1

INDEX
1 INTRODUCTION 3
2 ELECTRONICS 101 4
3 ELEMENTS OF A POWER SUPPLY 5
4 SOURCES TO A POWER SUPPLY 6
5 THE CONVERSION 8
6 THE PROTECTION 10
7 THE REGULATION 13
8 LINEAR POWER SUPPLY 14
9 LINEAR POWER SUPPLY USING IC LM723 27
10 .LISSAJOUS FIGURES 27
11 . PCB DESIGNING USING EAGLE CAD 31
12 . HOW TO MAKE A CUSTOM LIBRARY IN EAGLE 41
13 .FABRICATING THE PCB. 45
14 .PCB AFTER FABRICATION. 52
15 .ACTIVE LOAD TESTING. 53
16 .ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. 55

2
 INTRODUCTION
The course EC-220 focusses on the hands on practical experience for the students of
Electronics and Communication Engineering, NSIT. The main stress lies on the
importance of power supplies to drive any circuit, their selection based on the
requirements and lastly, their design and fabrication. We were taught the underlying
basic concepts of any power supply in the lectures and once getting hold of them, we
learned to design circuits using EAGLE, A computer aided designing tool and editor.

Sessions included:

1. Explanation of the theory behind power supplies.

2. How to make schematic of a circuit and how to lay out a PCB using EAGLE.
3. How to produce tones of different frequency and amplitude using AUDACITY
running on any computer. This helped us to simulate two synchronised function
generators, which we used to plot LISSAJOUS PATTERNS on the oscilloscope in
X-Y Mode.
4. Fabrication of the Power Supply Printed Circuit Board (PCB).
This part involved us to learn the tips and techniques needed to fabricate any
PCB. The steps ranged from preparing the surface to etch a copper clad, from
drilling to soldering the components.

This report summarises the learnings took up by us during the Winter Training. The
first part of this report covers the Elements of the Power supply, its source,
Conversion, Protection and Regulation. Tone generation using the software AUDACITY
is also explained here.

The second part deals with the making of Schematic and Board Layout of any PCB
using EAGLE, and the third part covers the detailed steps involved in the fabrication,
thus meeting the objective of this winter train

3
 ELECTRONICS 101
The first lecture of the session played a vital role in developing the interest
in a subject which is the heart of our engineering branch.

We were shown many projects developed at CEDT, NSIT by the students of

our college. A detailed description of every project was given, their basic
principles were explained and various ideas related to the latest trends
were discussed.

As the session progressed, we became more familiar to the basics of

electronics and to deal with the components of common use, e.g., resistors,
capacitors and inductors. We also go to know the initialisation of the circuit
design and that every component is an equivalent circuit of series L,C,R.

This was the most important learning, to visualize every electronic

component as L,C,R and to appreciate that under which conditions one of
these parts dominate over others.

For example, a capacitor can be redrawn as:

ANALYSIS:

For a polar capacitor, at low frequencies, the capacitive

reactance dominates over the inductive reactance and
vice versa at higher frequencies. It is a good filter for
low frequency noise.

But for a ceramic capacitor, Equivalent series resistance

(ESR) value is very less as compared to a polar capacitor
and hence it works as a filter for higher frequencies.
This is the reason of putting two capacitors to filter out
noise, a
polar capacitor and a ceramic
capacitor.
4
 ELEMENTS OF A POWER
SUPPLY
A Power Supply consists of four main elements, namely:

1. The Source.
This is the input of the power supply. While designing a power supply,
it has to be taken into consideration that what kind of source is going
to drive it, whether it is a DC source or an AC source, whether the
power is derived out of a special conversion process (e.g. Solar
power), or taken from the standard wall socket.
2. The Conversion.
The voltage fed to the power supply can be of alternating nature
which needs conversion to a DC voltage before any other step. Here,
the conversion comes into picture. Different conversion mechanisms
are followed to meet the requirements.
3. The Protection.
The power supply should be safe from threats like short circuiting and
reverse polarity feeding. To avoid this, the circuit designer adds some
protection mechanisms and circuits to the power supply.
4. The Regulation.
This is the most important and engrossing part while designing any
power supply, the regulatory circuit. This part decides the output
voltage and the current capacity of the supply. It can be classified into
two categories: Linear and Switch mode.

Let us start with the detailed explanation of each element, starting with the
Sources.

5
SOURCES TO A POWER SUPPLY
1. AC MAINS
This is the most common type of input to any power supply. Its
specifications are RMS voltage: 220V at 50Hz frequency. It is available
everywhere, from homes to industries, thus making it the most
desirable source of power.

2. SOLAR POWER
Solar power is the most reliable alternative energy solutions present
due to its abundance in some areas and being safe for human use.

Harnessing solar energy involves the exact position tracking of the sun in
the sky, so that the solar panels can be tilted to an angle to receive
maximum solar energy. A graph is plotted by the tracker to find the
maximum power point using MPPT (maximum power point theorem).

3. RESONATING CIRCUITS
The natural resonating frequency of architectural structure can be used
to induce voltages. This idea of generating power is not adopted by the
common masses and stays the rarest ne to be followed.

4. FARADAY GENERATORS
The concept of electromagnetic induction which says that a changing
magnetic field across a loop induces a voltage, given by Faraday, is
utilised today to generate power. The power output of this technique
is not high, but can be used to drive some mobile devices. A magnet is
suspended in a cylindrical container wound by thousands of copper
turns. When the magnet is oscillated inside, a voltage is induced
across the ends of the copper wire which can be further utilised to
drive the loads.

6
 5. RADIO ENERGY HARVESTING
The presence of radio waves all around us can be of great use in terms
of energy. The energy from these radio waves can be easily harnessed
using antennas and conditioning circuit.

Along with the above mentioned power sources, there are few more, which
are used presently by different countries depending on the nature of
resources which the geography of that area has. These resources include,

6. HYDEL POWER PLANTS

The utilisation of potential energy of the water stored in the dams
is converted into electrical energy. India’s most of the power
requirements are met by these hydro power plants.

7. NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Controlled nuclear fission creates large amount of energy, but the
raw material used, the nuclear fuel like Uranium is not abundant.
The countries like Japan, where the geography lacks resources like
Wind energy and Hydro energy, the power requirements are
basically fulfilled by Nuclear Reactors.

The design of the Power Supply which is going to be discussed in the further
topics, will deal with AC mains supply as the source. Keeping in mind the
specifications of the AC supply, its conversion to DC has to be done before it
will be used to drive any equipment which requires DC of a fixed value.

So, the next part deals with the conversion of raw AC power into DC power.

7
 THE CONVERSION
The 220V mains cannot be used directly to drive some of the loads as it
incurs losses and is dangerous for human beings. So, it requires conversion to
a more efficient and safer alternative, to a lesser value than 220V.

The widely adopted way to do so is through a Step down Converter e.g., a

Transformer.

Ideal transformer equations (eq.)

By Faraday's law of induction

. . . (1)

. . . (2)
Combining ratio of (1) & (2)

Turns ratio . . . (3) where

For step-down transformers, a > 1, so that the secondary side
voltage is lower than the Primary side voltage.
Where, φ is the flux linkage between the primary and the secondary side.

The step down transformer produces an AC output of less value than on the
primary side, this AC output needs to be rectified and then smoothened
using filters.
8
The rectification can be full wave or half wave. We have used full wave
rectification and then a C-R-C filter to smoothen the rectified output.

The output from a step down transformer is rectified using an arrangement of

diodes, and this unfiltered output is then filtered using a smoothening filter
circuit. The output of this whole arrangement is DC power.

9
 THE PROTECTION
As a circuit designer one must always stress upon the protection of the
circuit and the user in case of short circuiting or overloading. The
overloading protection is covered under this section. Short-circuit
protection is for the Linear Power Supplies are covered under the
Regulation part.

There are many alternatives which can be used to protect a circuit from
overheating/ overloading, one of them being the Fuses.

Fuse is a device which breaks the circuit when a current through the fuse
crosses a threshold value. Fuses can be of different types based upon their
reusability. They are:

1. Slow Blow Fuses.

2. Momentary fuses.
3. Resettable fuses.

The circuit symbol of a fuse.

The next techniques used for the protection are called

1. Fail Safe Circuit.

2. Fail Proof Circuit.

10
In a fail-safe circuit design, all the possibilities of the malfunctioning of the
circuit due to reverse polarity attachments are ruled out. The circuit would
function properly only in the right orientation and would stop in all other
cases.

For example, using a specially designed DC barrel Jack can be used for
supplying power, a DC male part consists of a pin and an external barrel,
which can be inserted in the board mounted DC jack only in a single way,
thus the chances of attaching the source to the supply in a reverse manner
are zeroed.

The figure shows another way to make a circuit Fail-safe.

The addition of a Diode makes the circuit Fail-safe. As it can be seen that
the load will be driven only when the Diode is forward biased. To forward
bias the diode, supply can only be connected in one orientation. Trying to
connect the supply in reverse polarity mode, the diode will get reverse
biased and hence the circuit won’t work at all, making it safe from the
consequences incurred due to reverse polarity connection.

Whereas, a circuit can be designed which works in all possible connection

and its functioning is independent of the polarity. Such a circuit is called to
be Fail-Proof one.

11
For a Fail Proof Circuit design, let us refer a small schematic in which this
technique is implemented.

This schematic shows an arrangement of four diodes which make the

power supply circuit Fail-Proof. Irrespective of the polarity in which the
source will be connected to the supply, it will always work. Let us see how.

Case I: Let the pin 2 of the connector be the positive one, and the pin 1 be
negative. In this configuration, the diodes D4 and D2 will be forward biased,
making the upper node reach a higher potential than the lower node.

Case II: Let this time the polarity is reversed as in case I, making the Pin 2
negative and Pin 1 as positive potential pins. Now, the diodes D3 and D1
will be forward biased and the rest two will be reverse biased, making the
upper node at a higher potential than the lower node.

Thus, in both the cases, the upper node remains at a higher potential as
compared to the lower node, which may be the requirement of the load.

12
 THE REGULATION
This is the most important part of the power supply circuit designing as this
section decides the ratings and specifications of the power supply.

The power supply can be classified into two categories depending on the
regulation used, they are:

1. Linear Power Supply.

These are called “linear” supplies because the electronics elements
used to build it always stay in the linear (active) mode of operation.

2. Switch Mode Power Supply.

In this type of supply, the switching transistor switches between two
modes, cut-off and saturation. These supplies are suitable for portable
applications due to their compactness and efficiency. Depending on
the voltage input vs. voltage output, the Switch Mode Power Supply
can be of three types.
1. Buck Regulator
Here, the output voltage is less than the input voltage.
2. Boost Regulator
The output voltage is higher than the input voltage.
3. Buck-Boost Regulator
A special type of Switching Power Supply which can Buck
the voltage (reduce it) as well as boost the voltage
(increase it).

We will start to deal with the design considerations involved in a linear

power supply. The need of short circuit protection and its implementation
though various ways is discussed further.

13
 LINEAR POWER SUPPLY
As mentioned earlier, this type of regulatory circuit has all the elements in
active region of operation, giving it the name “Linear”.

The need to regulate a source before it is connected to the load is of utmost

importance as the source may have spikes in the voltage levels which can be
enough to destroy the internal circuitry of the load. Sometimes, these
voltage spikes are dangerous for the logic ICs present in the load, and can
cause shut down as well. These spikes can be due to any reason and should
be removed, or taken care of.

One of the ways to deal with such voltage spikes on the input is through
TRANSIENT VOLTAGE SUPPRESSOR.

A Transient Voltage Suppressor can be assumed to be 2 back to back

connected zener diodes as shown in the schematic below.

Now as the circuit elements operate in active region, they always need
some biasing voltage V volts so the regulated output voltage is always less
than the raw input voltage by a small factor.
Such that, Vraw – Vregulated > k,

14
Where k is the biasing voltage of the regulating circuit.

So, what is the current consumed by the regulation circuit to maintain a

bias voltage. This current is called Quiescent Current, IQ .

The Quiescent Current can be expressed as,

IQ=Input Current ( Iin) – Output Current (Iout)

Now, assume that the output is short-circuited.

The input current drawn would now be equal to,

Iin=( IQ + ISC),

Here ISC is the short circuit current flowing across the short-circuited output.

The power corresponding to this current and raw input voltage will be
dissipated a heat by the regulation circuit. But, for the safe functioning of
the circuit, this heat dissipated must be in the limits of heat dissipating
capacities of the Regulation circuit. Otherwise, the regulation circuit will
burn off due to excessive heating.

To limit the short circuit current to a value which puts the heat dissipated
under the capacity of the circuit, a technique called FOLD BACK CURRENT
LIMITING is used.

15
This technique limits the short circuit current to a fraction of a the
maximum load current, so that whenever the output is shorted, current
gets limited and the heat dissipated is under a controllable value.

IMAX

ISC

A characteristic curve of a linear power supply having FOLD BACK CURRENT

LIMITING and the dotted curve represent the supply without the fold back
current limiter circuit.

In this case, the heat dissipated will be equal to,

Pheat= (Vraw * Isc), where

Isc=k*Imax, k<1.

Taken into consideration the key points to design a linear supply, let us
proceed to design a sample with the specifications,

Vout=5.1 Volts,

Imax=1 A

16
Let the source be a transformer of output rating 12V, which is further
rectified by a full wave rectifier and smoothened by a capacitive filter to
give an input of 16.8V to the regulatory circuit.

Since, the output is 5.1V fixed, we can use a zener diode as the reference
voltage, but there are some issues to be fixed while using this zener diode
across the output.

A reliable power supply is the one which has a stable output voltage
irrespective of the load connected to it. In this case, the specifications are,
1A at 5.1V ouput voltage.

Now assume that the load is taken out, so that all the current flows through
the zener diode. As the zener diode operates in the reverse biased region, a
change in current can directly affect the reference voltage, although this
effect would not be drastic. The power generated when the load is removed
will be,

P= 5.1*1= 5.1Watts.

To arrange a zener diode which has the capacity to dissipate such amount of
heat is vry difficult, so we will modify the circuit by adding a component
which can handle large amount of current without disturbing the refernce
voltage, and this component is going to be transistor used in common
17
collector configuration. In this configuration, the transistor has a unity
voltage gain but very high current gain.

(turn to next page for the modified circuit.)

After this modification, the output voltage is reduced by an amount equal

to the base emitter voltage of the transistor, Vbe.

To compensate this, a normal diode is added in series with the zener diode,
thus making the output voltage Vo= Vz- Vbe+ Vbe= Vz.

The design of the required power supply is ready. The only part left is to

18
add a short circuit protection to the circuit which can be done by adding a
transistor and a resistor in the given configuration.

(The Linear power Supply circuit with short circuit protection)

Suppose that this power supply faces a short circuit, and a short circuit
current flows through the resistor Rsc.

As soon as the short circuit current flows through this resistor, the potential
difference across it becomes Isc * Rsc.

The Rsc will be selected such that the potenatial across Rsc in short circuit
condition becomes more than 0.7V, which is the Base-Emitter voltage
required by the transistor to get into active mode.

The transistor Q2 in active mode pushes the transistor Q1 into cutoff as all
the base current of Q1 is now passing through the collector of the transistor
Q2.

Thus, our sample linear supply of the rating 1 A at 5.1V , with the short
circuit protection is complete.

Since, all our discussion till here was for a fixed ouput power supply whose
ouput is fixed at Vz, which means if someone wants to change the output,
he has to change the zener diode which is the refernece voltage provider.
This method is going to be very cumbersome and thus, we need to find an
alternative to make a variable ouput power supply.
19
Let us try to make some changes to the already made power supply and see
what consequences we may face.

One of the ways to change the

refernce voltage is to take the
ouput across a potentiometer.
But there is a potential problem
with this design. The problem is
of loading.

As the resistance of the

potentiometer changes, the
current though it also changes,
being in parallel to the zener
diode, affects the current through the zener, which in turn results in the
deflection of reference voltage.

Solution to this problem is to find such an element which reflects the

reference voltage on the output but at the same time dosen’t load the
circuit. This time, an OP-AMP comes to our rescue.

The characteristic of an OP-AMP are:

1. For an ideal opamp, the input current is zero, and

2. It tries to maintain the input terminals at the same potential.

The OPAMP can be used as an amplifier in two configurations.

1. NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER
When input is applied on the
non-inverting terminal and
the negative feedback is
taken through resistor
network, the opamp behaves
as non-inverting amplifier.
The output voltage Vout
can be expressed as

20
 Vout=(1+ R1/R2) * Vin

2. INVERTING AMPLIFIER
In this case, the input is
applied on the inverting
terminal of an opamp,
and the negative
feedabck is taken
through the resistive
network, thus making the
opamp behave as an
inverting amplifier.
The output voltage Vout can be expressed as
Vout= -(R1/R2) * Vin

Firstly let us utilise the property of these opamps to make changes to our
sample power supply. As the opamp can reflect the volatge on one of its
terminals to the other terminal without loading the circuit, it can be
connected as shown in this schematic.

The opamp will try to maintain its terminals , 2 and 3, at the same potential,
2 (inverting terminal) being connected to the output and 3(non-inverting
terminal

21
Being connected to the reference voltage.The output current of this opamp
drives the series pass transistor.
A SERIES PASS TRANSISTOR acts as a shock absorber when the load
changes. On any variation in the load, the output voltage will change, but
this series pass transistor will change its impedence and will try to maintain
the ouput voltage constant. The change in impedence is caused by the
opamp.
Suppose the output voltage changes, the opamp will try to maintain the
output voltage equal to the reference voltage, to do so, the opamp will
change its input current which was driving the series pass transistor.
Changing the base current changes the voltage across the collector emitter
junction, which can be percieved as the change in impedence by the
thevenin’s theorem. In this way the regulation is achieved.
But it is not the case always that the current requirement of the load and
the capacity of the series pass transistor to allow that current to flow
through it, matches. So, to make a higher current rating power supply, we
use a multistage amplifier made of two transistors called a DARLINGTON
PAIR.

DARLINGTON PAIR.
Suppose the current rating of power
supply exceeds the maximum
collector current of a commonly used
transistor.
To solve this problem, one can replace
that transistor with a power
transistor, which has higher collector
current limit which in this case is
Q1,MJE3055.
The constraint here is the less current gain of these power transistors,
which make them unable to be driven by the output of an opamp. So to
meet the higher base current requirement, a commonly used npn transistor

22
is used. Here it is T2, BC547. T2 has a very high current gain and also, it can
be driven by the low ouput current of an opamp. This configuration makes
it possible for the designer to design a high current rating power supply
using all the previously mentioned design techniques.

Learning about the characteristic, amplification action of opamps and to

drive a power transistor by the low output current of an opamp using
darlington pair, we can now step onto the design of a VARIABLE OUPUT
LINEAR POWER SUPPLY.
The schematic below shows that the input voltage to the invrting terminal
of the opamp has been reduced to a fraction of the reference voltage using
the potential divider network

The input voltage V1 can

be written as
V1 = { R3/ (R3+ R2)} * Vref
So now the ouput
voltage is less than the
reference voltage.
This method will help us
in getting a lower ouput
voltage than the
refernce voltage .

Taking other case when

we need higher ouput
voltage as compared to
the reference voltage,
then the below
schematic will help us in
understamding how.

23
The opamp here is acting as an non-inverting amplifier anf the ouput
voltage V out can be expressed in terms of input voltage V1 as:
V out = {1+ (R2/ R3)} * V1
So, this is how a higher output voltage can be achieved using the opamp as
an amplifier.
From the past discussion, as we know how to get a lower voltage as well as
a higher voltage than the reference voltage, we can now make some
changes to the circuit to make it a variable voltage supply.
NOTE:
Whenever comparing the ouput voltage as higher or lower, this is done
with respect to the refernce voltage and not the input one. In case of
linear power supplies, the transistors used in it always remain in the
active region, thus requiring a fixed biased voltage resulting in a output
voltage always lesser than the unregulated input.

Let us now make a power supply with Vout < Vz but variable.
A trim pot can be used to achieve this goal. Also, to avoid the problem of
loading (discussed earlier), opamp as a voltage buffer is also used.

Voltage V1 will vary

and so will Vout.

{ R2 /(R2 +R3)} * V ref

< V1 < { (R2+ x)/
( R2+x +R3)} * Vref
Where x is the
resistance of the preset
connected.

24
Now for higher voltage than Vref but variable, the error amplifier will be
used in non-inverting amplifier configuration.

V1= Vref
But regulated ouput voltage Vout will vary between,
{1+(R6 / (R5 +x))} * V ref < Vout < {1+(R6 /R5)} * V ref

After integrating the

lower ouput volatge
supply and the
higher output
voltage supply, the
circuit of the
elementary varibale
output voltage
linear power supply
is completed.
At this stage, most
of the part to

25
design a variable supply is done. The serious issues which are still left to be
dealt are:
1. To make the supply of a high current rating by using a darlington pair.
2. To install short circuit protection.

After connecting a darlington pair and installing the short circuit protection
(as dscussed earlier), the final power supply schematic will be:

NOTE: The implementation of the design has been carried out with
discrete components, no integrated circuit has been used. Now, the same
design can be implemented using a voltage regulator IC LM723, discussed
further.
26
LINEAR POWER SUPPLY USING IC LM723

The design carried out previously was with discrete components, the same
circuit can be made using IC LM723 along with few external components.
The above schematic shows the internal circuitry of voltage regulator
LM723, the circuit of the variable output voltage linear power supply
discussed earlier is exactly the same as when LM723 combined with some
external components.

The reference voltage Vref is 7.15V.

SHORT CIRCUIT PROTECTION: When a resistor of calculated value is

connected between the current limit and current sense pin, it is same as
the Rsc of the previously discussed circuit and the whole arrangement of
the current limit transistor with this Rsc behaves as the short circuit
protection.

The series pass transistor of LM723 is that transistor of the darlington pair
which is driven by the output current of the error amplifier.

Detailed circuit design using LM723 is discussed in the EAGLE section of this
report. Having done all the theoretical designing of the power supply, this Is
the time to switch onto something hands on and practical. First thing be the
plotting of lissajous figures and then PCB designing using EAGLE CAD.

27
 LISSAJOUS FIGURES
The lissajous figures are an important tool to analyse any unknown
electrical signal by comparing it to a known signal.

The plotting of lissajous pattern on an oscilloscope requires two

synchronised function generators, which may not be in the reach of every
student. But, software called AUDACITY can help to turn the audio output
port of any computer into a 2 channel output function generator.

To generate a tone in audacity, following steps are followed.

STEP 1:

Go to Tracks, click on Add New, then select Audio Track.

STEP 2:

Go to Generate and select Tone.

28
STEP3:

Select the type of waveform, set its frequency, amplitude and duration.

After this step, a sine tone of set frequency and amplitude is generated.

Repeat all the steps to generate a new tone with different frequency or a
phase shift.

But, till now we have not separated the channels of the two
generated waveforms. This can be easily done by shifting the
channel balance selector to the left completely; this would
shift all the output to the left channel.

Similarly, for the second waveform shift the selector to the

right completely, so that this tone is audible on the right
channel.

29
Once this is done, connect an aux cable and set the output of the
oscilloscope to the X-Y mode and press the play button.

These are some sample lissajous figures generated when two waveforms
having a phase difference and a frequency ratio are plotted in X-Y mode of
the oscilloscope.

30
 PCB DESIGNING USING EAGLE
CAD
EAGLE (for: Easily Applicable Graphical Layout Editor) by CadSoft Computer is a
flexible, expandable and scriptable EDA application with schematic capture editor,
PCB layout editor, auto-router and CAM and BOM tools developed by CadSoft
Computer GmbH, Germany, since 1988.We are using EAGLE 6.6.0 for designing
schematic and board representation of power supply.

EAGLE is popular among smaller design houses and in academia for its favourable
licensing terms and rich availability of component libraries on the web. Hobbyists are
attracted by the availability of freeware licenses.

First we make Schematic of our power supply and then we convert it into Board layout.

Step 1: Create new project

Start up the Eagle control panel, and right-click on "projects" to create a new project.
You'll get to name it whatever you want.
Step 2: Create new schematic in the project

31
Once you have cretaed the new project, it will be "opened" automatically (which doesn't
do much other than tell EAGLE that "this is the current project"). Right click on the
new project and follow the popup menus to create a new schematic.

Step 3: Find and place ("add") components

"ADD"button

Components are added to a schematic from the ADD dialog, which you get to by
clicking the ADD button over on the GUI menu.

One of the major challenges of using Eagle is finding the components you want in the
"official" libraries.
These libraries are extensive, not particularly well named (and the components aren't so
well named either),
and seem to date back to a time when there was a different philosophy about multiple
packages for a particular device. Resistors and capacitors have so many packages
defined that picking the right one is difficult. Transistors, despite formable leads, tend to
only have a single package defined. We can also don't use the standard libraries at all,
copying common components and packages into private libraries or creating them from
scratch.

The search capability of the add dialog is pretty good; you just have to be less specific
about what you search for if you expect to find it.

When working from a published schematic, we prefer to add all the components in the
approximately correct locations before we start connecting anything.

Once we finished the add dialog, the part will get attached to your mouse pointer, and
32
put down wherever you want on the drawing page by clicking the left mouse button.
The right mouse button rotates the part 90 degrees. The middle button, or left and right
simultaneously (maybe) "mirrors" the part drawing, which may also be useful.

Step 4: Add Integrated Circuits

In our power suppy we use LM 723 N positive voltage regulator , type LM 723* in
search box by clicking ADD component button. There will be two types of LM 723
available : LN 723D and LM 723N, choose LM 723 N ,double click on it and place it on a
grid as shown below:

LM723/LM723N Voltage Regulator General Description

33
The LM723/LM723N is a voltage regulator designed primarily for series regulator
applications. By itself, it will supply output currents up to 150 mA; but external
transistors can be added to provide any desired load current. The circuit features
extremely low standby current drain, and provision is made for either linear or fold
back current limiting. The LM723/LM723N is also useful in a wide range of other
applications such as a shunt regulator, a current regulator or a temperature controller.
The LM723N is identical to the LM723 except that the LM723N has its performance
guaranteed over a 0˚C to +70˚C temperature range, instead of −55˚C to +125˚C.

Features :- 150 mA output current without external pass transistor , Output currents in
excess of 10A possible by adding external transistors ,Input voltage 40V max ,Output
voltage adjustable from 2V to 37V , Can be used as either a linear or a switching
regulator voltage.

Step 5: Add resistors

Resistors, simple components that they are, cause a lot of confusion for Eagle
beginners, perhaps because the eagle library contains 100+ different
package/schematic options for generic resistors. Or perhaps it's because a search for
short word like "R" isn't practical, and a search for "resistor" turns up a bunch of

34
special purpose specific-manufacturer devices.

Now we add appropriate resistor which we needed for making the schematic of power
supply and arrange it according the design.

Step 6: Add capacitors and other components

Similarly like step 5 add required capacitors, diodes, led, transistor and other
components required for making of schematic of power supply

FINAL SCHEMATIC OF POWER SUPPLY

Step 7: Convert Schematic into Board Design

After making of schematic convert it into board design which will be print as a printing
circuit board.

35
We can resize components so that we get as small as possible circuit which will be
printing in the copper board.

We can switch to board by clicking to file->switch to board option.

Step 8: Menu commands used

The Board Editor looks a lot like the schematic editor, with some different commands.
Here's a summary of the iconic commands that I use in this instructable, and some
brief summaries:

INFO Shows information about an object (component, signal, trace, etc.)

MOVE Allows components to be moved (same as schematic.)
GROUP Groups a collection of objects into a "group" that can be manipulated
simultaneously.
DELETE Delete an object. Items created in schematics need to be deleted there.
SMASH Separate the text labels of a part from the part itself, so they can be moved
independently.
BREAK Add a corner to a line (or trace.)
ROUTE turn an airwire into a trace
LINE draw lines (usually in non-copper layers. ROUTE is for drawing copper.) VIA
create a hole and pad associated with some signal. (actually, we'll use a text
command.)
HOLE a hole that isn't associated with a signal, ie for mounting.
RATSNEST recomputes airwires and polygons, eg after components have been moved.
CHANGE changes an object's properties.
RIPUP changes a routed trace back to an airwire. Sorta equivilent to "delete" for
36
traces.
TEXT add text
POLYGON create a polygon (actually, we'll use a text command.)
AUTOROUTE invoke the autorouter.
DRC invoke the Design Rule Check and parameter setting.

Step 9: Move the components into the legal area

The first thing we want to do is move at least some components into the legal board
area where we can work with them. If you have a particularly large board with many
components, you might want to do this a section at a time. For this sample board, we
have plenty of room and we can move them all at once, using the group-move feature.

Select the GROUP icon, then click and drag to make a rectangle that goes all the way
around the components. Then select the MOVE icon and RIGHT click (right clicking
selects the group instead of a single component) and drag the set into the board
outline. Use the ZOOM button to tighter the view.

Step 10: Start placing the components

Now we need to move the components to (near) where we want them on the final
board. OR we want to move them to sensible places that will make the placement of
traces easier. A lot of the "ART" of making PCBs (and especially Single Sided Boards)
lies in finding "good" places for the components.

37
In general, we can start by placing the components similar to how they appear on the
schematic.

Step 11: Shrink the board outline a bit

The full legal side of the board is bigger than we need. Shrink the outline by using the
MOVE tool. Click on the center of the top horizontal line (which selects the whole line
instead of an endpoint) and move it down, Then click on the center of the rightmost
vertical line and move it leftward.
Clicking near the center of a line moves the whole line. Clicking near a vertice moves

38
only the point.The size of board we require is of size min. 7.5 X 6 cm in dimension to fit
all the components in it.

Step 12: Try the autorouter Or Route Manually

Click the AUTOROUTE icon, and a dialog box will pop up. The default parameters will
produce a double sided board, and we want to at least TRY to make a single-sided
board, so the first thing to do is set the preferred direction for the TOP layer to NA
(Not Applicable.)

The other thing you may need to change is the routing grid. This defaults to the same
default grid as the board layout editor in general: 0.05 inches (1.27mm, since I have
my editor set up in metric.) Since this particular board has big parts, and we haven't
moved any off the default grid, we're ok with that value. If you have SMT components
or have moved things around on a finer grid, you might have pads that are not on the
touing grid, which the autorouter doesn't like much ("unreachable pad", etc) You can
make the grid very small, but it will take longer. IMO, it's better to start with a coarse
grid and halve it each time it looks like routes fail because the grid is too large.

Also note that the autorouter obeys the board dimension lines, so if you haven't
moved them close to your components, you might have traces travel all over the
board. Or if you've moved the outline too close to the pads, you may have prevented
traces from going places they need to go.

There are a couple of ways we could route this signal manually, including some snakey
routes between transistor pins that the autorouter didn't use because of the design
rules we specified.

Select the ROUTE tool and click on an endpoint of an un routed (yellow) air wire, and
you can position a trace pretty much anywhere you want, selecting width, layer, and
type of bend from the menu bar as you go along.

We use manual routing in the board design of power supply.

Step 13: Check signals to see how they'll route

One way to get hints on part placement is to look at some significant signals to see
whether they have nice straight paths, or whether they zigzag all over the board. First
use the RATSNEST icon/command to have EAGLE recompute the airwires. The way
things are now, I have nice straight connections from the transistors to the lamps, but
if I type "show gnd" in the command line, I see that this is at the expense of making
the ground signal zigzag. So I swap the transistors because GND is more important to
have straight. (IMHO, YMMV, etc)

39
After the rest of the components are placed in ok-looking relative locations, we can
squeeze them together again (manually, moving them one at a time; no magic
command for this!) and shrink the board outline some more.For example:-

Step 14: FINAL BOARD DESIGN

Final board design after placing components in the right place and doing proper
routing of the circuit.

40
How to make a custom library part in Eagle CAD tool

Step 1:
Start the Eagle control panel and Click on file --->library

Decide where you want your new part to be. I suggest creating your own library. If you
have your own library it will be easier to share your work with others.
1) To create a new library go to the menu bar and select File->New->Library
2) Add to existing library in the left pane of the control panel right click on the library you want to add the part
to and select open.
41
Step 2: Design Eagle library
Your screen should like like this when you click create new library.

To design a part in eagle you must define a device, package, and symbol. Each aspect
has its own set of layers that you must keep straight.

Improving the Device

Go to Library > Device, and select the device.

To rename the device, use Library > Rename to rename the Device. You can also
change the description as above, which is useful for searching.

To change the symbol's prefix (e.g. D1, D2, D3 for diodes), click on Prefix and enter
the desired prefix.

You probably just want to have one package, so delete others by right clicking on them
on the Device screen and selecting Delete.

To rename the package, go to Library > Package, and select the package. Then use
Library > Rename to rename the Package. You can also change the description.

42
Improving the Symbol
The steps above are sufficient to edit and use a new component, but you may want to
clean things up a bit.

To rename your symbol, go to Library > Rename, and enter a new name for the symbol.

To add a description, click on the Description link and enter a description using HTML.
Typically it has <b>the title</b> <p>, and then a description.

To move the >NAME or >VALUE, use move and click on the crosshair at the lower
left. You might want to temporarily reduce the grid size to get more control over the
position.

43
Adding new pins
If you want to add new pins to a symbol, things become more complicated, because
you also need to add pads to the package and connect the pins to the pads, even if you
don't care about PC boards. I recommend picking a starting symbol with the right
number of pins if possible. But if not, use the following steps to add new pins.

Add the pins using Draw > Pin. You may need to rotate the pin. Right click the pin and
select Properties to change the length or other property. You can enter a pin name or set
Visible: Off if you don't want the pin name to show up.

To add pads, go to the Device, right click the Package, and select Edit Package. Add a
Pad (anywhere) using the green circle icon.

Next you need to connect the pins and pads. Go to Library > Device and select your
device. You will notice in the package pane an exclamation point in a circle.
Underneath, click Connect, which will bring up the Connect panel. Select a Pin and a
Pad and click Connect, until all pins are connected, and click Ok.

44
 FABRICATING THE PCB
TONER TRANSFER METHOD:

STEP 1:

Start by taking a print of the mirror of what we made in the previous

section on a “glossy paper”(also called a photo paper), Reason: It will be
mirrored once again in the subsequent steps resulting in the original image
automatically.

STEP 2: Preparing the surface.

We will use 1.6 mm width copper clad board to make the PCB. Copper clads
available in the market have oxide layer on them, which is formed by the
reaction of copper with the environmental impurities. This layer acts as a
protective one which stops the copper of the copper clad to react further
which is undesirable.
45
Why it is undesirable?

It is so because, once the toner ink has been transferred onto the board,
the exposed copper needs to be removed, but if this layer still exists, we
can’t do the needful.

So how to remove the “protective” oxide layer?

Simple, sand paper comes to our rescue.

Sand paper is available in different grades signifying how coarse it is. Higher
the grade, less coarse it is. Select the one which is not so coarse that will
wipe off the copper layer from the copper clad and not so fine that even
after lots of rubbing, you end up where you started. A sand paper of grade
100 works fine for our purpose.

Follow rule of thumb while rubbing off the oxide layer, “Always rub uniformly
in a single direction”, hatching will result in a very uneven surface at
microscopic level which will block the complete transfer of the ink.

46
 This figure shows copper clad
with the oxide layer on it. Notice
that the board is not lustrous.

After rubbing the copper clad

with sand paper, copper
regains its lustre and the
surface is ready. Clean the
surface using tissue paper.

STEP 3: TRANSFERRING INK.

Now is the time to transfer ink onto the prepared copper surface. Keep the
e-Memento print (taken on a glossy paper in step 1) with the ink side facing
the copper surface. The ink has to be heated for it to leave the paper and
stick on the copper. For doing this, we will use a normal iron used in our
homes to iron clothes. No industrial stuff required. BRAVO!

Set the iron to “WOOL” (which is around 150° C) and follow two rules of
thumb:
47
1. Uniform application of pressure.
2. Uniform application of heat.
(One may ask that copper being
heat conductive will transfer
heat in all directions from the
point of application, TRUE, but
the heat transfer is not uniform
resulting in improper transfer of
ink. This reasoning DOES NOT
applies on small PCBs which can
be covered by the iron in one
go. The problem is majorly
faced in the case of larger
PCBs.)

Take precautions while ironing. To

position the board while in
between the process, use cloth to hold it. IT’S REAL HOT! Keep an insulator
between the bench and the copper clad for protecting the bench from the
heat.

There is no visible proof that the ink has been transferred, but if one has
followed the two rules of thumb while ironing, there is minimal scope of
failure.

STEP 4: REMOVING THE PAPER

To remove the paper, one can

think of just pulling it off. But,
this can also pull the ink off. To
avoid this, let the board cool
for few minutes then dip the
board into a water bath and
gently scrape off the paper
using your thumb and fingers.

48
Avoid using nails (potential threat to ink and hence to the circuit)

Before proceeding further, make sure the tracks, pads and text are right on
their respective places. If some discrepancies are found, they can be easily
corrected using a fine tip permanent marker. If shorting has occurred
somewhere, remove the excess ink using a pointed object like a compass or
a mounting needle.

STEP 5: ETCHING

Etching is a chemical process where the

exposed copper will react with the etching
reagent and will be removed in form of a
precipitate. The etching reagent used is
Ferric Chloride.

Use protective gloves while dealing with

the reagent.

STEP 6: REMOVING THE INK.

The left out ink can be removed using a

scrubber, exposing the copper to the
environment.

49
STEP 7:SPRAYING ACRYLIC

For the long life of the circuit, the copper

should be protected from the corrosion
caused by environmental factors. The
protection comes with a coating of
acrylic which is non-reactive to the
copper.

Leave it for drying.

Once the PCB is made, the holes for placing components are to be drilled.

DRILLING

Make holes in the board using a drilling

machine and bits of respective diameters as
required. During drilling process make sure
that the PCB do not move while the bit is
inserted in the board else the drill bit can
break.One should follow safety measures
while using a drilling machine as it can be
dangerous at high speeds.

We used a DREMEL drilling set and

HSS drill bits of various diameters
ranging from 0.7mm to 3mm to drill
holes.

50
Now the PCB is ready for the components to be soldered.

SOLDERING:

All the components are placed according to the board layout file. The board
is stabilized by putting screws at the four corners. First the SMD’s must be
soldered and then the other components so that we get a flat surface while
soldering .

Necessary Precautions while Soldering:

a) The copper pads should be tinned before soldering a smd component.

b) Don’t overheat the solder joint by placing iron for a longer time while
soldering LEDs since they tend to get damaged easily.
c) The soldering iron should be repeatedly cleaned by rubbing it over a
sponge lightly moistened with water.
d) While soldering at compact pathways, the solder bead should not
spread over beyond its limit since it may lead to short circuit.
e) There should be caution while placing and soldering the IC.

A Weller soldering
station was used to
solder components.

51
POWER SUPPLY AFTER
FABRICATION

52
 ACTIVE LOAD TESTING
A power supply is considered to be reliable if the output voltage is
independent of:

1. The change in the load.

2. The change in the source voltage/ line voltage.

The first measure, that is the output voltage is independent of the change
in the load, is called the load regulation and the second measure is called
the line regulation.

For the load Regulation of a power supply, a known load is connected to it

and the current flowing is noted.

For a range of values, the resistor should be changed repeatedly. This

process to get the readings is cumbersome, so an electronic load is
designed which simulates a resistor of calculated value depending upon the
voltage and current settings.

This load is called an ACTIVE LOAD. An active load is, at its most basic level,
a circuit whose effective impedance is controlled by the user. By controlling
the impedance of the circuit, one can control the current drawn from the
power supply and hence simulate a resistor (load) of the appropriate value.

53
 The voltage is measure through the “VOLTAGE” connector the current is
calculated by measuring the voltage through “CURRENT” connector.
= 0.44 Amperes

The power supply fabricated in this winter training was tested with an
active load and the test results are as follows.

Voltage Voltage at Current

at V I (mV) (mA)

5.05 0 0
5.04 50 113
5.02 100 227
5.01 140 318
5 160 363
5 180 409
4.99 200 454
4.98 220 500
4.97 240 545
2.88 260590

Load regulation curve is as follows:

Load Regulation
6
5

0 11 22 31 36 40 45 50 54 59

0
3 7 8 3 9 4 0 5 0
Voltage 5.05 5.04 5.02 5.01 5 5 4.99 4.98 4.97 2.88

Ideally, the load regulation curve of a power supply must be a line parallel
to the current axis/ load axis, in our case, it is near to ideal.

Hence, a variable output voltage linear power supply was fabricated and
tested during this winter taining.
54
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would sincerely like to thank Prof. Dhananjay V. Gadre for making us
understand the basic concepts of a power supply design. His constant
support during whole training made it possible for us complete the power
supply fabrication.

We would also like to thank the whole team of students who helped us in
our problems during the entire training span. It wouldn’t have been
possible without their help.

Thank you!

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