Boost converter:

A boost converter (step-up converter) is a DC-to-DC power converter that steps up voltage
(while stepping down current) from its input (supply) to its output (load). It is a class
of switched-mode power supply (SMPS) containing at least two semiconductors (a diode and
a transistor) and at least one energy storage element: a capacitor, inductor, or the two in
combination. To reduce voltage ripple, filters made of capacitors (sometimes in combination
with inductors) are normally added to such a converter's output (load-side filter) and input
(supply-side filter).

Fig 3.2.2 illustrates the circuit action during the initial high period of the high frequency
square wave applied to the MOSFET gate at start up. During this time MOSFET conducts,
placing a short circuit from the right hand side of L1 to the negative input supply terminal.
Therefore a current flows between the positive and negative supply terminals through L1,
which stores energy in its magnetic field. There is virtually no current flowing in the
remainder of the circuit as the combination of D1, C1 and the load represent a much higher
impedance than the path directly through the heavily conducting MOSFET.
Fig. 3.2.3 Current Path with MOSFET Off

Fig. 3.2.3 shows the current path during the low period of the switching square wave cycle. As
the MOSFET is rapidly turned off the sudden drop in current causes L1 to produce a back
e.m.f. in the opposite polarity to the voltage across L1 during the on period, to keep current
flowing. This results in two voltages, the supply voltage VINand the back e.m.f.(VL) across L1
in series with each other.

This higher voltage (VIN +VL), now that there is no current path through the MOSFET,
forward biases D1. The resulting current through D1 charges up C1 to V IN +VL minus the
small forward voltage drop across D1, and also supplies the load.
 Fig. 3.2.4 Current Path with MOSFET On

Fig.3.2.4 shows the circuit action during MOSFET on periods after the initial start up. Each
time the MOSFET conducts, the cathode of D1 is more positive than its anode, due to the
charge on C1. D1 is therefore turned off so the output of the circuit is isolated from the input,
however the load continues to be supplied with VIN +VL from the charge on C1. Although the
charge C1 drains away through the load during this period, C1 is recharged each time the
MOSFET switches off, so maintaining an almost steady output voltage across the load

SINGLE PHASE INVERTER

A single phase bridge DC-AC inverter is shown in Figure below. The analysis of the single
phase DC-AC inverters is done taking into account following assumptions and conventions.
1) The current entering node a in Figure 8 is considered to be positive.
2) The switches S1, S2, S3 and S4 are unidirectional, i.e. they conduct current in one direction.
When the switches S1 and S2 are turned on simultaneously for a duration 0 ≤ t ≤ T1 , the the
input voltage Vin appears across the load and the current flows from point a to b.

Q1 – Q2 ON, Q3 – Q4 OFF ==> ν o = Vs

If the switches S3 and S4 turned on duration T1 ≤ t ≤ T2, the voltage across the load the load is
reversed and the current through the load flows from point b to a.
Q1 – Q2 OFF, Q3 – Q4 ON ==> ν o = -Vs
Hardware divided in to three parts

1)switching circuit

2)driver circuit

3)controller circuit

The switching circuit is flyback converter which performs the boost operation and with the use
of inverter converts direct current into the alternating current.

The controlling flyback converter is done by controller and driver circuit.

The controller circuit used to generate pulses for the switching circuit.

The controller circuit contains bridge rectifier,voltage regulator ,capacitor and crystal oscillator.
The operating voltage pic controller is 5 v dc.

So that we are taken single phase supply which is step down by the step down
transformer(230v/12v,500mA).

Voltage
regulator(5
Step down Bridge V DC) C filter
Single phase
transformer rectifier
supply (1000Uf,470
(230/12v (IC7805)
12V DC Uf)
AC)
(DZW10)

Crystal
oscillator Pic 16f877a
The crystal oscillator used generate the clock frequency for pic controller.After applying supply
,it will start to generating pulses.The purpose of driver ckt is giving isolation between switching
ckt and controller ckt. The operating voltage is 12 v dc . We will take 12v ac from the supply
.afetr that with the use of half wave rectifier converter 12v ac in to 12 v dc.Driver ckt receives
the pulses from the controller it is fed to gate pulse of mosfet switches.

MUTUAL INDUCTANCE 1:4 RATIO

HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
5.1 INTRODUCTION

The hardware system of the proposed converter is implemented using a PIC micro-controller.
The software system like Proteus, Mplab, and Micropro is used for the system design for coding
the pulses in to the PIC controller. The power supply circuit is designed that will control the PIC
and driver circuit to drive the pulses to the MOSFET.

5.2 SOFTWARE UNIT

 MICROPRO

Introduction & Features

This Versatile programmer is a dedicated PIC Micro controller Programmer. All the PIC series
of IC’s except the 17 series can be programmed with this Hardware through RS232 Port of PC.
This programmer also supports ICSP programming for on board programming of supported flash
PIC devices. MPLAB IDE, PIC CCS C compiler Demo software with MPLAB Plug-in, and
programming instructions are provided in CD-ROM. The programmer software is
compatible to Windows 98, Windows 2000, and Windows XP platforms. A Soft copy of the user
manual is also included in the CD, in addition to the hard copy provided with the Kit. This
Dedicated programmer is for programming a wide range of PIC Micro controllers including
EEPROMS, PIC12 series, PIC16 series & PIC18 series of IC’s.

SPECIFICATIONS

 Auto detection of programmer by software

 Regulated Power supply 5,13.5V
 Auto Flash upgrades through serial port
 16 MHz crystal Oscillator
 Built in RS232 connector
 ZIF socket for easy programming
 External ICSP Interface for on board programming
 Programmable configuration and ID
 Selective Erase and programming for supported PIC Devices
 Manual / Auto Reset
 Configurable COM Port.
 Program, Read, Verify and Blank check Modes
 Hex Code Editor
 Program & Verify fly Window
 Switchable to MPLAB software
 Extensive Integrated Help
 Debug vector Read & write
 Oscal value read & program (for selected chips)

 MPLAB
MPLAB Integrated Development Environment (IDE) is a free, integrated toolset for the
development of embedded applications on Microchip's PIC and dsPIC microcontrollers.

HI-TECH Software is an Australian-based company that provides ANSI C compilers and

development tools. Founded in 1984, the company is best known for its HI-TECH C PRO
compilers with whole-program compilation technology, or Omniscient Code Generation (OCG).
HI-TECH Software was bought by Microchip on 20 February 2009, whereupon it refocused its
development effort exclusively on supporting Microchip products.

The HI-TECH C Compiler for PIC10/12/16 MCUs (Lite mode) is a freeware compiler. It
supports all PIC10, PIC12 and PIC16 series devices. The features of HI-TECH C Compiler are
listed as followings:
 Fully compatible with Microchip’s MPLAB IDE

 Fully ANSI-compliant

 Includes Library source - for standard libraries and sample code for I/O drivers

 Includes macro assembler, linker, preprocessor, and one-step driver

 Runs on 32/64-bit Windows, Linux and Mac OS X

PROTEUS

This package splits into three parts very conveniently namely: -

ISIS : Intelligent Schematic Input System - for drawing circuit diagrams etc.
ARES : Advanced Routing and Editing Software - for producing pcb layout drawings.
LISA : Labcenter Integrated Simulation Architecture - for simulation of circuit diagram.
Separate handout.

PROTUES Virtual System Modelling (VSM)

PROTUES combines advanced schematic capture, mixed mode SPICE simulation, PCB layout
and autorouting to make a complete electronic design system. The PROTUES product range
also includes our revolutionary VSM technology, which allow you to simulate micro-controller
based design, complete with all the surrounding electronic.
Intelligent Schematic Input System (ISIS)

ISIS lies right at the heart of the PROTUES system and is far more than just another schematic
package. It has powerful environment to control most aspects of the drawing appearance.
whether your requirement is the rapid entry of complex design for simulation & PCB layout, Or
the creation of attractive Schematic for publication ISIS is the right tool for the job.

Product Features

1.Produces publication quality schematic

2. Style templates allow customization of supplied library
3.Mouse driven context sensitive user interface
4. Automatic wire routing and junction dot placement
5. Full support for buses including sub- circuit ports and bus pins
6. Large and growing component library of over 8000 parts

5.2.1 CONTROLLER UNIT

A Microcontroller (sometimes abbreviated µC, uC or MCU) is a small computer on a single

integrated circuit containing a processor core, memory, and programmable input/output
peripherals. Program memory in the form of NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often included on
chip, as well as a typically small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded
applications, in contrast to the microprocessors used in personal computers or other general
purpose applications.

PICs are popular with both industrial developers and hobbyists alike due to their low cost, wide
availability, large user base, extensive collection of application notes, availability of low cost or
free development tools, and serial programming (and re-programming with flash memory)
capability. Microchip announced on September 2011 the shipment of its ten billionth PIC
processor.

The PIC architecture is characterized by its multiple attributes:

 1. Separate code and data spaces (Harvard architecture) for devices other than
PIC32, which has a Von Neumann architecture.
2. A small number of fixed length instructions. Most instructions are single cycle
execution (2 clock cycles, or 4 clock cycles in 8-bit models), with one delay cycle on branches
and skips.
3. One accumulator (W0), the use of which (as source operand) is implied. (i.e. is
not encoded in the opcode)
4. All RAM locations function as registers as both source and/or destination of math
and other functions.
5. A hardware stack for storing return addresses and fairly small amount of
addressable data space (typically 256 bytes), extended through banking.
6. Data space mapped CPU, port, and peripheral registers.
7. The program counter is also mapped into the data space and writable. (this is used
to implement indirect jumps)

The Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (USART) module is one of the
two serial I/O modules. (USART is also known as a Serial Communications Interface or SCI.)
The USART can be configured as a full-duplex asynchronous system that can communicate
with peripheral devices, such as CRT terminals and personal computers, or it can be configured
as a half-duplex synchronous system that can communicate with peripheral devices, such as
A/D or D/A integrated circuits, serial EEPROMs, etc.

Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as automobile
engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote controls, office machines,
appliances, power tools, toys and other embedded systems. By reducing the size and cost
compared to a design that uses a separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output devices,
microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control even more devices and processes.
Mixed signal microcontrollers are common, integrating analog components needed to control
non-digital electronic systems.

Some microcontrollers may use four-bit words and operate at clock rate frequencies as low as
4kHz, for low power consumption (milliwatts or microwatts). They will generally have the
ability to retain functionality while waiting for an event such as a button press or other interrupt;
power consumption while sleeping (CPU clock and most peripherals off) may be just
nanowatts, making many of them well suited for long lasting battery applications. Other
microcontrollers may serve performance-critical roles, where they may need to act more like a
digital signal processor (DSP), with higher clock speeds and power consumption.

The first single-chip microprocessor was the 4-bit Intel 4004 released in 1971, with the Intel
8008 and other more capable microprocessors becoming available over the next several years.
However, both processors required external chips to implement a working system, raising total
system cost, and making it impossible to economically computerize appliances.

The Smithsonian Institution says TI engineers Gary Boone and Michael Cochran succeeded in
creating the first microcontroller in 1971. The result of their work was the TMS 1000, which
went commercial in 1974. It combined read-only memory, read/write memory, processor and
clock on one chip and was targeted at embedded systems.

Partly in response to the existence of the single-chip TMS 1000, Intel developed a computer
system on a chip optimized for control applications, the Intel 8048, with commercial parts first
shipping in 1977. It combined RAM and ROM on the same chip. This chip would find its way
into over one billion PC keyboards, and other numerous applications. At that time Intel's
President, Luke J. Valenter, stated that the microcontroller was one of the most successful in the
company's history, and expanded the division's budget over 25%.

Most microcontrollers at this time had two variants. One had an erasable EPROM program
memory, which was significantly more expensive than the PROM variant which was only
programmable once. Erasing the EPROM required exposure to ultraviolet light through a
transparent quartz lid. One-time parts could be made in lower-cost opaque plastic packages.

In 1993, the introduction of EEPROM memory allowed microcontrollers (beginning with the
Microchip PIC16x84) to be electrically erased quickly without an expensive package as
required for EPROM, allowing both rapid prototyping, and In System Programming. The same
year, Atmel introduced the first microcontroller using Flash memory. Other companies rapidly
followed suit, with both memory types.
Cost has plummeted over time, with the cheapest 8-bit microcontrollers being available for
under $0.25 in quantity (thousands) in 2009, and some 32-bit microcontrollers around $1 for
similar quantities. Nowadays microcontrollers are cheap and readily available for hobbyists,
with large online communities around certain processors. In the future, MRAM could
potentially be used in microcontrollers as it has infinite endurance and its incremental
semiconductor wafer process cost is relatively low. About 55% of all CPUs sold in the world
are 8-bit microcontrollers and microprocessors. According to Semico, over four billion 8-bit
microcontrollers were sold in 2006.

A typical home in a developed country is likely to have only four general-purpose

microprocessors but around three dozen microcontrollers. A typical mid-range automobile has
as many as 30 or more microcontrollers. They can also be found in many electrical devices such
as washing machines, microwave ovens, and telephones.

Microcontrollers must provide real time (predictable, though not necessarily fast) response to
events in the embedded system they are controlling. When certain events occur, an interrupt
system can signal the processor to suspend processing the current instruction sequence and to
begin an interrupt service routine (ISR, or "interrupt handler"). The ISR will perform any
processing required based on the source of the interrupt before returning to the original
instruction sequence. Possible interrupt sources are device dependent, and often include events
such as an internal timer overflow, completing an analog to digital conversion, a logic level
change on an input such as from a button being pressed, and data received on a communication
link. Where power consumption is important as in battery operated devices, interrupts may also
wake a microcontroller from a low power sleep state where the processor is halted until required
to do something by a peripheral event.

Microcontrollers usually contain from several to dozens of general purpose input/output pins
(GPIO). GPIO pins are software configurable to either an input or an output state. When GPIO
pins are configured to an input state, they are often used to read sensors or external signals.
Configured to the output state, GPIO pins can drive external devices such as LEDs or motors.
Many embedded systems need to read sensors that produce analog signals. This is the purpose
of the analog-to-digital converter (ADC). Since processors are built to interpret and process
digital data, i.e. 1s and 0s, they are not able to do anything with the analog signals that may be
sent to it by a device. So the analog to digital converter is used to convert the incoming data into
a form that the processor can recognize. A less common feature on some microcontrollers is a
digital-to-analog converter (DAC) that allows the processor to output analog signals or voltage
levels.

In addition to the converters, many embedded microprocessors include a variety of timers as

well. One of the most common types of timers is the Programmable Interval Timer (PIT). A PIT
may either count down from some value to zero, or up to the capacity of the count register,
overflowing to zero. Once it reaches zero, it sends an interrupt to the processor indicating that it
has finished counting. This is useful for devices such as thermostats, which periodically test the
temperature around them to see if they need to turn the air conditioner on, the heater on, etc. A
dedicated Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) block makes it possible for the CPU to control
power converters, resistive loads, motors, etc., without using lots of CPU resources in tight
timer loops.

Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART) block makes it possible to receive and

transmit data over a serial line with very little load on the CPU. Dedicated on-chip hardware
also often includes capabilities to communicate with other devices (chips) in digital formats
such as I²C and Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI).

FEATURES

 Floating channel designed for bootstrap operation

 Fully operational to +600V

 Tolerant to negative transient voltage dv/dt immune

 Gate drive supply range from 10 to 20V

 Under-voltage lockout for both channels

 3.3V logic compatible

  Separate logic supply range from 3.3V to 20V
 Logic and power ground ±5V offset
 CMOS Schmitt-triggered inputs with pull-down\
 Cycle by cycle edge-triggered shutdown logic
 Matched propagation delay for both channels
 Outputs in phase with inputs

A micro-controller is a single integrated circuit, commonly with the following features:

 Central Processing Unit - ranging from small and simple 4-bit processors to complex 32-
or 64-bit processors
 Volatile Memory (RAM) for data storage
 ROM, EPROM, EEPROM or Flash memory for program and operating parameter
storage
 Discrete Input and Output bits, allowing control or detection of the logic state of an
individual package pin
 Serial Input/Output such as serial ports (UARTs)
 Other Serial Communications Interfaces like I²C, Serial Peripheral Interface and
Controller Area Network for system interconnect
 Peripherals such as timers, event counters, PWM generators, and watchdog
 Clock generator - often an oscillator for a quartz timing crystal, resonator or RC circuit
 Many include analog-to-digital converters, some include digital-to-analog converters
 In-circuit programming and debugging support

Analog Applications:

10-bit, up to 8-channel Analog-to-Digital Converter (A/D), Brown-out Reset (BOR), Analog

Comparator module with, Two analog comparators Programmable on-chip voltage reference
(VREF) module, Programmable input multiplexing from device inputs and internal voltage
reference, Comparator outputs are externally accessible

High-Performance RISC CPU:

Only 35 single-word instructions to learn, All single-cycle instructions except for program
branches, which are two-cycle, Operating speed: DC – 20 MHz clock input DC – 200 ns
instruction cycle, Up to 8K x 14 words of Flash Program Memory, Up to 368 x 8 bytes of Data
Memory (RAM), Up to 256 x 8 bytes of EEPROM Data Memory, Pinout compatible to other 28-
pin or 40/44-pin PIC16CXXX and PIC16FXXX microcontrollers

Fig.3.1. Micro-controller Peripherals

Peripheral Details:

Timer0: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit prescaler, Timer1: 16-bit timer/counter with prescaler, can
be incremented during Sleep via external crystal/clock, Timer2: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit
period register, prescaler and postscaler, Two Capture, Compare, PWM modules, Capture is 16-
bit max, resolution is 12.5 ns Compare is 16-bit max, resolution is 200 ns, PWM max, resolution
is 10-bit Synchronous Serial Port (SSP) with SPI (Master mode) and I2C (Master/Slave),
Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (USART/SCI) with 9-bit address
detection, Parallel Slave Port (PSP) – 8 bits wide with external RD, WR and CS controls (40/44-
pin only), Brown-out detection circuitry for Brown-out Reset (BOR).

Special Microcontroller Applications:

100,000 erase/write cycle Enhanced Flash program memory typical, 1,000,000 erase/write cycle
Data EEPROM memory typical, Data EEPROM Retention > 40 years, Self-reprogrammable
under software control, In-Circuit Serial Programming via two pins, Single-supply 5V In-Circuit
Serial Programming Watchdog Timer (WDT) with its own on-chip RC oscillator for reliable
operation Programmable code protection, Power saving Sleep mode, Selectable oscillator
options, In-Circuit Debug (ICD) via two pins.

CMOS Technology:

Low-power, high-speed Flash/EEPROM technology, Fully static design, Wide operating voltage
range (2.0V to 5.5V), Commercial and Industrial temperature ranges, Low-power consumption.

Fig.3.2. Microcontroller PIC16F877A

5.3 REQUIREMENTS (HARDWARE PART)

5.3.1 MOSFET GATE DRIVER

The High And Low Side Driver (IR2112) is a high voltage, high speed power MOSFET and
IGBT driver with independent high and low side referenced output channels. Proprietary HVIC
and latch immune CMOS technologies enable ruggedized monolithic construction. Logic inputs
are compatible with standard CMOS or LSTTL outputs, down to 3.3V logic. The output drivers
feature a high pulse current buffer stage designed for minimum driver cross conduction.
Propagation delays are matched to simplify use in high frequency applications. The floating
channel can be used to drive an N-channel power MOSFET or IGBT in the high side
configuration which operates up to 600 volts.

The driver circuit is used to drive the bi-directional converter switches where in this project the
converter acts as a shunt active filter (2-quadrant) for unity power factor operation and the dc
voltage regulation. Here two BJT’s (n-type and p-type) are used for amplification.

Fig.3.3. DRIVER CKT IR2110

Fig.3.4. Operation of the MOSFET gate driver

Fig.3.5. Driver Circuit operation

 Fig.3.6. IR2110 Driver

FEATURES
 Floating channel designed for bootstrap operation
 Fully operational to +500V or +600V
 Tolerant to negative transient voltage & dV/dt immune
 Gate drive supply range from 10 to 20V
 Undervoltage lockout for both channels
 3.3V logic compatible
 Separate logic supply range from 3.3V to 20V
 Logic and power ground ±5V offset
 CMOS Schmitt-triggered inputs with pull-down
 Cycle by cycle edge-triggered shutdown logic
 Matched propagation delay for both channels
 Outputs in phase with inputs
The IR2110/IR2113 are high voltage, high speed power MOSFET and IGBT drivers with
independent high and low side referenced output channels. Proprietary HVIC and latch immune
CMOS technologies enable ruggedized monolithic construction. Logic inputs are compatible
with standard CMOS or LSTTL output, down to 3.3V logic. The output drivers feature a high
pulse current buffer stage designed for minimum driver cross-conduction. Propagation delays are
matched to simplify use in high frequency applications. The floating channel can be used to drive
an N-channel power MOSFET or IGBT in the high side configuration which operates up to 500
or 600 volts.
5.3.3 MOSFET

A cross section through an n-MOSFET when the gate voltage VGS is below the threshold
for making a conductive channel; there is little or no conduction between the terminals source
and drain; the switch is off. When the gate is more positive, it attracts electrons, inducing an n-
type conductive channel in the substrate below the oxide, which allows electrons to flow
between the n-doped terminals; the switch is on.

The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS

FET) is a transistor used for amplifying or switching electronic signals. The basic principle of
this kind of transistor was first patented by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld in 1925. Twenty five years
later, when Bell Telephone attempted to patent the junction transistor, they found Lilienfeld
already holding a patent which was worded in a way that would include all types of transistors.
Bell Labs was able to work out an agreement with Lilienfeld, who was still alive at that time. (It
is not known if they paid him money or not.) It was at that time the Bell Labs version was given
the name bipolar junction transistor, or simply junction transistor, and Lilienfeld's design took
the name field effect transistor.

In MOSFETs, a voltage on the oxide-insulated gate electrode can induce a conducting

channel between the two other contacts called source and drain. The channel can be of n-type or
p-type (see article on semiconductor devices), and is accordingly called an nMOSFET or a
pMOSFET (also commonly nMOS, pMOS). It is by far the most common transistor in both
digital and analog circuits, though the bipolar junction transistor was at one time much more
common. The 'metal' in the name is now often a misnomer because the previously metal gate
material is now often a layer of polysilicon (polycrystalline silicon). Aluminium had been the
gate material until the mid 1970s, when polysilicon became dominant, due to its capability to
form self-aligned gates. Metallic gates are regaining popularity, since it is difficult to increase
the speed of operation of transistors without metal gates.

An insulated-gate field-effect transistor or IGFET is a related term almost synonymous

with MOSFET. The term may be more inclusive, since many "MOSFETs" use a gate that is not
metal, and a gate insulator that is not oxide. Another synonym is MISFET for metal–insulator–
semiconductor FET. Usually the semiconductor of choice is silicon, but some chip
manufacturers, most notably IBM and Intel, recently started using a chemical compound of
silicon and germanium (SiGe) in MOSFET channels. Unfortunately, many semiconductors with
better electrical properties than silicon, such as gallium arsenide, do not form good
semiconductor-to-insulator interfaces, thus are not suitable for MOSFETs. Research continues
on creating insulators with acceptable electrical characteristics on other semiconductor material.

In order to overcome the increase in power consumption due to gate current leakage, a
high dielectric is used instead of silicon dioxide for the gate insulator, while polysilicon is
replaced by metal gates. The gate is separated from the channel by a thin insulating layer,
traditionally of silicon dioxide and later of silicon oxynitride. Some companies have started to
introduce a high-κ dielectric + metal gate combination in the 45 nanometer node. When a
voltage is applied between the gate and body terminals, the electric field generated penetrates
through the oxide and creates an "inversion layer" or "channel" at the semiconductor-insulator
interface. The inversion channel is of the same type, p-type or n-type, as the source and drain,
thus it provides a channel through which current can pass. Varying the voltage between the gate
and body modulates the conductivity of this layer and thereby controls the current flow between
drain and source.

The Power MOSFET switch IRF840 is used. A Power MOSFET is a specific type of
metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) designed to handle significant
power levels. Compared to the other power semiconductor devices (IGBT, Thyristor...), its main
advantages are high commutation speed and good efficiency at low voltages. It shares with the
IGBT an isolated gate that makes it easy to drive. It was made possible by the evolution of
CMOS technology, developed for manufacturing Integrated circuits in the late 1970s. The
power MOSFET shares its operating principle with its low-power counterpart, the lateral
MOSFET. The power MOSFET is the most widely used low-voltage (i.e. less than 200 V)
switch. It can be found in most power supplies, DC to DC converters, and low voltage motor
controllers. Because of their unipolar nature, the power MOSFET can switch at very high speed.
Indeed, there is no need to remove minority carriers as with bipolar devices. The only intrinsic
limitation in commutation speed is due to the internal capacitances of the MOSFET (see figure
4). These capacitances must be charged or discharged when the transistor switches. This can be
a relatively slow process because the current that flows through the gate capacitances is limited
by the external driver circuit. This circuit will actually dictate the commutation speed of the
transistor (assuming the power circuit has sufficiently low inductance).

Fig.3.8. MOSFET

ADVANTAGES

 Silicon gate for fast switching speeds.

 Low Rds(on) to minimize On-losses, specified at elevated temperature.
 Rugged---SOA is power dissipation limited.
 Source to drain diode characterized for use with inductive loads.
 Dynamic dv/dt rating
 Repetitive avalanche rated
 Fast switching
 Ease of paralleling
 Simple drive requirements

Fig.3.9. IRF840
 Fig.3.9. IRF840

Third generation Power MOSFETs from Vishay provide the designer with the best
combination of fast switching, ruggedized device design, low on-resistance and cost-
effectiveness. The TO-220AB package is universally preferred for all commercial-industrial
applications at power dissipation levels to approximately 50 W. The low thermal resistance and
low package cost of the TO-220AB contribute to its wide acceptance throughout the industry.
This N-Channel enhancement mode silicon gate power field effect transistor is an
advanced power MOSFET designed, tested, and guaranteed to withstand a specified level of
energy in the breakdown avalanche mode of operation. All of these power MOSFETs are
designed for applications such as switching regulators, switching converters, motor drivers, relay
drivers, and drivers for high power bipolar switching transistors requiring high speed and low
gate drive power. These types can be operated directly from integrated circuits.

FEATURES
  Ids= 8A; Vds=500V ;Rds(on)= 0.850Ω
 Single Pulse Avalanche Energy Rated
 SOA is Power Dissipation Limited
 Nanosecond Switching Speeds
 Linear Transfer Characteristics
 High Input Impedance

5.3.4 DIODE

Fig.3.10. Diode

In electronics, a diode is a type of two-terminal electronic component with nonlinear

resistance and conductance (i.e., a nonlinear current–voltage characteristic), distinguishing it
from components such as two-terminal linear resistors which obey Ohm's law. A semiconductor
diode, the most common type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material connected
to two electrical terminals. A vacuum tube diode (now rarely used except in some high-power
technologies) is a vacuum tube with two electrodes: a plate and a cathode. The most common
function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the diode's
forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse direction).
Thus, the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional
behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to direct current, and to
extract modulation from radio signals in radio receivers—these diodes are forms of rectifiers.
 However, diodes can have more complicated behavior than this simple on–off action.
Semiconductor diodes do not begin conducting electricity until a certain threshold voltage is
present in the forward direction (a state in which the diode is said to be forward-biased). The
voltage drop across a forward-biased diode varies only a little with the current, and is a function
of temperature; this effect can be used as a temperature sensor or voltage reference.

Semiconductor diodes' nonlinear current–voltage characteristic can be tailored by varying

the semiconductor materials and introducing impurities into (doping) the materials. These are
exploited in special purpose diodes that perform many different functions. For example, diodes
are used to regulate voltage (Zener diodes), to protect circuits from high voltage surges
(avalanche diodes), to electronically tune radio and TV receivers (varactor diodes), to generate
radio frequency oscillations (tunnel diodes, Gunn diodes, IMPATT diodes), and to produce light
(light emitting diodes). Tunnel diodes exhibit negative resistance, which makes them useful in
some types of circuits.

5.3.5 INDUCTOR

Fig.3.11 Inductor

An inductor (or reactor or coil) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to

stored energy in a magnetic field. Any conductor has inductance although the conductor is
typically wound in loops to reinforce the magnetic field. Due to the time-varying magnetic field
inside the coil, a voltage is induced, according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction,
which by Lenz's law opposes the change in current that created it. Inductors are one of the basic
components used in electronics where current and voltage change with time, due to the ability
of inductors to delay and reshape alternating currents. Inductors called chokes are used as parts
of filters in power supplies or can be used to block AC signals from passing through a circuit.

An inductor is used as the energy storage device in some switched-mode power supplies.
The inductor is energized for a specific fraction of the regulator's switching frequency, and de-
energized for the remainder of the cycle. This energy transfer ratio determines the input-voltage
to output-voltage ratio. This XL is used in complement with an active semiconductor device to
maintain very accurate voltage control.

5.3.6 CAPACITOR
 Fig.3.12. Capacitor

A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical

component used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary
widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for
example, one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating
film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical
devices.

When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field
develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative
charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is
characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the
electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them.

The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of
conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates," referring to an early means of
construction. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage
current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the
conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance. Capacitors are widely
used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass,
in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune
radios to particular frequencies and for many other purposes.

5.3.7 POWER SUPPLY UNIT

Power Supply for PIC 16F877A Microcontroller

This section describes how to generate +5V DC power supply and +12V DC power
supply.

Fig.3.13. Power Supply Unit

The power supply section is the important one. It should deliver constant output regulated
power supply for successful working of the project. A 0-12V/1mA transformer is used for this
purpose. The primary of this transformer is connected in to main supply through on/off switch&
fuse for protecting from overload and short circuit protection. The secondary is connected to the
diodes to convert 12V AC to 12V DC voltage. And filtered by the capacitors, which is further
regulated to +5v, by using IC 7805 and +12v by using IC7812.

5.11 Regulator IC’s

 Fig.3.14. Regulators Unit

In electronics, a linear regulator is a component used to maintain a steady voltage. The

resistance of the regulator varies in accordance with the load resulting in a constant output
voltage. In contrast, the switching regulator is nothing more than just a simple switch. This
switch goes on and off at a fixed rate usually between 50 kHz to 100 kHz as set by the circuit.
The regulating device is made to act like a variable resistor, continuously adjusting a voltage
divider network to maintain a constant output voltage. The primary advantage of a switching
regulator over linear regulator is very high efficiency, a lot less heat and smaller size.

The transistor (or other device) is used as one half of a potential divider to establish the
regulated output voltage. The output voltage is compared to a reference voltage to produce a
control signal to the transistor which will drive its gate or base. With negative feedback and good
choice of compensation, the output voltage is kept reasonably constant. Linear regulators are
often inefficient: since the transistor is acting like a resistor, it will waste electrical energy by
converting it to heat. In fact, the power loss due to heating in the transistor is the current times
the voltage dropped across the transistor. The same function can often be performed much more
efficiently by a switched-mode power supply, but a linear regulator may be preferred for light
loads or where the desired output voltage approaches the source voltage. In these cases, the
linear regulator may dissipate less power than a switcher. The linear regulator also has the
advantage of not requiring magnetic devices (inductors or transformers) which can be relatively
expensive or bulky, being often of simpler design, and being quieter. Linear regulators exist in
two basic forms: series regulators and shunt regulators.

Series regulators are the more common form. The series regulator works by providing a
path from the supply voltage to the load through a variable resistance (the main transistor is in
the "top half" of the voltage divider). The power dissipated by the regulating device is equal to
the power supply output current times the voltage drop in the regulating device. The shunt
regulator works by providing a path from the supply voltage to ground through a variable
resistance (the main transistor is in the "bottom half" of the voltage divider). The current through
the shunt regulator is diverted away from the load and flows uselessly to ground, making this
form even less efficient than the series regulator. It is, however, simpler, sometimes consisting of
just a voltage-reference diode, and is used in very low-powered circuits where the wasted current
is too small to be of concern. This form is very common for voltage reference circuits.

All linear regulators require an input voltage at least some minimum amount higher than
the desired output voltage. That minimum amount is called the dropout voltage. For example, a
common regulator such as the 7805 has an output voltage of 5V, but can only maintain this if the
input voltage remains above about 7V, before the output voltage begins sagging below the rated
output. Its dropout voltage is therefore 7V - 5V = 2V. When the supply voltage is less than about
2V above the desired output voltage, as is the case in low-voltage microprocessor power
supplies, so-called low dropout regulators (LDOs) must be used. When one wants an output
voltage higher than the available input voltage, no linear regulator will work (not even an LDO).
In this situation, a switching regulator.

5.3.8 Load

If an electric circuit has a well-defined output terminal, the circuit connected to this
terminal (or its input impedance) is the load. (The term 'load' may also refer to the power
consumed by a circuit; that topic is not discussed here). Load affects the performance of circuits
that output voltages or currents, such as sensors, voltage sources, and amplifiers. Mains power
outlets provide an easy example: they supply power at constant voltage, with electrical
appliances connected to the power circuit collectively making up the load. When a high-power
appliance switches on, it dramatically reduces the load impedance. If the load impedance is not
very much higher than the power supply impedance, the voltage will drop. In a domestic
environment, switching on a heating appliance may cause incandescent lights to dim noticeably.