, temperature
measurements should be made on both sides of the weld joint.
Because the welder must constantly switch between the
welding process and the preheat process, the use of an
oxyacetylene torch is not the most productive tool to apply
preheat.
When preheat for a single weld or for multiple welds that are in
close proximity is required for a long period of time, electric
resistance heaters are often more convenient to use than
oxyacetylene torches. Gas burners are more effectively and
more widely used in pressure vessels (and in building
industries in general) than handheld torches. The resistance
heater elements are commonly available in either rope, rope
pads, or ceramic pads. Figure 33 shows a typical arrangement
for rope resistance heaters and the power connections that
provide preheat for a circumferential butt weld in pipe.
Figure 33. Typical Arrangement of Rope Resistance Heaters
62
Figure 34 shows a typical arrangement for resistance heating

pads and the power connections that provide preheat for a
circumferential butt weld in pipe.
Figure 34. Typical Arrangement of Resistance Heating Pads
Figure 35 shows a typical arrangement for ceramic resistance

heater pads and the power connections that provide preheat for
a circumferential butt weld in pipe. The limitations of electric
resistance heaters include the inability to adapt to small
intricate parts and to adequately heat materials greater than six
inches thick.
Figure 35. Typical Arrangement of Ceramic Resistance Heater Pads
63
Figure 36 shows an electric resistance heater system that

consists of a power supply, a temperature controller, a
temperature recorder, resistance heating wires, power cables,
thermocouples, and thermocouple signal cables. In electric
resistance heaters, thermocouples attach directly to the base
metal that is adjacent to the weld to measure the exact preheat
temperature of the weld. The thermocouples provide signals to
the temperature controller that regulates the electrical power
that is required for the preheat. The temperature recorder
makes a permanent record of the exact preheat temperature
throughout the preheat and welding operation.
Figure 36. Electric Resistance Heater System
Interpass
Temperature
The interpass temperature should also be considered. The
interpass temperature is the temperature of the weld area
between weld passes. Usually, the minimum interpass
temperature will be the same as the preheat temperature. The
interpass temperature is usually specified as a maximum
temperature to prevent excessive heat input to a weldment.
The weldment temperature should never be allowed to become

lower than the preheat or the interpass temperature. When
welding is interrupted for any reason, the preheat temperature
64
must be attained before welding is started again. Preheat and

interpass temperatures must be maintained through the entire
thickness of the welding area.
When welds are made on a small weldment, the interpass

temperature increases due to the heat input from welding.
Under certain conditions, allowing the interpass temperature to
exceed a specific temperature is usually not desirable;
therefore, a maximum interpass temperature is specified.
When the heat build up becomes excessive, the weldment must
be allowed to cool but must not cool below the minimum
preheat temperature. Otherwise, distortion and lowered
ductibility of the weld joint can result.
Determination
The necessity to preheat weld joints and the temperature
requirements should be established by Engineering and should
be demonstrated by a welding procedure specification (WPS).
The preheat temperature depends upon these factors:
 Type of base metal and its composition

 Joint thickness degree of restraint
 Type, composition, and coating of the filler
metal/electrode
Higher preheat temperatures should be considered when the
base metal has a carbon content in excess of 0.30%, when the
base metal is thick (over 1-1/2"), or when the weld joint is highly
restrained (e.g., a piping closure weld). Higher preheat
temperatures should also be considered when high strength,
high composition welding electrodes and electrodes with
cellulosic/organic coatings are used.
Carbon Equivalent (CE) – While the material thickness, the

type of base metal to be welded, the degree of joint restraint,
and the filler metal are taken into account when preheat
requirements are determined, some adjustment may be needed
for specific material composition. Generally, as the carbon
content of a material increases, the necessity for preheat also
increases but the critical cooling rate decreases. However,
carbon is not the only element that influences the critical
cooling rate.
Other elements in steel materials are responsible for the

hardness and the loss of ductility that occur with rapid cooling.
The determination of preheat requirements must account for the
total hardenability of a material. This total hardenability can be
65
represented by a "carbon equivalent". This common measure

of the effects of carbon and other alloy elements on hardening
is the basis for preheat and interpass temperature estimates.
CE empirical values represent the sum of the effects of various

elements on the hardenability. One of the most widely used
carbon equivalent formulas is shown in Equation 2, Work Aid 5.
For carbon steels (all ASME p-No.2 materials, including API

pipe grades up to and including X60), the minimum preheat is
calculated using Standard Drawing AE-036451. For carbon
steel piping and pipeline welds, the minimum preheat
requirements are listed in the preheat tables of SAES-W-011
and SAES-W-012. For all other materials, the minimum preheat
shall be no less than what is listed or specified in the applicable
codes and standards, such as ASME/ANSI B31.3, B31.4, B31.8,
and AWS D1.1, Structural Welding Code.
Metal Thickness –As previously stated, the thickness of the

material to be welded also affects the required amount of
preheat. In general, thicker materials require more preheat.
The required amount of preheat can be determined through
review of the applicable construction standards or industry
guidelines that are based on carbon equivalency. The preheat
requirements of applicable construction standards will be
discussed in the following paragraphs.
The ASME standards present the minimum preheat temperature

based upon the applicable P Number (from ASME Section IX) of
the materials to be welded. When materials of two different P
Numbers are welded together, the preheat temperature is
normally the highest preheat temperature that is recommended
for either of the materials. The AWS D1.1 standard also
presents the preheat temperature requirements based on
similar material (specific to structural construction) groups. The
API standards provide more generic preheat temperature
information. The preheat temperature information that is
presented below is based on the applicable construction
standards. Table 3 summarizes the ASME preheat
requirements for the following materials:
 P Number 1 (carbon steel)

 P Number 3 (low-alloy steels)
 P Number 4 (1-1/4 chrome-moly steels)
 P Number 8 (stainless steels)
66
Table 3. ASME Construction Standard Preheat Temperature Requirements
P- ASME ASME Section ASME ASME

Number Section I VIII B31.1 B31.3
1 175°F for 175°F for 175°F for 50°F for
(Mild C > 0.3% and C > 0.3% and C> 0.3% and t < 1” and
Carbon t > 1”. t > 1”. t > 1”. Ts = 71 ksi.
Steels) Otherwise 50°F. Otherwise 50°F. Otherwise 50°F. 175°F for
t = 1” or
Ts > 71 ksi
3 175°F for 175°F for 175°F for 50°F for
(Low Ts > 70 ksi Ts > 70 ksi or Ts > 60 ksi or t < 1/2” and
Alloy or t > 5/8”. t > 5/8”. t > 1/2”. Ts = 71 ksi.
Steels) Otherwise 50°F. Otherwise 50°F. Otherwise 50°F. 175°F for
t = 1/2” or
Ts > 71 ksi.
4 250°F for 250°F for 250°F for 300°F for all
(1-1/4 Ts > 60 ksi or Ts > 60 ksi or Ts > 60 ksi or thicknesses and
Chrome- t > 1/2”. t > 1/2”. t > 1/2”. Ts.
moly Otherwise 50°F. Otherwise 50°F. Otherwise 50°F.
Steels)
5 400°F for 400°F for 400°F for 350°F for all
(2-1/4 Ts > 60 ksi or Ts > 60 ksi or Ts > 60 ksi or thicknesses and
Chrome- Cr > 6.0% and Cr > 6.0% and Cr > 6.0% and Ts.
moly t > 1/2”. t > 1/2”. t > 1/2”.
Steels) Otherwise 300°F. Otherwise 300°F. Otherwise 300°F.
8 None None 50°F 50°F
(Stainless
Steel)
Where:
C=carbon content
Cr=chromium content
t=material temperature
Tp=preheat temperature
Ts=minimum specified tensile strength
67
The AWS D1.1 standard categorizes structural steel base

materials into four main groups that are, for the most part,
considered carbon steels. Slight differences exist between
each of the categories, and base metal thickness is the primary
determinant of the minimum preheat temperatures. Table 4
shows the preheat temperature ranges have been developed
and are based upon the four standard thickness ranges that are
listed in AWS D1.1.
Table 4. Preheat Temperature Ranges for the Four Thicknesses Ranges Listed In
AWS D1.1.
Thickness of Thickest Part Preheat Temperature (F) Range

at Point of Welding (Inches
Low Hydrogen Non-Low Hydrogen
Electrodes Electrodes
Up to 3/4 None 50
Over 3/4 through 1-1/2 50 150
Over 1-1/2 through 2-1/2 150 225
Over 2-1/2 225 300
API 620 and 650 do not specifically require preheat treatment

when welding tanks. However, both construction standards do
acknowledge the benefit of preheat and suggest that all preheat
treatments be qualified with the welding procedure specification
prior to production welding.
Filler Metal Coating Type and Composition – Minimum

preheat temperature is also affected by the type of electrode
coating (low hydrogen versus non -low hydrogen) types as well
as its chemical composition. When used to weld materials of
the same thickness and chemical composition, the minimum
preheat temperature is much higher with the non-low hydrogen
electrodes than those of the low hydrogen type. Similarly,
welding electrodes containing alloys are elements that
contribute to the weld hardenability such as Cr, Mo, etc. will
require higher preheat than those that don’t contain these
elements. The difference in preheat temperatures levels as a
function of welding electrode types is shown by preheat tables
of AWS D1.1 structural welding and Saudi Aramco piping and
pipeline standards SAES-W-011 and -012.
68
Postweld Heat Treatment (PWHT)

A number of postweld heat treatments exist for weldments but
stress relief is the most widely used postweld heat treatment.
Some other postweld heat treatments include annealing and
normalizing. For the purposes of this Module, postweld heat
treatment will be synonymous with stress relieving. Accordingly,
stress relieving is a heat treatment that is applied to a weld or
weldment after welding to reduce residual stresses. The
construction standards for systems and components at Saudi
Aramco facilities identify the required postweld heat treatments
for the various base metals. However, the postweld heat
treatment depends on many factors, such as the following:
 Composition of the base metal

 Thickness of the base metal
 Type of service
The purpose, advantages, and methods of PWHT, along with
the requirements of Saudi Aramco and industry that apply to
PWHT, are described below.
Purpose
The purpose of PWHT is to reduce the residual stresses that
are within weldments. The following are the advantages of
PWHT of weldments:
 Reduce residual stresses that are inherent to any

weldment, casting, or forging
 Soften hardened weld zones
 Improve resistance to corrosion and caustic embrittlement
 Improve dimensional stability of the weldment when
machined
 Increase service life of the weldment
69
Methods
With the exception of welding torches, similar methods as those
utilized for preheat are used for PWHT of welds. Electric
resistance heaters are the most popular method for field
applications of localized PWHT. Postweld heat treating
furnaces are generally very large permanent structures that can
accommodate an entire pressure vessel. Furnaces are
generally used by manufacturers of large components that
require PWHT. Temporary furnaces are also used and are
usually built around a field constructed component such as a
pressure vessel. The choice of the PWHT methods is similar to
preheat treatment methods and depends on factors such as the
following:
 The postweld heat treatment temperature

 The duration of the postweld heat treatment cycle
 The size and shape of the weldment or component
 The need for a one-of-a-kind or a continuous production
postweld heat treatment operation
Electric Resistance Heaters – For most pipe welds, electric
resistance heaters suffice for PWHT operations. These
resistance heaters are identical to the preheat devices that
were described earlier in this Module. Figure 36 showed an
electric resistance heater system that consisted of a power
supply, a temperature controller, a temperature recorder,
resistance heating wires, power cables, thermocouples, and
thermocouple signal cables. As with preheating operations,
thermocouples directly attach to the base metal adjacent to the
weld to measure the exact PWHT weldment temperature. The
thermocouples provide signals to the temperature controller to
regulate the electrical power that is required for the PWHT. The
number and location of thermocouples that should be attached
to the weldment and other PWHT requirements are outlined in
SAES-W-010, SAES-W-0011, and SAES-W-012.
70
Figure 36. Electric Resistance Heater System
To reduce the time that is necessary to get the weldment up to

the PWHT temperature and to provide a slower cooling down
period, welds that require PWHT are usually well insulated. As
with preheat, the temperature recorder provides a permanent
record of the exact PWHT temperature throughout the PWHT.
The major limitations of electric resistance heaters include the

inability to adapt to small intricate parts and the inability to
adequately heat very thick materials.
Furnace PWHTs – When using the furnace PWHT, the

following factors must be consider:
 The support requirement of the component to be heat

treated
 Freedom of the material to expand and contract
 The placement of sufficient thermocouples to verify the
accuracy of the PWHT
 The type of heat source
The heat source for furnaces is either natural gas or fuel oil.
For uniform application of heat, the component to be treated is
carefully and strategically surrounded by heating nozzles. To
expedite the heating process, heating nozzles may also be
71
arranged inside the component to improve the heat-up rate and

thorough heat soak of the component. The component's
location in the furnace must also be considered to avoid hot or
cold spots. The location of severe temperature gradients
depends upon the arrangement of the furnace and the location
of the heat source.
The duration of a PWHT cycle includes the heating time to

maximum temperature (ramp up), the holding time at the
specified maximum temperature (soak), and the cooling time to
ambient temperature (ramp down). A typical soak time that is
specified in the construction standards is one hour per inch of
material thickness. In some cases, obtaining the required
maximum PWHT temperature or soak time is not possible. In
these cases, the construction standards have provisions for
alternate temperatures and soak times.
Regardless of the PWHT method that is employed, the heating

and subsequent cooling rates are critical to the success of the
operation. When the heating rate is too high, the temperatures
of thin sections of material increase faster than thick sections.
Similarly, when the cooling rate is too low, the temperatures of
thin sections of material decrease faster than thick sections.
Nonuniform heating and cooling can cause distortion, residual
stresses, and cracks. For this reason, the heating and cooling
rates are specified by the applicable construction standards.
Requirements
The majority of postweld heat treatment applications in Saudi
Aramco must be in accordance with ASME Section VIII, Division
1, Paragraph UCS-56. All construction standards that were
addressed in earlier Modules contain mandatory PWHT
requirements for specific types of materials. When a PWHT
temperature must be determined for a particular welding
operation and/or service, the applicable construction and Saudi
Aramco welding standards are the first place to look. Typically,
the construction standards require that the heating rate must
not exceed 300°F to 400°F per hour when the base metal of the
weld or component is above 800°F. The cooling rate must not
exceed 400°F to 500°F per hour when the base metal of the
weld or component is above 800°F. It should be noted that, for
carbon steels, control of heating and cooling rates below 800°F
is not critical.
The postweld heat treatment temperature information presented

below is based on the applicable construction standards. This
information has been greatly simplified because the
construction standards provide many exemptions from the
72
mandatory PWHT requirements. The PWHT temperature

requirements for materials that are covered by ASME
construction standards are similar to each other but care must
be taken because the differences are very subtle. Specific
PWHT requirements must be directly derived from the
applicable construction standards. Figure 39 summarizes the
ASME PWHT requirements for the following materials:
 P Number 1 (carbon steel)

 P Number 3 (low-alloy steels)
Carbon Steels – The PWHT temperature requirements for mild
carbon steels (P Number 1) that are covered by ASME Section
I, Section VIII, B31.1, and B31.3 are similar. The PWHT
temperature for materials with a thickness that exceeds 3/4" is
generally between 1,100 °F and 1,200°F. ASME Section VIII is
the only exception in that PWHT is not required until the
material thickness (t) exceeds 1-1/2". Materials between 1-1/4"
and 1-1/2" in thickness also require PWHT per Section VIII
when the preheat temperature (T p) is less than 200 °F. Table 5
summarizes the ASME preheat requirements for P Number 1
materials.
The AWS D1.1 construction standard does not specifically

require PWHTs of weldments. AWS D1.1 acknowledges that
the need for PWHT must be identified on the contract drawings
or specifications. However, AWS D1.1 does provide guidelines
for PWHT temperature between 1,100 °F and 1,200°F for most
carbon steels and heating and cooling rates that are similar to
those previously discussed.
73
Table 5. ASME Construction Standard PWHT Temperature Requirements
P- ASME ASME Section ASME ASME

Number Section I VIII B31.1 B31.3
1 1,100°F for 1,100°F for 1,100°F to 1,100°F to
t > 3/4”. t > 1-1/2” or 1,200°F for 1,200°F for
1-1/4” < t > 3/4”. t > 3.4”.
t > 1-1/2” and
Tp < 200°F.
3 1,100°F for 1,100°F for all 1,100°F to 1,100°F to
t > 5/8” and Group No. 3 1,200°F for 1,200°F for
C > 0.25%. materials. t > 5/8” and t > 3/4” or
Otherwise C > 0-.25%. Ts > 71 ksi.
1,100°F for
t > 1/2” and
C > 0.25% .
4 1,100°F for O.D. 1,100°F for 1,300°F to 1,300°F to
> 4” or O.D. > 4” or 1,375°F for 1,375°F for
t > 5/8” or t > 5/8” or NPS > 4” or t > 1/2” or
C > 0.15% or C > 0.15% or t > 1/2 “ or Ts > 71 ksi.
Tp < 250°F. Tp < 250°F. C > 0.15” or
Tp < 250°F.
5 1,250°F for Cr > 1,250°F for 1,300°F to 1,300°F to
3.0% or Cr > 3.0% or 1,400°F for 1,400°F for
O.D. > 4” or O.D. > 4” or NPS > 4” or t > 1.2” or
t > 5.8” or t > 5.8” or t > 1/2” or Cr > 3.0% or
C > 0.15% or C > 0,15% or Cr > 3.0% or C > 0.15%.
Tp < 300°F. Tp > 300°F. C > 0.15% or
Tp < 300°F.
Where: C = carbon content

Cr = chromium content
O.D. = outside diameter
NPS = nominal pipe size
t = material thickness
Tp = preheat temperature
Ts = minimum specified tensile strength
74
Because the size and weight of field erected tanks do not

permit adequate support at PWHT temperatures, API 620 does
not specifically require the use of PWHT when welding tanks.
API 650 does describe PWHT for all flush-type cleanout fittings
and shell connections. In general, the PWHT temperatures are
between 1,100°F and 1,200°F. Variations in the PWHT
requirements are based on the diameter of the opening, the
material group, and the thickness of the tank shell material.
Low Alloy Steels – The postweld heat treatment temperature

requirement for low alloy steels (P Number 3) in ASME Section I
and B31.1 is 1,100 °F when the material thickness (t) is in
excess of 5/8" and the carbon content (C) is in excess of
0.25%. ASME Section VIII requires PWHT at 1,100 °F for all P
Number 3, Group Number 3, materials. Group Number 1 and 2
materials require PWHT at 1,100 °F when the material thickness
exceeds 1/2" and the carbon content exceeds 0.25%. ASME
B31.1 requires PWHT at temperatures between 1,100 °F and
1,200°F when the material thickness exceeds 5/8" and the
carbon content exceeds 0.25%. ASME B31.3 requires PWHT
at temperatures between 1,100 °F and 1,200°F when the
material thickness exceeds 3/4" or the minimum specified
tensile strength (Ts) exceeds 71 ksi. Figure 39 summarizes the
ASME PWHT requirements for P Number 3 materials.
The postweld heat treatment temperature requirement for low

alloy steels (PNumber 4) in ASME Section I and VIII is 1,100 °F
when the outside diameter (O.D.) is greater than 4", when the
material thickness (t) is greater than 5/8", or when the carbon
content (C) is greater than 0.15%, when the minimum preheat
temperature(Tp) is less than 250 °F. ASME B31.1 requires
PWHT at temperatures between 1,300 °F and 1,375°F when the
nominal pipe size (NPS) is greater than 4", the material
thickness (t) is greater than of 1/2", the carbon content (C) is
greater than 0.15%, or the minimum preheat temperature(T p) is
less than 250°F. ASME B31.3 requires PWHT at temperatures
between 1,300°F and 1,375°F when the material thickness (t) is
greater than 1/2" or the minimum specified tensile strength (T s)
exceeds 71 ksi. Figure 39 summarizes the ASME PWHT
requirements for P Number 4 materials.
The postweld heat treatment temperature requirement for low

alloy steels (PNumber 5) in ASME Section I and VIII is 1,250 °F
75
when the chromium content is greater than 3.0%, when the

outside diameter (O.D.) is greater than 4", when the material
thickness (t) is greater than 5/8", when the carbon content (C) is
greater than 0.15%, or when the minimum preheat
temperature(Tp) is less than 300 °F. ASME B31.1 requires
PWHT at temperatures between 1,300 °F and 1,400°F when the
nominal pipe size (NPS) is greater than 4", when the material
thickness (t) is greater than 1/2", when the chromium content is
greater than 3.0%, when the carbon content (C) is greater than
0.15%, or when the minimum preheat temperature(T p) is less
than 300o F. ASME B31.3 requires PWHT at temperatures
between 1,300°F and 1,400°F when the material thickness (t) is
greater than 1/2", the chromium content is greater than 3.0%, or
the carbon content is greater than 0.15%. Figure 39
summarizes the ASME PWHT requirements for P Number 5
materials.
PWHT for Service – For carbon and low alloy steels, Saudi
Aramco piping and pressure vessel standards require PWHT
for the following process conditions. Code exemptions for
PWHT are not permitted if PWHT is specified for process
conditions.
 All caustic soda (NaOH) solutions, including

conditions where caustic carryover may occur.
 All monoethanolamine (MEA) solutions (all
temperatures).
 All diglycol amine (DGA) solutions above 138°C
design temperature.
 All rich amino diisopropanol (ADIP) solutions above
90°C design temperature.
 All lean ADIP solutions above 60°C design
temperature.
 Boiler deaerator service (i.e., ambient temperature
vacuum deaerators are exempt).
 Hyrdrogen service for P-No. 3, 4, and 5A/B/C base
materials.
76
COE 114.03 GLOSSARY
GLOSSARY
acidity A chemical term relating to the quality or condition of
being acidic in composition.
annealing A heat treatment that increases the temperature of steel

above the critical temperature and then is slowly cooled
in a furnace to remove internal stresses that result in a
steel of lower strength and higher ductility.
basicity A chemical term relating to the quality or condition of

being basic in composition.
coalescence The growing together or growth into one body of the

materials being welded.
interpass temperature The temperature of the weld area between weld passes.
liquidus temperature The lowest temperature at which a metal or alloy is

completely liquid, i.e., the temperature at which freezing
starts.
normalizing A heat treatment that increases the temperature of steel

above the critical temperature and is then air-cooled to
remove internal stresses that result in a steel of higher
strength and lower ductility than annealing.
postweld heat treatment For stress relieving applications, any heat treatment that
is applied to a weld or weldment subsequent to welding
in order to reduce stresses or to alter the weld structure.
preheat Heat that is applied to the base metals of a weld joint

immediately before welding.
reducing atmosphere A chemically active protective atmosphere that will

reduce metal oxides to their metallic state at elevated
temperature.
root penetration The depth of fusion that is obtained with the root pass.
solidification temperature Synonymous with solidus temperature.
77
COE 114.03 GLOSSARY
solidus temperature The highest temperature at which a metal or alloy is

completely solid, i.e., the temperature at which melting
starts.
Temperature-indicating A temperature measuring device that is made from a

crayon chalk-like material and that is formulated to melt at
specific temperatures with a  1% accuracy
thermocouple A thermoelectric device that measures temperature

differences.
weldment An assembly of component parts that is joined by

welding.
78
COE 114.03 EXERCISE
EXERCISES
EXERCISE 1. IDENTIFY THE MOST COMMONLY USED BASE

METALS IN THE OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY
Write your answers in the blank spaces provided.
1. What is a base metal?
2. How does the welding thermal cycle affect the base metal portion of the
weld?
3. When two pieces of metal are joined by welding to make one piece, what
should the mechanical properties of the weld joint be?
79
COE 114.03 EXERCISE
4. What are carbon steels, their components, and the percentages of these
components?
5. What is the difference between the fusion zone and the heat affected zone
(HAZ)?
MULTIPLE CHOICE
6. What is the most important element concerning properties and weldability

of carbon steels?
A. Hardness
B. Carbon content
C. Strength
D. Other elements
80
COE 114.03 EXERCISE
7. A carbon steel has a carbon content of 1 percent. What type of carbon steel
is it?
A. High Carbon Steel
B. Stainless steel
C. Medium Carbon Steel
D. Low alloy Steel
8. A steel has an amount of manganese greater than 1.65 percent. What type
of steel is it?
B. Stainless steel
D. Low alloy Steel
9. A steel contains about 20 percent chromium. What type of steel is it?
B. Stainless steel
D. Low alloy Steel
10. Welding low

alloy, primarily chrome-moly steels, requires maintenance of?
a. Minimum preheat temperature
b. Minimum interpass temperature
c. A and B
d. None of the above
81
COE 114.03 EXERCISE
EXERCISE 2: IDENTIFY WELD JOINT DESIGNS AND
SYMBOLS
Write your answers in the spaces provided.
1. In Figure 37, identify the type of fillet weld joint.

A
2. Using Figure 37, identify the nomenclature of parts of the fillet weld at the
arrows indicated.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
82
COE 114.03 EXERCISE
Figure 37. To be used with Exercise 2, questions 1 and 2
83
COE 114.03 EXERCISE
3. What type of weld joint is shown in Figure 38. What is the nomenclature of
the parts indicated by the arrows?
Figure 38. To be used with Exercise 2, question 3
84
COE 114.03 EXERCISE
4. In Figure 39, what is the type of weld indicated and the nomenclature of the
part?
A.
B.
C.
(1)
(2)
Figure 39. To be used with Exercise 2, Question 4
85
COE 114.03 EXERCISE
5. In Figure 40, give the nomenclature for the elements of the weld symbol
indicated at these letters.
S.
(E)
R.
L.
P.
A.
E.
T.
N.
86
COE 114.03 EXERCISE
6. In Figure 41, what type of weld does the symbol indicate and what are the
requirements for the weld?
Figure 41. To be used in Exercise 2, Question 6
87
COE 114.03 EXERCISE
88
COE 114.03 EXERCISE
89
COE 114.03 EXERCISE
EXERCISE 3: IDENTIFY WELDING CONSUMABLES
Write your answers in the blank spaces provided.
1. What do the letters and numbers indicate in the following AWS classification
for carbon and low alloy steel coated electrodes. (EXXXXX).
2. For the following AWS classifications for Coated Carbon Steel Welding
Electrodes, what is the coating component, the welding positions (symbol)
and the current required.
A. E6020
B. E7027
C. E6010
D. E7015
E. E6013
3. What are the electrical current ranges for the following electrodes, given the
classification and diameter.
Diameter AWS Classification Current Range
90
COE 114.03 EXERCISE
A. 1/8 in E6022
B. 7/32 in E7014
C. 5/16 in E7024
D. 1/4 E6027
4. Explain the following AWS classifications for stainless steel coated

electrodes. (EXXX-XX).
91
COE 114.03 EXERCISE
5. Explain the AWS classification for carbon and low alloy steel bare rods and
wire. (ERXXXS-XX).
6. Explain the AWS classifications for carbon and low alloy steel flux cored
electrodes; (EXXT-X).
92
COE 114.03 EXERCISE
EXERCISE 4: DESCRIBE HEAT INPUT EFFECTS
1. What are the three key welding parameters that affect the amount of heat
input to a weld?
2. What is a current, how is it described and what is its letter designation?
3. What is the relationship between a high and low current and the base metal
penetration?
93
COE 114.03 EXERCISE
4. What is the relationship between an increase in welding current to the weld?
5. How does the welding voltage affect the weld and heat input?
6. How does travel speed affect the weld and the heat input?
94
COE 114.03 EXERCISE
7. How does excessive heat affect the weld quality?
95
COE 114.03 EXERCISE
Use Equation 1, Work Aid 4, to calculate the heat input for the next three
questions. Use the blank areas of this sheet and show your calculations..
8. If a 3/16" coated electrode is used at 180 amperes and 24 volts with a travel
speed of 15 inches per minute, what is the heat input?
9. If a 1/8" coated electrode is used at 120 amperes and 20 volts with a travel
speed of 20 inches per minute, what is the heat input?
10. If a 5/16"
coated electrode is used at 400 amperes and 24 volts with a travel speed of
8 inches per minute, what is the heat input?
96
COE 114.03 EXERCISE
97
COE 114.03 EXERCISE
EXERCISE 5: DESCRIBE HEAT TREATMENT EFFECTS
1. How do you describe preheat concerning a weld?
2. What is the purpose of preheating a weld site.
3. Oxyacetylene torches are usually limited to small weldments or

circumferential pipe welds that are less than what diameter and thickness?
4. When preheat for a single weld or for multiple welds that are in close
proximity is required for a long period of time, what preheat method is used?
5. During welding, what should be the relationship between the weldment

temperature, and the preheat and interpass temperature?
6. In accordance with AWS D1.1, what is the preheat range in Fahrenheit for
base metals which are ¾” thick?
7. In accordance with ASME, Section VIII, what is the preheat requirements for
metals with number P8.
98
COE 114.03 EXERCISE
8. What is the purpose of postweld heat treatment?
9. For field postweld heat treatment, what is the most popular method?
10. Typically, according to most construction standards, what can be said about
the heating rates?
11. Typically, according to most construction standards, what can be said about
the cooling rates?
99
COE 114.03 EXERCISE
12. Using the

equation in Work Aid 5, determine the carbon equivalent, given the following
information about the components of the base metal.
%C = 1
%Mn = 0.5
%Ni = 0.05
%Mo = 1
%Cr = 0.5
%Cu = 0.02
100
COE 114.03 WORK AID
WORK AIDS
WORK AID 1: HOW TO IDENTIFY THE MOST COMMONLY

The following Work Aid will assist you in identifying the most common metals used in
the oil and gas industry.
TYPE OF METAL OR SUB- DESCRIPTION

GROUP
Carbon Steel (Three Types) Carbon content is less than 1 percent

Manganese content is less than 1.65 percent
Copper and silicon content are each less than 0.60
percent
(1). Low-carbon Steel – to 0.25% carbon ( c ) -0.25 to
1.5 % magnesium (Mn)
(2). Medium-carbon Steel –0.25 to 0.50% c, 0.60 to

1.65% Mn.
(3). High-carbon Steels –0.50 to 1.03% c,

0.30 to 1.00% Mn.
 Low Alloy Steels The amount of manganese is greater than 1.65
percent.
The amount of silicon is greater than 0.60 percent.
The amount of copper is greater than 0.60 percent.
A definite minimum quantity of any of the following

elements is specified or required in alloy steels:
aluminum, boron, chromium up to 3.99 percent, cobalt,
columbium, molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tungsten,
vanadium, or zirconium.
Any other alloying agent is added to obtain a desired

alloying effect.
101
COE 114.03 WORK AID
 Stainless Steels (Five All stainless steels contain iron as the main element
groups) and chromium in amounts that vary from about 11
percent to 30 percent. Chromium provides corrosion
resistance
(1) Austenitic – most commonly used, corrosive

resistant, easily welded, does not require pre or post
heat.
(2) Chromium Martensitic – are magnetic steels that

contain 12 to 14 percent chromium and up to 0.35
percent carbon
(3) Chromium Ferritic – are also magnetic and readily

welded; however, the gas welding processes are not
recommended
(4) Duplex – combine the corrosion resistance

properties of austenitic S. S. grade, especially stress
corrosion cracking (SCC), and the mechanical
properties of the ferritic stainless steel grades
(5) Precipitation-hardened – can develop high

strength with reasonably simple heat treatments;
Precipitation-hardened stainless steels that are readily
welded require no preheat or solution annealing heat
treatment.
102
COE 114.03 WORK AID
WORK AID 2: HOW TO IDENTIFY WELD JOINT DESIGNS AND
SYMBOLS
This Work Aid consists of Figure 8 through Figure 29 in the Information Section of this
module. Use the Table of Contents for Figures to locate the page numbers.
103
COE 114.03 WORK AID
WORK AID 3: HOW TO IDENTIFY WELDING CONSUMABLES
This Work Aid will assist you in identifying welding consumables.
Following is a synopsis of the four basic types of welding consumables:
1. Coated Electrodes
 Most popular type of filler metal for arc welding

 Also used in the SMAW welding process
 The AWS classifications for carbon and low alloy steel coated electrodes are based
on an "E" (electrode) prefix with a four or five digit number (EXXXXX).
 The first two digits (or three digits in a five digit number) indicate the
minimum required tensile strength in the “as deposited” weld metal (not
stress relieved) in thousands of pounds per square inch.
 The next to the last digit indicates the welding position(s) in which the coated
electrode can make satisfactory welds:
(a) – 1 = all positions
(b) – 2 = flat and horizontal fillet welds
 The AWS classifications for stainless steel coated electrodes are also based on an
"E" prefix with only a three digit number and a two digit suffix (EXXX-XX).
 The first three digits represent the American Iron and Steel Institute's (AISI)
(a) – The 300 series designates austenitic stainless steels
(b) – The 400 series designates martensitic and ferritic stainless steels
 The two digits in the suffix indicate the type of current and the type of coating
for the electrode.
104
COE 114.03 WORK AID
2. Bare Rods and Wires
 Bare rods are typically manufactured in 36" straight lengths with diameters
that range from 0.045" to 3/16".
 Bare rods are predominantly used with the gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
process and the torch brazing process.
 Bare wire electrodes are similar to bare rods except that bare wire is
manufactured in continuous lengths with diameters that range from 0.020" to
1/8."
 The AWS classifications for carbon and low alloy steel bare rods and wire
have an "ER" prefix with a two or three digit number and a one or two digit
suffix (ERXXXS-XX). The "E" indicates an electrode, and the "R" indicates a
welding rod; therefore, "ER" indicates either an electrode or a welding rod.
 The first three digits "XXX" indicate the minimum required tensile strength in
thousands of pounds per square inch.
 The "S" indicates a solid electrode or rod.
 The one or two digits in the suffix indicate the chemical composition of the
deposited weld metal.
 The AWS classifications for stainless steel bare rods and wire have an "ER" prefix
with a three digit number (ERXXX).
 The first three digits represent the American Iron and Steel Institute's (AISI)
 The 300 series designates austenitic stainless steels, and the 400 series
designates the martensitic and ferritic stainless steels.
 In the AWS classification ER308L, the "L" represents a low carbon version of
the filler metal.
3. Flux-cored Electrodes.
 Tubular wire that is manufactured in continuous lengths with diameters that

range from 0.045" to 5/32."
 The AWS classifications for carbon and low alloy steel flux cored electrodes
have an "E" prefix with a two digit number "XX and a one digit suffix
(EXXT-X).
 The "E" indicates an electrode and the "T" indicates a tubular electrode.
 The first two digits indicate the minimum required tensile strength in
thousands of pounds per square inch.
 The one digit suffix indicates the chemical composition of the deposited
weld metal, gas type, and usability factor. (Refer to Figure 31)
 Example, An E70T-1 flux cored electrode has a 70,000 psi tensile
strength and it uses CO2 shielding gas for flat position welding.
WORK AID 4: HOW TO DESCRIBE HEAT INPUT EFFECTS

This Work is a synopsis of the effects of heat input.
105
COE 114.03 WORK AID
1. Parameters of heat input
 The three key welding parameters affect the amount of heat input to a weld
are:
 The welding current
(a) High welding current results in greater base metal penetration, and
a lower welding current results in shallow base metal penetration.
(b) An increase in the welding current increases the heat input to the
weld.
(c) An increase in the welding current also increases the melt-off rate of
the electrode and improves productivity because more weld metal is
deposited
 The welding arc voltage

(a) Voltage is the force that causes a current to flow.
(b) The difference in potential or voltage causes the current to flow in

an electric circuit.
(c) The letter "V" is used to designate voltage
(d) High welding voltage results in greater base metal penetration,

while lower welding voltage is indicative of shallow base metal
penetration.
(e) An increase in the welding voltage increases the heat input to the
weld
106
COE 114.03 WORK AID
 The travel speed of the welding process.
(a) The rate that a welding electrode progresses along a weld joint while
welding is called the travel speed.
(b) The letter "S" designates the travel speed.
(c) Several welding variables affect the travel speed, such as, the
welding process, the position of the weld, the welder, and the wire
feed speed.
(d) Slow travel speeds make wide weld beads with deep base metal
penetration.
(e) Fast travel speeds make narrow weld beads and shallow base
metal penetration
(f) A decrease in the travel speed increases the heat input to the weld
2. Disadvantages of excessive heat input that can affect weld quality.
 Warpage and distortion caused by high residual differential shrinkage stresses

 Cracks caused by a reduction of ductility or a degree of hardening
 Premature failure caused by the deterioration of the toughness properties of
the weld joint
 Premature failure caused by the loss of strength of certain work hardened,
quenched, and tempered materials
3. Use the following equation to determine heat input.
Equation 1. Heat Input
I V
Heat Input 
S
Where:
I = the welding current in amperes
V = the arc voltage in volts
S = the travel speed in inches per minute
107
COE 114.03 WORK AID
WORK AID 5: HOW TO DESCRIBE HEAT TREATMENT
EFFECTS
This Work Aid is a synopsis of the effects of heat treatment.
1. Preheat
 Heat that is applied to the base metals of a weld joint immediately before
welding.
 Preheat temperature depends on many factors such as the composition of the
base metal, the ambient temperature, and the welding procedure.
 The main purpose of preheat is to reduce the rate at which a weld cools.
 Preheating the weld has these advantages:
 Reduces shrinkage stresses in the weld and heat-affected zone that lead
to cracks
 A slower rate at which the weld metal cools through the critical
temperature range (approximately 1,600F to 1,330F), which prevents
excessive hardening and loss of ductility of both the weld metal and the
heat-affected zone
 A slower rate at which the weld metal cools through the 400F range,
which allows more time for any hydrogen that is present to diffuse away
from the weld and adjacent base metal to avoid underbead cracking
 Maintains sufficient heat at the weld area on highly conductive or thick
base metals
 Removes moisture from the weld joint
 The choice of the preheat tools depends on factors such as the following:
 The preheat temperature
 The duration of the preheat cycle
 The size and shape of the weldment
 The need for a one-of-a-kind or a continuous production preheat
operation
 For the majority of pipe welds, an oxyacetylene torch provides sufficient
preheat to support the welding operation
 When preheat for a single weld or for multiple welds that are in close proximity
is required for a long period of time, electric resistance heaters are often more
convenient.
 Gas burners are more effectively and more widely used in pressure vessels
(and in building industries in general) than handheld torches.
 The necessity to preheat weld joints and the temperature requirements should
be established by Engineering and should be demonstrated by a welding
procedure specification (WPS).
108
COE 114.03 WORK AID
 The preheat temperature depends upon these factors:
 Type of base metal and its composition
 Joint thickness degree of restraint
 Type and composition of filler metal
 The interpass temperature should also be considered. The interpass
temperature is the highest temperature in the weld joint immediately prior to
welding.
 The weldment temperature should never be allowed to become lower than the
preheat or the interpass temperature.
Use the following formula to determine carbon equivalent of base metals
Equation 2. Carbon Equivalent Formula
 %Cr  Mo  V   %Ni  Cu 
CE  %C   %Mn / 6     
 5   1. 5 
Where:
%C = Percent of Carbon
%Mn = Percent of Manganese
%Cr = Percent of Chromium
%Mo = Percent of Molybdenum
%V = Percent of Vanadium
%Ni = Percent of Nickel
%Cu = Percent of Copper
109
COE 114.03 WORK AID
2. Postweld Heat Treatment
 A number of postweld heat treatments exist for weldments but stress relief is
the most widely used postweld heat treatment..
 Postweld heat treatment is any heat treatment that is applied to a weld or
weldment after welding to reduce residual stresses.
 Advantages of postweld heat treatment of weldments:
 Reduce residual stresses that are inherent to any weldment, casting, or
forging
 Soften hardened weld zones
 Improve resistance to corrosion and caustic embrittlement
 Improve dimensional stability of the weldment when machined
 Increase service life of the weldment
 Similar methods as that utilized for preheat are used for use for postweld heat
treatment (PWHT) of welds. T he choice of the PWHT methods is similar to
preheat treatment methods and depends on factors such as the following:
 The postweld heat treatment temperature
 The duration of the postweld heat treatment cycle
 The size and shape of the weldment or component
 The need for a one-of-a-kind or a continuous production postweld heat
treatment operation
 The majority of postweld heat treatment applications in Saudi Aramco must be
in accordance with ASME Section VIII, Division 1, Paragraph UCS-56.
 Typically, the construction standards require that the heating rate must not
exceed 300°F to 400°F per hour when the base metal of the weld or
component is above 800°F.
 The cooling rate must not exceed 400°F to 500°F per hour when the base
metal of the weld or component is above 800°F
110
COE 114.03 EVALUATION
EVALUATION
You may use any material furnished as a part of this course to complete this evaluation.
Write your answers in the blanks provided.
1. Metals with less than 1% carbon content and 1.65% manganese content
are considered steels.
2. Metals with a minimum chromium content of 11% are considered

steels.
3. Low carbon steel metals have a carbon content of % to %, while

medium carbon steels have a carbon content of % to %, and high
carbon steels have a carbon content in excess of %.
4. What is the main purpose of flux on coated electrodes?
111
5. As applicable, identify the type of electrode, the minimum required tensile

strength, the allowable welding positions, the type of current to be used,
and the type of coating, for the following electrodes.
A. E6010
B. ER308L
C. E7018
D. ER316
6. Name the three key welding parameters that affect the amount of heat input
to a weld.
A.
B.
C.
112
7. Describe two disadvantages of excessive heat input in a weldment.
A.
B.
C.
D.
8. Identify the main purpose of preheat.
9. Name three factors that should be considered in order to determine the

appropriate preheat temperature for a weldment.
A.
B.
C.
113
10. Identify three advantages of postweld heat treatment.
11. For each of the following weld joint configurations that are shown in the
left column, draw the appropriate welding symbol in the right column
Figure 46. Evaluation Figure 1
114
115
116
COE 114.03 BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AWS A5.x series, 1991
ASME Section I, Rules for Construction of Power Boilers, 1966
ASME Section II, Part C, Specifications for Welding Rods, Electrodes, and Filler
Metals, 1966
ASME Section VIII, Pressure Vessels, 1966
ASME Section IX, Qualification Standards for Welding, 1966
ASME/ANSI B31.3, Process Piping, 1966
ASME/ANSI B31.4, Liquid Transportation of Hydrocarbons, 1992
AWS D1.1, Structural Welding Code, 1996
117

Welding Parameters

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COE 114.

Date Description Page(s)

November, 1998 Complete Revision All

Most-Commonly Used Base Metals in the Oil and Gas Industry

Weld Joint Designs and Symbols.......................................................................

Heat Input Effects................................................................................................

Heat Treatment Effects........................................................................................

Figure 1. Full Penetration Weld Joint.................................................................

Figure 2. Common Crystal Structures in Metals................................................

Figure 3. Process of Solidification......................................................................

Figure 4. In-Process Plate Groove Welding......................................................

Figure 5. Weld Temperature Profiles..................................................................

Figure 6. Thermal Cycles...................................................................................

Figure 7. Iron-Carbon Alloy Phase Diagram......................................................

Figure 8. Fillet Welds.........................................................................................

Figure 9. Complete Penetration Butt Weld Nomenclature.................................

Figure 10. Single-Groove Butt Welds..................................................................

Figure 11. Double-Groove Butt Welds.................................................................

Figure 12. Partial Penetration Welds...................................................................

Figure 13. Combination Weld...............................................................................

Figure 14. Stud Weld............................................................................................

Figure 15. Components of a Weld Symbol..........................................................

Figure 16. Standard Location of Elements on a Weld Symbol............................

Figure 17. Arrow Side Fillet Weld Symbol...........................................................

Figure 18. Both Side Fillet Weld Symbol.............................................................

Figure 19. Unequal Leg Fillet Weld Symbol........................................................

Figure 20. Intermittent Fillet Weld Symbol...........................................................

Figure 21. Staggered Intermittent Fillet Weld Symbol.........................................

Figure 22. Single-V Groove Weld Symbol...........................................................

Figure 23. Double-V Groove Weld Symbol..........................................................

Figure 24. Single-U Groove Weld Symbol...........................................................

Figure 25. Partial Penetration Single-V Groove Weld Symbol............................

Figure 26. Partial Penetration Double-V Groove Weld Symbol..........................

Figure 27. Combination Square Groove/Fillet Weld Symbol...............................

Figure 28. Combination Single-V Groove/Fillet Weld Symbol.............................

Figure 29. Stud Weld Symbol...............................................................................

Figure 30. Various Types of Flux Cored Electrodes.............................................

Figure 32. Effect of Preheat on Cooling Rate......................................................

Figure 33. Typical Arrangement of Rope Resistance Heaters.............................

Figure 34. Typical Arrangement of Resistance Heating Pads.............................

Figure 35. Typical Arrangement of Ceramic Resistance Heater Pads................

Figure 36. Electric Resistance Heater System....................................................

Figure 37. To be used with Exercise 2, Questions 1 and 2.............................83

Figure 38. To be used with Exercise 2, question 3..............................................

Figure 39. To be used with Exercise 2, Question 4.............................................

Figure 40. To be used with Exercise 2, Question 5.............................................

Figure 41. To be used in Exercise 2, Question 6.................................................

Figure 42. To be used in Exercise 2, Question 7.................................................

Figure 43. To be used in Exercise 2, Question 8.................................................

Figure 44. To be used with Exercise 2, Question 9.............................................

Figure 45. To be used with Exercise 2, Question 10...........................................

Figure 46. Evaluation Figure 1.............................................................................

Figure 47. Evaluation Figure 2.............................................................................

Figure 48. Evaluation Figure 3.............................................................................

Figure 49. Evaluation Figure 4.............................................................................

Figure 50. Evaluation Figure 5.............................................................................

Table 1. AWS/ASME, Section II, Part C Classification of Coated ....Carbon

Table 3. ASME Construction Standard Preheat Temperature Requirements

Table 4. Preheat Temperature Ranges for the Four Thicknesses Ranges

Table 5. ASME Construction Standard PWHT Temperature Requirements ..

Equation 1. Heat Input............................................................................................

Equation 2. Carbon Equivalent Formula................................................................

 Identify the most commonly used base metals in the oil