The Industrial Manufacture

of Chemical Compounds
Step-Up
Introduction
• Welcome!
• Personal Introduction
• What today’s topic will cover…
Contents
• What factors do we need to consider
in design of a plant?
• Types of industrial processes
• What factors are important in
running a plant?
Key design factors
• What do we want to make?
• In what quantities? (cost constraints / demand
constraints, competition already in this market)
• How will we manufacture? (Differences in
processes)
• Where do we locate the facility?
• How can we ensure safe production?
• What environmental /local or national legislation
considerations are there?
• What are the costs associated with start up?
• What systems will be used to operate the facility
(people and shifts)?
What and how much do we
want to make?
• Will this plant make only one product or
many products?
– Examples are sulphuric acid, sodium
hydroxide, dyestuffs, perfumes
• How much will we make?
– 10g, 10kgs or 10,000T

The answers to these questions will

determine how we will manufacture
Key Business Decision
• How are we going to make the
product?
- We need ‘Know-how’
- We need a production ‘blueprint’
- We need to decide on the
equipment that is is needed
- We need a strategy – decide on our

method of making the product

Examples of Processes
• Single unit production process –
Single Job production e.g.
manufacture of a hand-made
detailed /complex piece of furniture
• Mass production – using machines
and people to repeat simple
production tasks to quickly build
many of the same products e.g.Cars
Manufacturing processes
• Batch process - A process that is not in
continuous or mass production;
operations are carried out with discrete
quantities of material or a limited number
of items (1T of X and 2T of Y)
• Continuous process -Industrial process
that continuously receives raw materials
and processes them through to
completed units (1T/h of X and 2T/h of Y)
Batch Production
  

  
Continuous Processing
  

 
 
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
Manufacture of Aspirin –
batch process
Pronunciations:  
Salicylic:Sally-sillic
Examples of batch
processes
• Pharmacuticals (substances with medicinal properties)
• Agrochemicals (pesticides, fertilizers, fungicides)
• Dyestuffs (food dyes, clothing dyes, industrial dyes)
• Food additives(preservatives, enhancers, the ‘E’s  in food)
• Perfumes
• Vitamins
• Pigments
Advantages of batch processes
• Good for small amounts of speciality 
chemicals
• Make a range of products using same 
equipment
• Can schedule maintenance & inspections 
to equipment in between batches
• Good for developing new products
• Easier to scale up from lab scale
• Generally cheaper set up costs
• Employees understand the process well 
Disadvantages of batch
processing
• Frequent start up and shutdown of 
equipment – DOWNTIME!!
• Cleaning time between batches
• May be batch to batch variability
• Not good for bulk chemical 
production
Examples of Continuous
Processes
• Sulphuric acid production
• Sodium hydroxide production
• Ammonia
• Petrol
• Chlorine
• Methanol
Advantages of Continuous
Processing
• Good for large volumes (bulk 
chemicals)
• Fewer start up and shutdowns – 
UPTIME!!
• Potentially greater yields 
• Potentially easier to maintain quality 
or spot out of specification product 
sooner
Disadvantages of
Continuous Processing
• Requires periodic shutdown of 
whole plant for inspection and 
maintenance
• May rely on critical pieces of 
equipment which have the potential 
to stop production on whole plant
• Higher initial costs
• Employees knowledge of the 
process is limited    
Short Discussion : Synthetic Rubber Production
 Designing in Safety
• Sets of legal and business standards to which 
plants must comply
• Process Safety Management
• What if?
• Risk assessment

Key at the design stage is to review proposed 
design, identify hazards and engineer them 
out. If the hazard cannot be eliminated then 
the risk must be reduced using various 
means.
Examples of Safety Devices
– hierarchy of control
• Relief Valves
• Rupture discs
• Conservation vents
• Failsafe logic
• Process Interlocks
• Alarms, monitoring of process conditions
• Physical barriers
• Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
• Training of personnel
Key Environmental
Considerations
• International/national laws
• Governmental conditions (licence to
operate)
• Again key is to eliminate or minimise
at design stage.
• If can’t eliminate then must look at
containment and treatment.
What will this Cost?
• Fixed Capital investment – Total
cost of the plant ready for start up.
• Working Capital investment –
additional investment required over
and above fixed capital to start the
plant up and operate it to a point
where income is generated.
Types of Costs

Fixed Capital Investment Working Capital Investment

1. Concrete and steel 1. Start up
2. Equipment 2. Initial catalyst charges
3. Piping 3. Raw materials
4. Instrumentation 4. Finished Product
5. Buildings for process and other Inventories
eg offices
Non Capital Investment
6. Storage facilities
1. People involved in start
7. Utilities provision up
8. Design and engineering costs 2. Travel
9. Contractors fees 3. Training
How will we run the plant?

• Will it be 24/7 operation?

• How many people?
• What skills do they require
(operating technicians, maintenance
technicians, engineers)?
• What support staff (HR,
admin,finance, IT)?
 An Oil Refinery

Photo courtesy Phillips Petroleum Company

http://science.howstuffworks.com/oil-refining.htm/printable
Fractional distillation of Crude Oil

Can be processed further to make other

products
 Chlor-Alkali Hydrogen
Handling
HCl
Production
HCl
Storage
HCl
Product

Sulphuric Acid
Carbon Dioxide

NaOH
Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine
Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine Packing, Filling
Drying Compression Liquefaction Storage Product
Salt Vaporization

Brine Primary Secondary

Demin. Water Sulphuric Acid
Saturation Treatment Treatment
Hypo Hypo Hypo
Production Storage Product

Sodium Sulphite
To Hypo Caustic
Sulphate HCl Electrolysis Caustic Caustic
Removal Concentration Storage Product
NaOH

Brine Chlorate
Dechlorination Destruction

Demineralized Water

HCl
AC Power Supply
DC
Rectification

Hypo
Destruction

CHEMETICS

http://www.akerkvaerner.com/NR/rdonlyres/A078B10E-6369-48E5-9E2D-ECD2BFE2E628/12091/ProcessFigure1.PPT
 Electrolysis

http://encarta.msn.com/media_461541587/Chloralkali_Electrolysis.html
Agrochemical Production

• Bulk chemicals production –how do

you think you would manufacture?
• Fertilisers – what hazards exist in
design and production?
 Aim of Production

To make first time, first

quality product, safely, with
maximum yield
 The Haber Process
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g) ΔHo = -92.4 kJ/mol
•Reversible Reaction
• Exothermic reaction – best
yield obtained at lower
temperatures but rate of
reaction is too slow so
increased temperature is used.
• Catalyst is used to help speed
up the reaction rate
• Increased pressure increases
yield

What do you think are the key variables to control during production?
 Recent Incident
Explosion at Terra Nitrogen (UK) Ltd, Billingham
01.06.2006

Terra Nitrogen is the UK's largest manufacturer of nitrogen products used

extensively in the chemical industry and agriculture and employs around
250 people on Teesside.
The incident happened on a pipe at the plant and led to a fire involving
mixed gases including hydrogen, nitrogen and a small amount of ammonia
which was extinguished automatically as the pipe depressurised. The exact
cause of the blast is not yet clear.
The HSE are currently investigating with the Environment Agency (EA).
 Recent Incident
Buncefield Oil Storage Depot Explosion,
Hemel Hempstead – 11.12.2005

In the early hours of Sunday 11th December 2005, a number of explosions occurred at Buncefield Oil
Storage Depot. At least one of the initial explosions was of massive proportions and there was a large fire,
which engulfed a high proportion of the site. Over 40 people were injured; fortunately there were no fatalities.
Significant damage occurred to both commercial and residential properties in the vicinity and a large area
around the site was evacuated on emergency service advice. The fire burned for several days, destroying
most of the site and emitting large clouds of black smoke into the atmosphere. The Health and Safety
Executive (HSE) are leading a joint investigation with the Environment Agency (EA).

BBC News UK 09/05/2006

 A storage tank at the Buncefield oil depot was
overflowing for more than 40 minutes before it
exploded, causing a 32-hour inferno, a report has
said.
 Fuel was piped into the tank for 11 hours before the
blasts on 11 December 2005.
 The HSE said that at 0520 GMT the tank was full, but
gauges and safety devices did not work and 41
minutes later the tank exploded.
How Tank Overflowed: Under normal circumstances, gauges monitor the level of the fuel in the tank
as it fills from a pipeline. An automatic high level safety switch should trigger an alarm if the tank
reaches its maximum capacity. This should result in shutdown. But on this occasion, automatic
shutdown did not happen and when fuel continued to be pumped in, it overflowed through roof vents.
http://www.buncefieldinvestigation.gov.uk/index.htm
Key monitoring conditions

• Pressures
• Temperatures
• Flows
• pH
• Concentrations
• Mixing rates
Running Costs

Fixed costs – Costs which are Variable Costs – Costs

paid regardless of production rate related to production

• Labour costs • Raw materials

• Maintenance costs • Utilities

• Admin costs (insurances, rates, • Packaging

taxes) • Storage and distribution
Questions?