Teacher Perception of the Academic Performance and Social Skill Abilities of children with

Autism Spectrum Disorder and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

By

TESSA L HESSE
B.A. (DePaul University) 2010
A.A. (Taft Community College) 2006
THESIS

Submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

in

Child Development

in the

OFFICE OF GRADUATE STUDIES

of the

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

DAVIS

Approved:

(Peter Mundy, Ph.D), Chair

(Zhe Chen, PhD.)

(Aubyn Stahmer, Ph.D.)

Committee in Charge

2016

  -­‐i-­‐  
 ProQuest Number: 10165739

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 Abstract

Developing an understanding of teacher perceptions is important to the informed development of

school-based intervention for students with special needs. This study was designed to examine

differences and similarities in teacher’s perception of students with high functioning autism

spectrum disorder (HFASD) in the classroom compared to students who may exhibit similar

attention and executive function disturbances in the classroom, such as children with attention

deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Thirty-seven total teacher reports were collected on 26

children with HFASD and nine children with ADHD, ages 8 to 16 year old. Data was collected

via e-mail using the Social Skills Improvement System (SSIS) questionnaire, which measures

social skills, behavior problems, and academic competence. Overall, teachers perceived the

HFASD sample as displaying less social competence than the ADHD sample. This perception

was carried by a significant diagnostic group effect on the SISS engagement subscale. An

analysis of the items on this engagement subscale revealed that teachers were most aware of

differences in the items relating to the initiation of engagement, such as “invites others to join

activities”, or “starts conversations”, and these items were sufficient to correctly identify 80.8%

of the HFASD sample and 77.8% of the ADHD sample. The SSIS engagement scale was

significantly associated with parent reports on the SRS and on the learning problems subscale on

the Conners-3. Further, SSIS engagement was positively correlated with teacher ratings of

academic competence. The implications for the role and training of mainstream teachers are

discussed.

  -­‐ii-­‐  
 Teacher Perception of the Academic Performance and Social Skill Abilities of children with

Autism Spectrum Disorder and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Developing an understanding of teacher perception of academic performance and social

skill ability is important to the informed development of school-based interventions for students

with a high-functioning autism spectrum disorder (HFASD) (IQ of 70 or greater) (Robertson et

al. 2003). As an increasing number of children with an HFASD are being integrated into typical

classrooms, mainstream education teachers are facing an increased demand to meet the

extraordinary needs of this population, such as curriculum modification, time accommodations,

and behavioral support (Newman, 2007). In addition, the symptom overlap with attention deficit

hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) presents a unique challenge to regular teachers in serving both of

these populations within a single classroom. The challenge for these teachers lies in how to

provide for the specific academic and social support needs of each child, when discriminating

between children with ASD and ADHD.

High levels of inattention/hyperactivity, behavioral difficulties, and social skill deficits

are characteristic of both HFASD and ADHD disorders; thus, regular education teachers become

responsible for both the management of behavior and the academic growth of these students

within the classroom (Gargaro, Rinehart, Bradshaw, Tonge and Sheppard, 2011; Sinzig, Walter

& Doepfner, 2009). How regular education teachers perceive students with HFASD has been

shown to predict behavior problems and rate of social inclusion (Roberson, Chamberlain &

Kasari, 2003). Further, level of social inclusion has been associated with academic achievement;

highlighting the importance of appropriate classroom-based interventions (Estes, Rivera, Bryan,

Cali, & Dawson, 2011). However, few studies have examined differences in teacher perception

  -­‐1-­‐  
across groups of children. Specifically, how teacher perception may be related to the academic

performance of children with HFASD and ADHD within a mainstream classroom.

Autism Spectrum Disorders

Autism spectrum disorders are described as a group of developmental disorders that can

cause social, communication, and behavioral problems (CDC, 2015). Autism is characterized by

lack of eye contact, repetitive behaviors, delayed or no language, and trouble understanding other

people’s feelings or intentions (CDC, 2015). According to the Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention, (2015), autism spectrum disorders affect one in every 68 children and occurs in all

ethnic and socioeconomic groups. Children with high functioning autism in particular make up

about 60% of the autism spectrum. The prevalence of autism continues to rise, with a 23%

increase compared to previous prevalence data (CDC, 2012).

IQ And Academic Achievement Discrepancy

There is a significant discrepancy between intellectual ability (as measured by IQ) and

academic functioning in a majority of students with HFASD (Jones et al. 2009). Further, the

academic profile in this population is complex and multifaceted. Jones and colleagues (2009)

identified 73% of a sample of individuals with HFASD who had at least one area of math or

reading achievement that was discrepant from their IQ across five areas of academic

achievement. More specifically, the authors identified four subgroups within word reading or

arithmetic in which the individual’s achievement scores were either higher or lower than their

IQ. The profile with the largest gap between achievement and IQ was within reading

comprehension, and the authors found that the severity of social communication deficits was

correlated with reading comprehension scores (Jones et all, 2009). Lastly, McIntyre and

colleagues (in preparation) examined 8 to 16 year olds with HFASD and individuals with

  -­‐2-­‐  
ADHD, and found that the HFASD group performed significantly worse on reading and

language measures, and autism symptomology was significantly related to poorer reading

comprehension outcomes.

Social Functioning as a Contributor to Academic Achievement

Social skill ability has been associated with academic ability within higher functioning

school aged children with autism (Estes, Rivera, Bryan, Cali & Dawson, 2011). More

specifically, the lack of reciprocated friendships and level of peer acceptance has been shown to

be significantly related to academic achievement within the ASD population (Wentzel, 2005). In

a study by Berry and colleagues (2012), level of social skill ability significantly predicted

academic achievement three years later. In another study, Estes, Rivera, Bryan, Cali and Dawson

(2011) examined academic achievement patterns and social abilities in a sample of 30 school-age

children with HFASD. Better social skills were found to be associated with better academic

achievement; more specifically, better social skill ability at age six was predictive of high

academic achievement at age nine. These studies highlight the importance of the social

atmosphere within an educational setting.

Due to the complex academic profiles (abilities and deficits) possibly masked by

intellectual ability and social skill ability of children with HFASD, teachers are presented with a

unique challenge in identifying and supporting HFASD children within a mainstream classroom.

Without adequate social and academic support, children with HFASD will be at a signficiant

disadvantage later in life, possibly when entering college or the job market. This study was

designed to examine differences and similarities in teacher’s perception of academic

performance and social skill ability of higher functioning students with HFASD in the classroom

  -­‐3-­‐  
compared to students who may exhibit similar attention and executive function disturbances in

the classroom, such as children with ADHD.

HFASD and ADHD Symptom Overlap

In addition to social and communication deficits, children with HFASD often present

with high levels of inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity (Sinzig, Walter & Doepfner, 2009).

Previous studies have found a high symptom overlap of HFASD with ADHD, with comorbid

presentation rates as high as 83% in one sample (Frazier et al., 2001). Behaviors such as

hyperactivity, impulsivity and opposition/defiance have been positively associated with teacher-

student relationships characterized as conflictual (Robertson, Chamberlain & Kasari, 2003).

Because these two disorders can present in such a similar way, it is informative to understand the

degree to which teacher perception of the differences between children with HFASD and

children with ADHD in a mainstream classroom. For example, students with HFASD can often

have well-developed word identification, math fluency and factual knowledge, which may mask

the other academic and social deficits they may have (Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Skinner,

Martin, & Clubley, 2001). If teachers lump students with HFASD with other similar disorders,

such as ADHD, they may fail at adequately supporting the unique academic needs of this special

population, putting them at an early disadvantage both academically and socially, with

implications lasting into adulthood.

Teacher Perception of children with HFASD and ADHD

Children with autism are being mainstreamed into classrooms at an increasing rate

(McDonnell, 1998), and teacher perception of children with HFASD within the typical classroom

is largely overlooked. Although very few studies have examined teacher perception within this

population, a 2013 study by Lindsay, Prouix, Thomson and Scott examined teacher’s

  -­‐4-­‐  
experiences and attitudes of the nature and management of children affected with HFASD within

the classroom setting. Behavior management, administrative challenges (training and support)

and a truly inclusive environment were reported as major challenges confronting the teachers

when including children with HFASD in their classroom.

Although educators face these large obstacles, teachers generally have a positive outlook

toward the education of children with HFASD. Rodriguez, Saldana and Moreno (2012) assessed

teachers’ attitudes towards students with HFASD in a sample of 69 teachers of both special

needs and typical/mainstreamed classrooms and found that overall, teachers positively viewed

students with HFASD in terms of expectations of improvement and reported a positive emotional

response to working with students with an HFASD. Items focused on teacher perception of

improving the students’ academic and social abilities and experiencing enjoyable moments with

the child. Further, being a teacher of a child with HFASD in a mainstream classroom predicted

the level of need for information, and the authors suggest that these mainstream classrooms have

a high demand for constant training and support of staff; more so than a special education

classroom. Lack of an appropriate level of support for these teachers could pose negative

consequences for both the child affected by HFASD and the teacher.

Teacher perception and differentiation of ADHD and HFASD difficulties

Autism spectrum disorders are heterogeneous across biological, social, and behavioral

domains, making HFASD a unique disorder for teachers to provide adequate intervention

techniques for. The symptoms which fall within the social dimension include: social difficulties

(such as deficits in social-emotional reciprocity), non-verbal communicative behaviors (such as

eye-contact, body language, and gestures), and difficulty in developing and maintaining

relationships (Lord & Jones, 2014). Although the literature is vast on all three of these areas of

  -­‐5-­‐  
social-emotional functioning, a critical problem facing teachers is the lack of ability to

differentiate children with HFASD’s on these core social dimensions from children with other

disorders within the classroom, where a high proportion of socialization takes place for school-

age children. If teachers are unable to differentiate between these two disorders, they may not

appropriately facilitate positive interactions with peers within the school and classroom setting,

where a majority of social interactions outside of the family occurs for school-age children. The

elementary school age is an important time for the development of social skills that will last into

adulthood, and appropriate facilitation by teachers will needed to foster these skills.

In a 2010 study, Iizuka and colleagues compared teacher ratings of 30 children with

HFASD and 30 children with ADHD using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. When

comparing the ratings of teachers between the HFA and ADHD groups, teachers rated the

ADHD group as having significantly higher difficulties on the subscales of

hyperactivity/inattention and conduct problems, whereas they rated the HFASD group as having

greater difficulty in the area of peer problems. Although both groups may present with high

hyperactivity/inattention problems, teachers in this sample perceived those with ADHD to have

significantly more difficulties with attention compared to the HFASD students.

In another informative study, Ehlers, Gillberg and Wing (1999) examined parent and

teacher ratings on the Autism Spectrum Screening Questionnaire (ASSQ) in a clinical sample of

children with various kinds of behavior disorders including ASD, ADHD and learning disorders.

This study indicated that parents and teachers could not distinguish HFASD and ADHD children

on measures of ADHD, but the teachers tended to rate the children with HFASD as having many

more attention difficulties compared to parent ratings.

  -­‐6-­‐  
 In a 1993 study on children with ASD and other developmental delays by Lord,

Storoschuk, Rutter and Pickles examined preschool aged children with ASD and similarly aged

children with other developmental delays, using the Autism Diagnostic Interview- Revised

(ADI-R), which is used to diagnose children with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The

authors examined three main domains: qualities of reciprocal social interaction, communication

and language, and restrictive and repetitive, stereotyped interests and behaviors. Lord et al.

(1993) found significant diagnostic group differences on the reciprocal social interaction scale,

including items such as: direct gaze, social smiling, and seeking to share own enjoyment.

However, when examining the high scoring (what the author’s refer to as autistic-like)

developmentally delayed children and the ASD children, Lord et al. (1993) had trouble

discriminating between the high scoring developmentally delayed children and the ASD children

in items such as initiating interactions with familiar adults, seeking affection or comfort, and

using simple gestures such as pointing to express interest. Significant diagnostic effects were

found on several subdomains of the communication domain, such as: gestures (ASD used

significantly less gestures) spontaneous imitation, imaginative play, and imitative social play.

Measures of non-verbal communication were adept at differentiating ASD to the

developmentally delayed group for those with some words, but not for those without spoken

language. Within two additional subdomains, conversation and stereotyped use of language,

significant diagnostic group differences were found on items such as social chat, conversation,

and stereotyped utterances, with the ASD group showing more difficulty in these areas.

Interestingly, the ASD children did not show significant differences from the developmentally

delay group in other language areas such as inappropriate questions and pronoun reversal. This

study clearly demonstrates that when comparing children with and autism spectrum disorder and

  -­‐7-­‐  
children with other developmental delays beginning at the preschool level, teachers are having

difficulty disentangling the symptomology of both disorders.

Associations between Teacher Attitude, Behavior Problems and Social Inclusion

In previous studies, teacher attitude has shown to be associated with classroom behavior

problems and social inclusion (Robertson et al., 2003). In a sample of 187 children (12 of which

were diagnosed with autism) from second and third grade mainstream classrooms, Robertson et

al. (2003) found that overall, teacher perceptions of students with an ASD who were included in

the mainstream classroom were positive. In addition, among the students with an ASD, a

moderate association was found between teacher’s perception of their own relationship with the

student and a peer report of the student’s level of social inclusion within the classroom; teacher-

student relationships reported as conflictual were negatively associated with student’s level of

social inclusion as reported by peers.

Parent Perception of the Academic Competence of Children with HFASD and ADHD

The existing literature shows discrepancies between the academic competence in the

classroom and IQ as measured in children with HFASD, and therefore it is possible that parents

of children with HFASD hold a different perception of the learning difficulties or academic

achievement abilities within the home environment. When examining parent report of homework

difficulties in students with HFASD and without HFASD, Endedijk, Denessen and Hendriks

(2011) found that the parents of students with HFASD perceived their children to suffer

significantly more from homework problems than students without HFASD. Further, to the

author’s knowledge, little to no research has been done comparing teacher report of academic

abilities within the classroom to parent report of learning problems at home.

Specific Aims

  -­‐8-­‐  
 In order to contribute more information to what is a small literature in understanding

teacher perception of children with HFASD, the current study was designed to address the

following aims:

1) To examine the ability of teachers to distinguish between social behavior problems of

children with high functioning autism and children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

2) To examine the degree to which teachers held similar or different views of the

academic ability of children with high functioning autism and children with attention deficit

hyperactivity disorder.

3) To examine whether or not teachers and parents agree in their attitudes and perceptions

of academic competence of high functioning children with autism and children with attention

deficit hyperactivity disorder.

Hypothesis 1:It is expected that teachers will rate the children with a HFASD higher on

the SSIS scales of social communication behavior than the ADHD children. These include the

SSIS communication, cooperation, empathy and engagement scales.

Hypothesis 2: Because of the previously reported tendency for children with HFASD to

be adept at math, science and technological content, it is expected that teachers will rate the

academic competence of HFASD children higher (more academically competent) than those

student with ADHD.

Hypothesis 3: parents will be more aware of academic problems in their children with a

HFASD than teachers will. Therefore, in contrast to the teachers reports on the SSIS, parents

will rate children with a HFASD higher on the Conner-3 learning problems subscale than

parents of children with ADHD.

  -­‐9-­‐  
 Method

Participants

Participants were recruited during a three-month period from a larger, three-year longitudinal

study examining reading comprehension, language ability, and memory. With parent permission,

teacher’s reports of social skill and academic ability were solicited via e-mail using the Social

Skills Improvement System (SSIS) (Gresham & Elliot, 2008) questionnaire, which measures

social skills, behavior problems, and academic competence. Forty-eight teachers were contacted

and 35 returned the questionnaire data. This yielded data on 26 higher function children with

HFASD and nine students with ADHD (Means: Age = 11.1 vs. 11.9 years; IQ = 101.8 vs. 101.3;

(see Table 1 for additional demographic data). Both groups were matched on age and IQ, and

participants were excluded if they had a full-scale IQ of less than 71. Diagnostic symptom

presentation was confirmed via parent report on 3 measures: Social Communication

Questionnaire (Lifetime); Social Responsiveness Scale, and the Conners-3 that were composited

to form one overall measure of discrimination: HFASD= .78 vs. ADHD -1.6, p<.001.

MEASURES

Measure of Social Skills/Academic Competence

Social Skills Improvement System Rating Scales (SSIS). (Gresham & Elliot, 2008) The SSIS

is a teacher report used to identify social skills deficits using 3 scales: social skills, problem

behaviors, and academic competence. The social skills scale has seven subdomains:

communication, cooperation, assertion, responsibility, empathy, engagement and self-control.

Each item is rated on a four-point frequency scale (0=Never, 1=Seldom, 2=Often, and 3=Almost

Always) based on the observed behavior. In addition, the SSIS has a 3-point importance rating

(0=Not Important, 1=Important, and 2=Critical) in order to identify social deficits requiring

  -­‐10-­‐  
immediate intervention. The importance ratings were not included in analyses for the current

study, and they do not lead to changes in subscale scores. The teacher form also includes a

Problem Behavior Scale, with five subscales: Externalizing, Bullying, Hyperactivity/Inattention,

Internalizing, and Autism Spectrum. The Academic Competence scale measures performance in

reading, math, motivation, parental support, and general cognitive functioning. Scores on all

three main scales are standardized. In previous studies, the SSIS shows strong internal

consistency and test re-test reliability with coefficient alpha levels in the upper .90’s for each

scale, and a test re-test indices of .82-.87 for each scale (Gresham, Elliot, Vance & Cook, 2011).

For the current study, the SSIS demonstrated a high internal consistency (alpha = .83) on 35

items.

Measure of Autistic Symptomology

The Social Communication Questionnaire (SCQ). Lifetime Version (Rutter et al., 2003) is a

parent report measure that screens for an autism spectrum disorder in children ages 4 years and

older and has an established validity. Parents indicate via yes or no on each item based on the

presence or absence of the indicated behavior. Total scores range from 0 to 39, and a criterion

score of 15 is adequate for use in 8-16 year-old children with an IQ of 70 or greater (Corsello et

al., 2007). This measure shows high reliability for this study with an alpha = .86.

The Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS). (Constantino et al., 2003). The SRS is a 65-item

quantitative measure of autism symptomology via parent or teacher report. Each item is rated on

a scale from 0 (never true) to 3 (almost always true) and generates a total score that provides an

index of deficits and severity of symptomology, with higher scores indicating greater social

deficit. The SRS measures: social awareness, social information processing, capacity for

  -­‐11-­‐  
reciprocal social responses, social anxiety/avoidance, and characteristics of autism such as

preoccupations/traits. This measure shows high reliability for this study (alpha = .94).

Measure of ADHD

Conners-3 Parent Report. The Conners-3 Parent Report (Conners, 2004, 2010) was

administered via parent report to measure ADHD symptomology. The Conner’s provides

Symptom Scales for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual IV- Text Revised (DSM-IV-TR) that

are created based on parent observations of their children over the last month, making the scores

reflective of current, and not past, symptomology. A score is considered average if it falls in the

range of 40-59, elevated levels (or more than typically reported scores) are indicated by a score

of 60-69, and a score of 70 or greater indicates very elevated levels, or many more concerns than

are typically reported. This measure shows high reliability for this study; alpha = .83.

Procedure

All data were collected for this study after formal review and approval from the UC

Davis Internal Review Board of the data collection and procedures for this study.

Caregivers who gave consent to allow contact of student’s teachers completed a form

with teacher information, including teacher’s name, school, and email address. Teachers were

then contacted via a standardized email with information about the study and the SSIS

questionnaire. They were asked to participate, and it was communicated that participation was

optional. Teachers were informed that if they did participate, they would receive a 20-dollar

target gift card upon questionnaire completion. Teachers were then sent a separate, follow-up

email with a customized Survey Monkey link that would take them to an online version of the

SSIS questionnaire. Survey Monkey is an online (cloud-based) survey development company

that provides customizable surveys and survey web address links to send to participants. Survey

  -­‐12-­‐  
monkey’s customizable surveys are password protected, and the data collected is protected via

Secure Sockets Layer (SSL), which encrypts sensitive information being transmitted through the

webpage. Data is stored via an information systems infrastructure (servers, networking

equipment, etc.) and is collocated at third party audited data centers. Survey Monkey owns and

manages all of the equipment located in those data centers, which are staffed and surveyed 24/7.

Access is secured by security guards, visitor logs, and entry requirements such as passcards and

biometric recognition. All equipment is kept in locked rooms.

Once completed, teachers were sent the gift card via an online access code. Caregiver

questionnaires (Conners-3, SRS, SCQ) were completed during an earlier lab visit with their child

as part of the larger longitudinal study.

Results

The first Aim of this study examined the ability of teachers to distinguish between the

social behavior problems of children with HFASD and children with ADHD. To examine this, a

multivariate analysis was conducted with the two groups (ADHD and HFA) and the seven

dimensions of the SSIS social skills subscale were used as dependent measures: communication,

cooperation, assertion, responsibility, empathy, engagement and self-control (see table 2). The

analysis revealed a significant multivariate effect of diagnostic effect of teacher perception of

social competence, Wilkes lambda = .56, F (7,26) = 2.92, p < .02, partial eta2 = .44. This

perception was carried by a significant diagnostic group effect on the SISS Engagement Scale, F

(1,32) = 9.31, p < .005, eta2 = .23 (see table 2) . The other dimension with a diagnostic effect

that approached significance was the empathy scale (p =.13) (p. (see table 2). Differences on the

communication, cooperation, assertion, responsibility and self-control subscales did not approach

significance (ps < .25 to .80). There was no evidence of any significant diagnostic group

  -­‐13-­‐  
differences on the SSIS Problem Behavior Scale, with four subscales: internalizing,

externalizing, bullying, or hyperactive-inattention scales. However, the internalizing behavior

subscale approached significance (p= .08) (see table 2).

In order to better understand what types of behaviors on the SSIS engagement scale were

most useful for teachers in distinguishing between two diagnostic groups, a discriminate analysis

was conducted using the seven items from the SSIS engagement scale. This analysis revealed

that the engagement items were able to correctly identify 80.8% of the ASD sample (specificity)

and 77.8% of the ADHD sample. The analysis revealed that three of the engagement scale items

in particular made significantly unique contributions to distinguishing between the two

diagnostic groups. These included: teacher report on the frequency of interacting well with other

children (p . <04); frequency of inviting others to join activities (p<.05); and the frequency of

starting conversations with peers (p<.04) (see table 3).

The second aim of this study examined the degree to which teachers held similar

or different views of the academic ability of children with high functioning autism and children

with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Interestingly, analyses revealed that teachers

reported that HFASD children were more academically competent than the ADHD children, F

(1, 32) = 3.98, p < .05, eta2 = .13.

The third aim of this study examined whether or not teachers and parents agree in their

attitudes and perceptions of academic competence of high functioning children with autism and

children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. In order to understand how well teacher

report of engagement related to parent report of social behaviors and behavior problems, the

SSIS engagement subscale was correlated with parent report on the SRS and Conners-3. When

looking only at the HFASD group, these analyses revealed that teacher report of engagement was

  -­‐14-­‐  
significantly associated with parent reports on the SRS (r = -.55, p < .001; see table 4). The

Conners-3 included a parent report measure of learning problems, which measured reading task

completion and mathematics in school for each child. For the HFASD group, teacher report of

engagement was associated with parent report of fewer learning problems on the Conners-3 (r = -

.42, p < .04) and positively correlated with teacher ratings of academic competence (r = .44, p <

.05) (see table 4). Interestingly, analyses also revealed that teachers reported that HFASD

children were more academically competent than the ADHD children, F (1, 32) = 3.98, p < .05,

eta2 = .13, but there was no diagnostic group difference in parent reports on the Conner’s

Learning Problems in School subscale F (1, 32) = .98, p = .47, eta2 = .21. As expected, within the

HFASD group, teacher report of engagement was negatively correlated with parent report of

social problems (SRS), and parent report of learning problems on the Conners-3 was

significantly positively associated with parent report of inattention on the Conners-3 (see table

4).

In order to examine how well teacher report of engagement related to parent report of

social behaviors and behavior problems within the ADHD group, the same correlations were

applied- the SSIS engagement subscale was correlated with parent report on the SRS and

Conners-3 (see table 5). Two correlations approached significance, which were teacher report of

engagement with both parent report of learning problems (p <10) and parent report of

oppositional behavior (p <.10). As expected, IQ was negatively correlated with parent report of

learning problems on the Conners-3 and teacher report of academic competence on the SSIS.

Discussion

Teacher Differentiation of Social Behavior Problems

  -­‐15-­‐  
 In an attempt to examine the ability of teachers to distinguish between the social behavior

problems of children with HFASD and children with ADHD, an analysis of the items on the

engagement scale revealed that teachers report distinguished differences in the engagement items

of the SSID, which were: interacting well with other children, inviting other to join in activities,

and starting conversations with peers. Together, these engagement behaviors form a composite

that may be related to one of the core symptom dimensions of ASD. In the DSM V, one of the

symptoms of the social communication deficit domain includes a failure to initiate or respond to

social interactions . Similarly, the data in this study would suggest that the engagement behavior

reflected the tendency of children with HFASD to be inhibited in initiated social experiences

with others. This is an important observation because, while engagement is a social symptom, it

may have a negative impact on engagement within group based learning in the classroom, which

may impeded academic and social development throughout all grade levels in school.

The validity of these observations was supported by the correlations between teacher’s

ratings of engagement in the classroom and parent rating of diagnostic symptoms on the SRS.

This suggests that the teacher-observed engagement behaviors were central to the diagnostic

symptoms of the standardized parent measures of social symptoms and ASD’s. Further evidence

that this core symptom measurement may be related to academic development was provided by

two other observations: academic competence, IQ and learning problems. Teacher report of

academic competence and engagement were positively correlated, and teacher report of

engagement was negatively correlated with parent report of learning problems The less engaged

the high functioning child with autism was within the classroom, the more both the parent and

teacher noted that they may be struggling cognitively and academically in the classroom. These

findings show that it may important for teachers to maintain an environment in which the

  -­‐16-­‐  
children are engaged and socially included with their peers in the mainstream classroom, as both

academic competence and learning problems could be affected by this, though further research is

needed to very the direction of this relationship.

In examining the degree to which teachers held similar or different views of the academic

ability of children with high functioning autism and children with attention deficit hyperactivity

disorder, this study found that teachers tended to rate HFASD children as more academically

competent than those children affected by ADHD. It may be that the externalizing behavior of

children with ADHD is different from that of HFASD children, and these externalizing behaviors

create a more negative impression for teachers. In a 2002 study by Eisenberg and Schneider,

teacher perceptions of the academic abilities of both boys and girls with ADHD were

substantially more negative compared to their peers. Further, DeShazo and colleagues (2002)

found that the more severe the behavior problems of children with ADHD were, the more

negatively impacted their academic performance in school was.

Another possible reason why teachers tended to rate children with HFASD as more

academically competent than children with HFASD is that students with ASD are able to

demonstrate a well-developed capacity to answer factual questions in class or on tests, giving the

impression of academic competence to a greater degree than ADHD children. If teachers tend to

have an overly positive perception of the academic competence of children with ASD they may

be less likely to provide the additional support for the academic development and social

emotional needs of these children. This already existing demand on the resources of a single

teacher could be further exacerbated by the new standards of the Common Core curriculum,

where children are required to learn and demonstrate a concept in more than one way (such as a

  -­‐17-­‐  
simple math problem), which could be a huge challenge to children with HFASD who rely on

their own ability of memorization for many cognitive tasks.

To address the third aim of this study, whether or not teachers and parents agree in their

attitudes and perceptions of academic competence of high functioning children with autism and

children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, parents were asked to rate academic

competence in terms of evidence of classroom based learning problems on the Conners-3.

Parents of children with ASD did not rate them as more academically competent than parents of

ADHD children. The reasons for this inconsistency in perspectives between parent report and

teacher report on the academic competence of are not clear. It is possible that there is some set of

abilities or some styles of behavior exhibited by children with ASD in the classroom that give

teachers a sense of their competence that is not available or is different from parent observations

of their child’s behavior.

An additional possibility is that teachers are responsible for numerous children (30-40 or

more in the classroom) and may only be able to acquire a constrained or limited view of the

competences of one child, and alternatively parents may be more privy to specific information

and have a clearer view of the competence of children with ADHD. All of these hypotheses need

to be examined in future research.

Implications

The current study yields important implications mainstream teachers and policy makers

who are responsible for the education and development of those with both HFASD and ADHD.

With the growing number of special education students being mainstreamed into typical

classrooms, teachers will need close consultation and support of other staff members, specifically

special education teachers and inclusion specialists on the instructional methods needed in order

  -­‐18-­‐  
to support these children in a social and academic setting. Further, this study found a link

between social engagement and academic functioning. It may be beneficial for schools to

implement facilitated social opportunities for the HFASD and ADHD children to interact with

peers during lunch and recess times, as most socialization (outside of family members) for

children occurs within the school setting.

Limitations

This paper is not without its limitations. The sample size was relatively small with only

26 HFASD participants and nine ADHD participants. This limited sample size likely impacted

the power of the analyses, and in turn the analyses approaching significance could likely become

significant with a larger sample size. Future research is needed to examine the link between

teacher perception of social skills and the academic abilities of student with HFASD and students

with ADHD.

Another limitation of the current study was the selection of measures used. In order to

assess different perspectives of both teachers and parents in different contexts (school and

home), two different measures were used to asses academic competence in the school and

learning problems perceived at home. The use of two separate measures was in part necessary to

tap into different perspectives in different contexts, however it would be beneficial for future

research to include the use of more measures, and the same measures, across reporters and

contexts.

Future Directions

As these findings yield significant implications for teacher training, future research is

needed to examine the extent to which current mainstream teachers are trained in special

education curriculum and disorders. Future studies are needed to examine any possible

  -­‐19-­‐  
relationship between teacher training in HFASD and ADHD populations and engagement and

academic abilities. Such findings, if found, could aid in the development of appropriate training

methods for mainstream teacher, in turn better supporting HFASD and ADHD children and their

unique needs within the classroom and school setting.

In this study, one of the challenges was to motivate teachers in providing the data, so only

a fraction of teachers’ contacted returned data. In the future, establishing a stronger partnership

with teachers by having research staff go into schools and observe, and work directly with

teachers may elicit more teacher participation and in turn, more data collected.

Most importantly, if HFASD children appear to be different from other children in social

engagement behaviors, it will be important for research studies to asses the direction of the

relationship between social engagement and academic competence. It is unknown whether or not

a deficit in the ability to engage socially is impeding the academic competence of children with

HFASD, or whether the teachers’ perception of a deficit in academic competence impedes the

social engagement with peers. Lastly, this study found that these social engagement behaviors

are associated with academic competence, thus it is important for researchers to have some

understanding of what impedes engagement in the classroom. It would be beneficial for future

research to determine how to develop methods that teachers can utilize to facilitate engagement

in elementary and high school.

  -­‐20-­‐  
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Table 1.
Demographics
HFASDa ADHDb
N 26 9
Age (years)
Mean 11.1 11.9
Range 8.24-15.21 9.89-14.75
Gender: boys (girls) 21 (7) 5 (2)
Ethnicity (percentiles)
Caucasian 57.7 66.7
Minority 34.6 33.3
Declined to state 7.7 0
IQ
Mean 101.8 101.3
Range 80.0-130.0 74.0-131.0
Mother’s education (percentiles)
Completed high school or lower 0 0
Some college 19.2 12.5
College graduate 34.6 25.0
Some graduate school 7.7 12.5
Completed graduate school 38.5 50.0
Note. a = high functioning autism spectrum disorder; b = attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder.

  -­‐25-­‐  
Table 2.
Multivariate analysis of social skills and problem behavior outcomes.
HFASDa ADHDb Partial Eta
Mean (SD) Mean (SD) F Squared
Social skills
Communication 13.2 (3.52) 15.0 (4.50) 0.91 .03
Cooperation 11.7 (2.92) 10.7 (4.47) 1.52 .05
Assertion 10.5 (3.37) 11.1 (4.04) 0.07 .00
Responsibility 11.1 (3.96) 12.4 (5.20) 0.22 .01
Empathy 8.30 (4.00) 11.1 (4.49) 2.47 .07
Engagement 9.0 (4.22) 14.4 (4.53) 9.31** .23
Self-control 11.2 (4.50) 13.9 (5.13) 1.69 .05
Problem Behaviors
Internalizing 6.0 (2.88) 3.8 (3.96) 3.16† .09
Externalizing 7.2 (5.55) 8.4 (8.37) 0.26 .01
Bullying 1.2 (1.98) 1.7 (2.92) 0.30 .01
Hyperactivity/Inattention 7.2 (3.50) 7.6 (6.42) 0.05 .00
Note. **p < .01, †p < .10; Social Skills Wilks’ Lambda = .56*; Problem Behaviors Wilks’
Lambda = .81, ns; a = high functioning autism spectrum disorder; b = attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder.

  -­‐26-­‐  
Table 3.
Discriminate analysis on engagement subscale items.
Null Test Sig Decision
1. Makes friends easily Independent samples Mann- .03* Reject the null
Whitney U Test hypothesis
2. Interacts well with other Independent samples Mann- .17 Retain the null
children Whitney U Test hypothesis
3. Joins activities that have already Independent samples Mann- .00** Reject the null
started Whitney U Test hypothesis
4. Invites others to join in Independent samples Mann- .02* Reject the null
activities Whitney U Test hypothesis
5. Participates in games or group Independent samples Mann- .05† Reject the null
activities Whitney U Test hypothesis
6. Starts conversations with peers Independent samples Mann- .06† Retain the null
Whitney U Test hypothesis
7. Introduces himself/herself to Independent samples Mann- .06† Retain the null
others Whitney U Test hypothesis
Note. **p < .01, *p < .05, †p < .10.

  -­‐27-­‐  
Table 4.
HFASD Correlations (n=26)  
SSIS Conners SSIS
Engagement Learning Academic
Problems Competence
SCQ Total -.12 .31 .12

SRS Total -.42* .27 -.13

SSIS 1 -.42* .44*

Engagement

Conners -.08 -.08 -.09

Defiance

Conners Peer -.32 .13 -.20

Relations

Conners -.34† -.41* -.18

Inattentive

Conners -.12 .15 -.12

Hyperactivity

Conners .09 -.07 .13

Oppositional

Conners .19 -.00 .03

Conduct

WASI (IQ) .38† -.37 .38†

†
Note. **p < .01, *p < .05, p < .10.  

  -­‐28-­‐  
Table 5.
ADHD Correlations (n=9)  
SSIS Conners-3 SSIS
Engagement Learning Academic
Problems Competence
SCQ Total -.13 .41 -.39

SRS Total -.22 .45 -.47

SSIS 1 -.64† .37

Engagement

Conners-3 -.30 -.24 .35

Defiance

Conners-3 -.17 .29 -.05

Peer
Relations

Conners-3 -.08 -.19 -.04

Inattentive

Conners-3 -.23 .06 -.00

Hyperactivity

Conners-3 -.59† .23 -.03

Oppositional

Conners-3 -.32 .06 -.21

Conduct

WASI (IQ) .58 -.89* -.77*

Note. **p < .01, *p < .05, †p < .10.  

  -­‐29-­‐