Environmental Engineering

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HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

To attain a better understanding how water is made available, an understanding of the

hydrologic cycle (water cycle) is necessary. The hydrologic cycle is a cycle without a
beginning or an end. It transports the earth’s water from one location to another. It
consists of precipitation, surface runoff, infiltration, percolation, and evapotranspiration.

In the hydrologic cycle, water from streams, lakes, and oceans evaporated by the sun,
together with evaporation from the earth and transpiration from plants, furnishes the
atmosphere with moisture. Masses of warm air laden with moisture are either forced to
cooler upper regions or encounter cool air masses, where the masses condense and form
clouds. This condensed moisture falls to earth in the form of rain, snow, and sleet.
Another part of the precipitation runs off to streams and lakes, while a third part enters
the earth to supply vegetation and rises through the plants to transpire from the leaves,
and part seeps or percolates deeply into the ground to supply wells, springs, and the
base flow (dry weather flow) of streams.

The cycle constantly repeats itself — a cycle without end.

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HISTORY OF WASTER PURIFICATION PROCESS

Refers to information: “History of waster purification process”

WATER SOURCES

Surface water:

Is that water that is open to the atmosphere and results from overland flow (i.e., runoff
that has not yet reached a definite stream channel). In other words, surface water is the
result of surface runoff.
For the most part, surface (as used in the context of this text) refers to water flowing in
streams and rivers. It also refers to the following:

1. Water stored in natural or artificial lakes,

2. Man-made impoundments, such as lakes, made by damming a stream or river
3. Springs that are affected by a change in level or quantity
4. Shallow wells that are affected by precipitation
5. Wells drilled next to or in a stream or river
6. Rain catchments
7. Muskeg and tundra ponds

ADVANTAGES AND D ISADVANTAGES OF SURFACE W ATER

The biggest advantage of using a surface water supply as a water source is that these
sources are readily located; finding surface water sources does not demand
sophisticated training or equipment. Many surface water sources have been used for
decades and even centuries and considerable data are available on the quantity and
quality of the existing water supply. Surface water is also generally softer (not mineral-
laden), which makes its treatment much simpler.

The most significant disadvantage of using surface water as a water source is pollution.
Surface waters are easily contaminated (polluted) with microorganisms that cause
waterborne diseases and chemicals that enter the river or stream from surface runoff
and upstream discharges. Another problem with many surface water sources is
turbidity, which fluctuates with the amount of precipitation.
Increases in turbidity increase treatment cost and operator time.
Surface water temperatures can be a problem because they fluctuate with ambient
temperature, making consistent water quality production at a waterworks plant
difficult. Drawing water from a surface water supply might also present problems;
intake structures may clog or become damaged from winter ice, or the source may be so

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shallow that it completely freezes in the winter.

Water rights cause problems as well; removing surface water from a stream, lake, or
spring requires a legal right.

GROUNDWATER

As mentioned, part of the precipitation that falls on land infiltrates the land surface,
percolates downward through the soil under the force of gravity, and becomes
groundwater.

Groundwater, like surface water, is extremely important to the hydrologic cycle and to
our water supplies.

Sometimes pumping it to the surface is not economical, and in recent years, pollution of
groundwater supplies from improper disposal has become a significant problem.
We find groundwater in saturated layers called aquifers under the earth’s surface. Three
types of aquifers exist: unconfined, confined, and springs. Aquifers are made up of a
combination of solid material such as rock and gravel and open spaces called pores.
Regardless of the type of aquifer, the groundwater in the aquifer is in a constant state of
motion. This motion is caused by gravity or by pumping.
The actual amount of water in an aquifer depends upon the amount of space available
between the various grains of material that make up the aquifer. The amount of space
available is called porosity. The ease of movement through an aquifer is dependent
upon how well the pores are connected. For example, clay can hold a lot of water and
has high porosity, but the pores are not connected, so water moves through the clay
with difficulty. The ability of an aquifer to allow water to infiltrate is called permeability.

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WATER TREATMENT PROCESS

In this chapter, we focus on water treatment operations and the various unit processes
currently used to treat raw source water before it is distributed to the user.

Water treatment systems are installed to remove those materials that cause disease and
create nuisances. At its simplest level, the basic goal of water treatment operations is to
protect public health, with a broader goal to provide potable and palatable water. The
water treatment process functions to provide water that is safe to drink and is pleasant
in appearance, taste, and odor.

Water treatment is any unit process that changes or alters the chemical, physical, and
bacteriological quality of water with the purpose of making it safe for human
consumption and appealing to the customer. Treatment also is used to protect the water
distribution system components from corrosion.

Many water treatment unit processes are commonly used today. Treatment processes
used depend upon the evaluation of the nature and quality of the particular water to be
treated and the desired quality of the finished water.
Small water systems tend to use a smaller number of the wide array of unit treatment
processes available. This is in part because they usually rely on groundwater as the
source, and also because small water systems make many sophisticated processes
impractical (i.e., too expensive to install, too expensive to operate, too sophisticated for
limited operating staff).

PURPOSE OF WATER TREATMENT

As mentioned, the purpose of water treatment is to condition, modify and/or remove

undesirable impurities, to provide water that is safe, palatable, and acceptable to users.
While this is the obvious, expected purpose of treating water, various regulations also
require water treatment.
Some regulations state that if the contaminants listed under the various regulations are
found in excess of maximum contaminant levels (MCLs), the water must be treated to
reduce the levels. If a well or spring source is surface influenced, treatment is required,
regardless of the actual presence of contamination. Some impurities affect the aesthetic
qualities of the water; if they exceed secondary MCLs established by EPA and the state,
the water may need to be treated.

AERATION

Aeration is commonly used to treat water that contains trapped gases (such as hydrogen
sulfide) that can impart an unpleasant taste and odor to the water. It may be used to

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remove undesirable gases dissolved in water or to add oxygen to water to convert

undesirable substances to a more manageable form.
It’s more often used to treat groundwater, as most surface waters have been in contact
with the atmosphere for a sufficient period of time for gas transfer to occur naturally.
Just allowing the water to rest in a vented tank will (sometimes) drive off much of the
gas, but usually some form of forced aeration is needed.

SCREENING

Screening is usually the first major step in the water pretreatment process. It is defined
as the process whereby relatively large and suspended debris is removed from the water
before it enters the plant. River water, for example, typically contains suspended and
floating debris varying in size from small rocks to logs.
Removing these solids is important, not only because these items have no place in
potable water, but also because this river trash may cause damage to downstream
equipment (e.g., clogging and damaging pumps, etc.), increase chemical requirements,
impede hydraulic flow in open channels or pipes, or hinder the treatment process.
The most important criteria used in the selection of a particular screening system for
water treatment technology are the screen opening size and flow rate. Other important
criteria include costs related to operation and equipment, plant hydraulics, debris
handling requirements, and operator qualifications and availability.
Large surface water treatment plants may employ a variety of screening devices
including trash rakes, traveling water screens, drum screens, or bar screens

COAGULATION

The primary purpose in surface-water treatment is chemical clarification by coagulation

and mixing, flocculation, sedimentation, and filtration. These units, processes, along
with disinfection, work to remove particles, organic matter [i.e., bacteria, algae,
zooplankton, and organic compounds]), and microbes from water. These units also help
to produce water that is non-corrosive. Specifically, coagulation and flocculation work to
destabilize particles and agglomerate dissolved and particulate matter. Sedimentation
and Filtration remove solids.. Finally, disinfection provides microbial inactivation.

Following screening and the other pretreatment processes, the next unit process in a
conventional water treatment system is a mixer where chemicals are added in what is
known as coagulation.

Materials present in raw water may vary in size, concentration, and type.

Type I: Discrete particle settling - Particles whose size, shape and specific
gravity do not change with time

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Type II: Flocculent Particles – Particles whose surface properties are such that
they aggregate or coalesce, with other particles, thus changing size, shape and
perhaps specific gravity with each contact.

Type III: Dilute suspensions –suspensions in which the concentration of particles

is not sufficient to cause significant displacement of water as they settle

Type IV: Concentrated suspensions – The concentration of particles is so high

that sedimentation can only occur through compaction of the structure

Suspended particles may vary in mass and size and are dependent on the flow of water.
High flows and velocities can carry larger material. As velocities decrease, the
suspended particles settle according to size and mass.

Other material may be in solution. For example, consider salt dissolving in water.

The term coagulation refers to the series of chemical and mechanical operations by
which coagulants are applied and made effective.

The coagulant must be added to the raw water and perfectly distributed into the liquid;
such uniformity of chemical treatment is reached through rapid agitation or mixing.
Coagulation results from adding salts of iron or aluminum to the water. Common
coagulants (salts) are as follows:

1. Alum (aluminum sulfate)

2. Sodium aluminate
3. Ferric sulfate
4. Ferrous sulfate
5. Ferric chloride
6. Polymers

Coagulation is the reaction between one of these salts and water.

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FLOCCULATION

Flocculation follows coagulation in the conventional water treatment process.

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Flocculation is the physical process of slowly mixing the coagulated water to increase
the probability of particle collision — unstable particles collide and stick together to
form fewer larger flocs. Through experience, we see that effective mixing reduces the
required amount of chemicals and greatly improves the sedimentation process, which
results in longer filter runs and higher quality finished water.
Flocculation’s goal is to form a uniform, feather-like material similar to snowflakes — a
dense, tenacious floc that entraps the fine, suspended, and colloidal particles and carries
them down rapidly in the settling basin.
Proper flocculation requires from 15 to 45 min. The time is based on water chemistry,
water temperature, and mixing intensity. Temperature is the key component in
determining the amount of time required for floc formation.

SEDIMENTATION

After raw water and chemicals have been mixed and the floc formed, the water
containing the floc (because it has a higher specific gravity than water) flows to the
sedimentation or settling basin
Sedimentation is also called clarification. Sedimentation removes settleable solids by
gravity. Water moves slowly though the sedimentation tank or basin with a minimum of
turbulence at entry and exit points with minimum short-circuiting. Sludge accumulates
at bottom of tank or basin. Typical tanks or basins used in sedimentation include
conventional rectangular basins and circular basins

Long Rectangular Settling Basin

Long rectangular basins are hydraulically more stable, and flow control for large
volumes is easier with this configuration.

A typical long rectangular tank has length ranging from 2 to 4 times their width.
The bottom is slightly sloped to facilitate sludge scraping. A slow moving
mechanical sludge scraper continuously pulls the settled material into a sludge
hopper from where it is pumped out periodically.

A long rectangular settling tank can be divided into four different functional zones:

Inlet zone: Region in which the flow is uniformly distributed over the cross section such
that the flow through settling zone follows horizontal path.
Settling zone: Settling occurs under quiescent conditions.
Outlet zone: Clarified effluent is collected and discharge through outlet weir.
Sludge zone: For collection of sludge below settling zone

Circular Basins

Circular settling basins have the same functional zones as the long rectangular

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basin, but the flow regime is different. When the flow enters at the center and is
baffled to flow radically towards the perimeter, the horizontal velocity of the
water is continuously decreasing as the distance from the center increases. Thus,
the particle path in a circular basin is a parabola as opposed to the straight line
path in the long rectangular tank.

Sludge removal mechanisms in circular tanks are simpler and require less
maintenance.

In conventional treatment plants, the amount of detention time required for settling can
vary from 2 to 6 h. The time requirement is dependent on the weight of the floc, the
temperature of the water, and how quiescent (still) the basin.

A number of conditions affect sedimentation:

1. Uniformity of flow of water through the basin

2. Stratification of water due to difference in temperature between water entering
and water already in the basin
3. Release of gases that may collect in small bubbles on suspended solids, causing
them to rise and float as scum rather than settle as sludge
4. Disintegration of previously formed floc
5. Size and density of the floc

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SOFTENING PROCESS

Groundwater dissolves rocks and minerals releasing calcium and magnesium ions that
cause water to be hard. These dissolved ions give hard water its characteristics.
Hard water is known to clog pipes and to complicate soap and detergent dissolving in
water.
Water softening is a technique that serves the removal of the ions that cause the water to
be hard, in most cases calcium and magnesium ions. Iron ions may also be removed
during softening.

The best way to soften water is to use a water softener unit and connect it directly to the
water supply. For water softening, three types of salt are generally sold:

- Rock salt: a mineral occurs naturally in the ground

- Solar salt: a natural product is obtained mainly through evaporation of
seawater

Evaporated salt: is obtained through mining underground salt deposits of
dissolving salt

FILTRATION

In the conventional water treatment process, filtration usually follows coagulation,

flocculation, and sedimentation. At present, filtration is not always used in small water
systems. However, recent regulatory requirements may make water filtering necessary
at most water supply systems.

Water filtration is a physical process of separating suspended and colloidal particles

from water by passing water through a granular material. The process of filtration
involves the flow of water through a granular bed, of sand or another suitable media, at
a low speed. The media retains most solid matter while permitting the water to pass.
The process of filtration involves straining, settling, and adsorption. As floc passes into
the filter, the spaces between the filter grains become clogged, reducing this opening
and increasing removal.

More modern filtration systems use carbon as the main constituent material of the filter.
This type of water filter is known as a multimedia filter. These filters clean water
through both physical and chemical processes.

Physically, they perform the same function as slow sand filters, blocking the passage of
unwanted materials with molecular structures that are larger than water. Chemically,
the carbon or multimedia filters perform an added filtration function.

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DISINFECTION

The most commonly used disinfectants and oxidants (in no particular order) are
chlorine, chlorine dioxide, chloramines, ozone, and potassium permanganate. The
process used to control waterborne pathogenic organisms and prevent waterborne
disease is called disinfection. The goal in proper disinfection in a water system is to
destroy all disease-causing organisms.

Disinfection should not be confused with sterilization. Sterilization is the complete

killing of all living organisms. Disinfectants are also used to achieve other specific
objectives in drinking water treatment.

SUMMARY

Water is pumped into the treatment plant from the reservoir or stream through [1]
rotating screens [2]. Alum is added to cause flocculation [3]. After rapid mixing (20-40
minutes), the water remains in [4] the settling basin while sedimentation of floc occurs
(2-4 hours). The sediment (sludge) is pumped from the bottom of the pools and stored in
holding lagoons to dry. The softening process [5] involves the addition of sodium
carbonate and hydrated lime to remove calcium and magnesium ions that are
responsible for water hardness. This process takes an additional 2-4 hours. For each
pound of chemical used in the treatment process, two pounds are removed. After an
additional sedimentation process [6], carbon dioxide is added to lower the pH level to
approximately 7.5. Water is held in a [7] stabilizing basin for another 2-4 hours. Water
then flows through large dual media rapid sand filters made up of layers of gravel, sand,
and anthracite coal [8]. Addition [9] of chlorine to disinfect the water, fluoride to protect
teeth and a corrosion inhibitor take place at the end of the process before water enters
[10] large underground clear wells to be held until needed by the community [11].
Please note: when ground water is used, neither screening nor initial sedimentation is
needed.

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VOCABULARY

Water cycle: the process by which water travels in a sequence from the air
(condensation) to the earth (precipitation) and returns to the atmosphere (evaporation).
It is also referred to as the hydrologic cycle.

Supernatant: the liquid standing above a sediment or precipitate.

Waterborne disease: a disease caused by a microorganism that is carried from one

person or animal to another by water.

Reservoir : a pond, lake, tank, or basin (natural or human made) where water is
collected and used for storage. Large bodies of groundwater are called groundwater
reservoirs; water behind a dam is also called a reservoir of water.

Potable water: water satisfactorily safe for drinking purposes from the standpoint of its
chemical, physical, and biological characteristics.

Percolation: the movement of water through the subsurface soil layers, usually
continuing downward to the groundwater or water table reservoirs.

Hardness: the concentration of calcium and magnesium salts in water.

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Infiltration: the gradual downward flow of water from the surface into soil material.

Flocculation slow mixing process in which particles are brought into contact with the
intent of promoting their agglomeration.

Coagulation the neutralization of the charges of colloidal matter.

Aeration the process of bubbling air through a solution, sometimes cleaning water of
impurities by exposure to air.

Filtration the mechanical process that removes particulate matter by separating water
from solid material, usually by passing it through sand.

Permeable a material or substance that water can pass through.

Surface runoff the amount of rainfall that passes over the surface of the earth.

Spring a surface feature where without the help of man, water issues from rock or soil
onto the land or into a body of water, the place of issuance being relatively restricted in
size.

Raw water the untreated water to be used after treatment for drinking water.

Impermeable a material or substance water will not pass through.

Contamination the introduction into water of toxic materials, bacteria, or other

deleterious agents that make the water unfit for its intended use.

Water table the average depth or elevation of the groundwater over a selected area. The
upper surface of the zone of saturation, except where that surface is formed by an
impermeable body.

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