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Features of DBMS

 Simplicity
 Query Language is non-procedural
 Physical implementation storage depends on OS
 Recovery depends on OS

Features Of Good DBMS

 The facility of retrieving and manipulating data irrespective of no of

tables used.
 The language should be easy
 Should be powerful enough to have minimal code and so less
maintenance
 Resources like memory and secondary storages should be handled by
DBMS
 It should have Multi-user support

Concept of Relation

 Relation is nothing but Set

 A Database is said to be relational if data is stored in the form of
relation
• Relation is nothing but Set
Advantages of RDBMS

 Information representation is simple in table form

 Non-Procedural language is easily operated
 Set Operations are used for data operations
 Data from multiple tables are retrieved in a simple way by forming
Cartesian product

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Features Of Oracle

 All operations are done using non-procedural language

 Multi-user Environment
 Security and Audit.
 Concurrent Operations
 Query Optimization
 Transparent Indexing, Backup and Recovery

Components Of Oracle
 SQL PLUS
 PL/SQL
 SQL FORMS
 SQL REPORT WRITER
 UTILITIES (IMP, EXP etc)

Introduction to SQL

 The language used to access data within Oracle databases

 Non-Procedural Language.

 Unified Language

 Common Language for all relational databases

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PL/SQL
 Support for SQL
 Block Structure
 Higher Productivity
 Better Performance
 Integration
 Control structures
 Modularity & Portability

Introduction to PL/SQL Block

A PL/SQL block can be divided into three parts, namely, a declarative part
an executable part and an exception handling part .the order is as shown:

DECLARE
} Declaration
BEGIN
} Executable statements
EXCEPTION
} Handlers
END;

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Objects can be declared in the declarative part, which can be used in the
executable part for further manipulations .All the procedural statements are
included in between the BEGIN and END statements. Errors that occur
during execution are dealt in the exception handling part.

ORACLE DATATYPES

The information in a database is maintained in the form of tables. Each table

consists of rows and columns to store data. The different data types available
are as follows

Char : To store character type of data

Varchar2 : Similar to CHAR but can store variable number of characters
Date : Stores point in time values (i.e. date and time) in a table
Number : Stores fixed and floating point numbers

The above said data types are the most widely used data types in finacle
database.

Example:

Let us consider the general_account_master_table for our example

acct_name varchar2(30)
acid varchar2(11),
foracid varchar2(16),
clr_bal_amt number(17,2),

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schm_code varchar2(5)
acct_opn_date date

Sql is made of three sub-languages such as

 Data Definition Language (DDL)

 Data Manipulation Language (DML)

 Data Control Language (DCL)

DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE:

Consists of commands to create the objects, such as tables, views,

Indexes etc.

DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE:

Used for query, insertion, deletion and updating of information

stored in the database.

DATA CONTROL LANGUAGE

Used for controlling data and access to the databases.

 COMMIT

Will commit the changes that has been made to the table.
 ROLLBACK

Will rollback all the changes that has been made to the table

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Querying Database Tables:

The select statement instructs the database to retrieve information from a

table.

Syntax:

SELECT < column-list > FROM <table-name> WHERE <condition>

Example:

SELECT foracid from General_Account_Master_Table

WHERE acid =’DL123’;

Conditional Retrieval of Rows

The WHERE clause is used along with the SELECT statement to

specify the condition, based on which the rows will be extracted from a
table with SELECT.

Operators used to specify the conditions:

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RELATIONAL OPERATORS

= : Equal to
> : Greater than
< : Less than
 >= : Greater than or equal to
 <= : Less than or equal to
 <>, != : Not equal to

Examples:

SELECT foracid, acid FROM General_Account_Master_Table

WHERE clr_bal_amt = 10000;

SELECT foracid, acid FROM General_Account_Master_Table

WHERE clr_bal_amt <= 10000;

LOGICAL OPERATORS

 AND : Logical AND

 OR : Logical OR

 NOT : Logical NOT

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SELECT foracid FROM General_Account_Master_Table

WHERE acid =’DL123’ OR acid = ‘DL124’;

SELECT foracid FROM General_Account_Master_Table

WHERE acid =‘DL123’ AND clr_bal_amt >= 10000;

SPECIAL OPERATORS

 IN : Checking a value in a set

 BETWEEN : checking a value within a range

 LIKE : Matching a patter from a column

Examples:

SELECT foracid, cust_id, acct_name from

General_Account_Master_Table WHERE

Schm_code IN (‘SBGEN’,’CDGEN’);

SELECT acct_opn_date, acid From

General_Account_Master_Table WHERE
acct_name LIKE ‘RAJ%’;

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AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS

Aggregate functions are used to produce summary data using tables

 AVG (column-name) –Returns the average of the values in the

column

 SUM (column-name) – Returns the sum of values specified in the

column

 MIN (column-name) – Returns the minimum of value specified in the

column

 MAX (column-name) - Returns the minimum of value specified in the

column

 COUNT (*) - Returns the total no of records specified in the table

Example:

SELECT count(*),schm_code FROM

general_account_master_table

GROUP BY schm_code;

SELECT Avg (clr_bal_amt) FROM general_account_master_table

WHERE schm_code =’SBGEN’;

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SELECT Max (clr_bal_amt), schm_code FROM

general_account_master_table GROUP BY schm_code

ORDER BY schm_code;

SELECT SUM(clr_bal_amt) FROM

general_account_master_table

WHERE schm_code =’SBGEN’;

SET OPERATORS

 Union
 Union all
 Minus
 Intersect

UNION OPERATOR
Eliminates duplicate rows

Example:

Select acid, tran_amt, tran_date, tran_particulars,

tran_id from dtd
Where acid = (select acid from gam where foracid = ‘&acid’)
Union

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Select acid, tran_amt, tran_date, tran_particular, tran_id from ctd

where acid = (Select acid from gam where foracid = ‘&acid’);

UNION ALL

It does not eliminate duplicate rows.

Example:
Select acid, Tran_amt, Tran_date, Tran_particular, Tran_id from dtd
where acid = (select acid from gam where foracid = ‘&acid’)
UNION ALL
Select acid, Tran_amt, Tran_date, Tran_particular, Tran_id from ctd
where acid = (select acid from gam where foracid = ‘&acid’);

INTERSECT OPERATOR

This returns only those rows returned by both queries

Example:
Select fxd_crncy_code, var_crncy_code from rtl intersect select
fxd_crncy_code, var_crncy_code from rth;

MINUS OPERATOR

This returns only those rows returned by the first query but not in the
second.
Example:
Select cust_id from cmg minus select cust_id from gam;

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SQL PLUS FUNCTIONS

Dual Table
Created along with the data dictionary .It is schema of the user sys but
accessible to all the users. Useful for computing a constant expression
with the select statement. Dual has only one row, the constant is only
returned once.

Example:
Select sysdate from dual;

PSEUDO COLUMNS
It is a column that yields a value when selected but which is not an actual
column of a table. Example Sysdate.
Some Oracle pseudo columns are as follows

Null: This is used to assign in place of missing values.

Rownum: Returns the sequence number in which a row was returned when
selected from a table.
Sysdate: Returns current date and time

NUMBER FUNCTIONS
ABS
It returns the absolute value of N

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Select abs (-15) “ ABSOLUTE “ from dual;

Result: 15
CEIL

It returns smallest integer greater that or equal to N

Select ceil (15.1) “ CEILING “ from dual;
Result: 16

FLOOR
Returns largest integer equal to or less than N
Select floor (15.9) “ FLOOR “ from dual;
Result is 15

MOD
Returns remainder of m divided by n
Select mod (12,3) from dual;
Result is 0

ROUND:
Round (n [, m])
Returns n rounded to m places right of the decimal point m can be
negative to round off digits left to the decimal point .m must be an
integer

Select round (55.1234,1) from dual;

Result is 55.1

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Select round (56.1234, -2) from dual;

Result: 100

Select round (45.12434, -2) from dual

Result: 0

INITCAP
Select initcap (‘ram’) from dual;
Result: Ram

LOWER
Select LOWER (‘ M/S HINDUSTAN LEVER LTD ‘) from dual;
Result: m/s Hindustan lever ltd

LPAD
Left padded to length n with the sequence of characters.

Select lpad (‘PAGE 1’, 15,’*’) from dual;

Result: *********PAGE 1

RPAD
Right paded to length n with characters

Select rpad (‘PAGE 1’, 15,’*’) from dual;

Result: PAGE 1*********

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LTRIM
Select ltrim (‘1234ALPHA’,’12’) from dual;
Result: 34ALPHA

RTRIM:
Select rtrim (‘BROWINGXYXY’,’XY’) from dual;
Result: BROWING

SUBSTR
Select substr (‘ABCDEFG’, 3,4) from dual;
Result: CDEF

Select substr (‘ABCDEFG’, -5) from dual;

Result: CDEFG

UPPER
Select upper (‘Large’) from dual;
Result: LARGE

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