Instruments

 Methods available for the measurement of length include:

 Metre rule (range 1 m, reading uncertainty 0.5 mm)
 Vernier caliper ((range 100 mm, reading uncertainty 0.1 mm)
 Micrometer screw gauge ((range 50 mm, reading uncertainty 0.01 mm)

 Methods available for the measurement of mass include:

 Top-pan balance
 Spring balance
 Lever balance

 Methods available for the measurement of time include:

 Stopclock (reading uncertainty 0.2 s)
 Stopwatch (reading uncertainty 0.01 s)
 Cathode-ray oscilloscope

 Methods available for the measurement of temperature include:

 Liquid in glass thermometer
 Thermocouple thermometer

 Methods available for the measurement of current and potential difference include:
 Analogue meter
 Digital meter
 Multimeter
 Cathode ray oscilloscope

 Methods available for the measurement of magnetic flux density include the Hall probe.

Accuracy and precision

Accuracy is concerned with how close a reading is to its true value or the degree to which a measurement approaches
the true value. Accuracy depends on equipment used, the skill of the experimenter and the technique used. Reducing
error or uncertainty in a measurement improves its accuracy.
Precision is that part of accuracy which can be controlled by the experimenter. The experimenter may choose different
measuring instruments and may use them with different levels of skill, thus affecting the precision of measurement.

When a measurement is repeated Using a measuring instrument with less precision

many times with a precise instrument, means that there would be a greater spread of
the reading are all close together. reading, resulting in greater uncertainty.

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The distinction between precision and accuracy on each of graphs the value T is the true value of the quantity.

Uncertainty
Uncertainty indicates the range of value within which the measurement is likely to lie.

Example
A measurement is 46.0 ± 0.5 cm.
It could be as low 45.5 cm or high as 46.5 cm.
The uncertainty in the measurement is ± 0.5 cm or (0.5/46) x 100 % = ± 1 %.

Example
The manufactures of a digital ammeter quotes its uncertainty as ± 1 % ± 2 digits. Determine the uncertainty in a
constant reading of 2.64 A.
This means that the uncertainty in a reading of 2.64 A would be (± 2.64 x 1/100) ± 0.02 = 0.0464 A.

Systematic uncertainty and random uncertainty (error)

A systematic uncertainty or systematic error is often due to instrumental causes and results in all readings being
above or below the true value. It cannot be eliminated by averaging.
Examples of systematic uncertainty are:
 Zero error on a instrument. The scale is not zero before measurements are taken. Check before starting the
experiment.
 Wrongly calibrated scale. In school laboratories, we assume that measuring devices are correctly calibrated and
would not be expected to check the calibration in a experiment .If you have doubts, you can check the calibration of
an ammeter by connecting several in series in the circuit or of a voltmeter by connecting several in parallel.
 Reaction time of experimenter. When timings are carried out manually, it must be accepted that there will be a
delay between experiment observing the event and starting the timing device. This delay, called reaction time, may
be as much as a few tenths of a second. For example, time sufficient swings of a pendulum for the total time.

A random uncertainty or random error is due to the scatter of readings around the true value. It may be reduced by
repeating a reading and averaging, or by plotting a graph and taking a best fit line.
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Examples of random uncertainty are:
 Reading a scale. particularly if this involves the experimenter’s judgement about interpolation between scale
readings.
 Timing oscillations without the uses of a reference marker, so that timings may not always be made to the same
point of the swings.
 Taking readings of quantity that varies with time, involving the difficulty of reading both a timer scale and
another meter simultaneously.
 Reading a scale from different angles, so introducing a variable parallax errors.

Combining uncertainties.
There are two simple rules for obtaining an estimate of the overall uncertainty in a final result.
1. For quantities which are added or subtracted to give a final result, add the actual uncertainties.

Examples

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 Exercises

2. For quantities which are multiplied together or divided to give a final result, add the fractional uncertainties.

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Examples

Exercises

Examples
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Notes

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Exercises “Measurement”
Structure
1. A student uses a metre rule to measure the length of an elastic band before and after stretching it. The
lengths are recorded as A student uses a metre rule to measure the length of an elastic band before and after
stretching it. The lengths are recorded as

length of band before stretching, L0 = 50.0 ± 0.1 cm

length of band after stretching, LS = 51.6 ± 0.1 cm.

Determine
(a) the change in length (LS − L0), quoting your answer with its uncertainty,

(LS − L0) = ……………………………………… cm [1]

(b) the fractional change in length,

fractional change = ………………………………. [1]

(c) the uncertainty in your answer in (b).

uncertainty = ………………………………… [3]

2. A student takes readings to measure the mean diameter of a wire using a micrometer screw gauge.
(a) Make suggestions, one in each case, that the student may adopt in order to
(i) reduce a systematic error in the readings,
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(ii) allow for a wire of varying diameter along its length,
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
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 (iii) allow for a non-circular cross-section of the wire.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
[3]

(b) The mean diameter of the wire is found to be 0.50 ± 0.02 mm. Calculate the percentage uncertainty in
(i) the diameter,

uncertainty = …………………………………. %
(ii) the area of cross-section of the wire.

uncertainty = …………………………………. %
[2]

3. The uncalibrated scale and the pointer of a meter are shown in Fig. 3.1.

The pointer is shown in the zero position.

The meter is to be used to indicate the volume of fuel in the tank of a car.
A known volume V of fuel is poured into the tank and the deflection θ of the pointer is noted.
Fig. 3.2 shows the variation with θ of V.

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 (a) On Fig. 3.1,
(i) calibrate the scale at 20 × 103 cm3 intervals, [2]
(ii) mark a possible position for a volume of 1.0 × 105 cm3. [1]

(b) Suggest one advantage of this scale, as compared with a uniform scale, for measuring fuel volumes in
the tank of the car.
..........................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................... [1]

4. (a) Distinguish between systematic errors and random errors.

systematic errors .............................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
random errors ..................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................... [2]

(b) A cylinder of length L has a circular cross-section of radius R, as shown in Fig. 4.1.

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The volume V of the cylinder is given by the expression

V = πR2L

The volume and length of the cylinder are measured as

V = 15.0 ± 0.5 cm3

L = 20.0 ± 0.1 cm.

Calculate the radius of the cylinder, with its uncertainty.

radius = ........................ ± ........................ cm [5]

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Answer

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