1 NCCNGuidelinesOncology PDF

Venous Thromboembolic Disease
Copyright © 2011 by the National Comprehensive Cancer Network. All rights reserved.
Michael B. Streiff, Paula L. Bockenstedt, Spero R. Cataland, Carolyn Chesney,
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Charles Eby, John Fanikos, Patrick F. Fogarty, Shuwei Gao, Julio
Garcia-Aguilar, Samuel Z. Goldhaber, Hani Hassoun, Paul Hendrie, Bjorn
Holmstrom, Kimberly A. Jones, Nicole Kuderer, Jason T. Lee, Michael M.
Millenson, Anne T. Neff, Thomas L. Ortel, Judy L. Smith, Gary C. Yee and
Anaadriana Zakarija
J Natl Compr Canc Netw 2011;9:714-777
Copyright © 2011 by the National Comprehensive Cancer Network. All rights reserved.
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714
NCCN Thomas L. Ortel, MD, PhD; Judy L. Smith, MD;

Gary C. Yee, PharmD, BCOP; and Anaadriana Zakarija, MD
Venous
Thromboembolic Overview
Venous thromboembolism (VTE) is a common and
Disease life-threatening condition in patients with cancer.1,2

Results from a retrospective study of 66,106 patients
hospitalized with adult neutropenic cancer showed
Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology that 2.7% to 12.1% of these patients, depending on
Michael B. Streiff, MD; Paula L. Bockenstedt, MD; the type of malignancy, experienced VTE during
Spero R. Cataland, MD; Carolyn Chesney, MD; their first hospitalization.1 These NCCN Clinical
Charles Eby, MD; John Fanikos, RPH, MBA; Patrick F. Fogarty, MD; Practice Guidelines in Oncology (NCCN Guide-
Shuwei Gao, MD; Julio Garcia-Aguilar, MD, PhD;
Samuel Z. Goldhaber MD; Hani Hassoun, MD;
lines) specifically outline strategies to prevent and
Paul Hendrie, MD; Bjorn Holmstrom, MD; Kimberly A. Jones, MD; treat VTE in adult patients either diagnosed with
Nicole Kuderer, MD, MS; Jason T. Lee, MD; cancer or for whom cancer is clinically suspected.
Michael M. Millenson, MD; Anne T. Neff, MD; These NCCN Guidelines are characterized by it-
NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Please Note

Oncology for Venous Thromboembolic The NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology
Disease (NCCN GuidelinesTM) are a statement of consensus of
the authors regarding their views of currently accepted ap-
proaches to treatment. Any clinician seeking to apply or
Key Words consult the NCCN Guidelines™ is expected to use indepen-
NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines, NCCN Guidelines, venous dent medical judgment in the context of individual clinical
thromboembolism, superficial vein thrombosis, cancer, deep circumstances to determine any patient’s care or treatment.
venous thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, anticoagulation,
The National Comprehensive Cancer Network® (NCCN®)
heparin, prophylaxis, treatment, low-molecular-weight hepa-
makes no representation or warranties of any kind regarding
rin, warfarin (JNCCN 2011;9:714–777)
their content, use, or application and disclaims any respon-
NCCN Categories of Evidence and Consensus sibility for their applications or use in any way.
Category 1: The recommendation is based on high-level © National Comprehensive Cancer Network, Inc.
evidence (e.g., randomized controlled trials) and there is 2011, All rights reserved. The NCCN Guidelines and the
uniform NCCN consensus. illustrations herein may not be reproduced in any form
Category 2A: The recommendation is based on lower- without the express written permission of NCCN.
level evidence and there is uniform NCCN consensus.
Disclosures for the NCCN Guidelines Panel
Category 2B: The recommendation is based on lower-
for Venous Thromboembolic Disease
level evidence and there is nonuniform NCCN consensus
(but no major disagreement). At the beginning of each NCCN Guidelines panel meeting, panel
Category 3: The recommendation is based on any level of members disclosed any financial support they have received from
evidence but reflects major disagreement. industry. Through 2008, this information was published in an
aggregate statement in JNCCN and online. Furthering NCCN’s
All recommendations are category 2A unless otherwise commitment to public transparency, this disclosure process has
noted.
now been expanded by listing all potential conflicts of interest
Clinical trials: NCCN believes that the best management for respective to each individual expert panel member.
any cancer patient is in a clinical trial. Participation in clinical Individual disclosures for the NCCN Guidelines for Venous
trials is especially encouraged.
Thromboembolic Disease panel members can be found on
page 777. (The most recent version of these guidelines and
accompanying disclosures, including levels of compensation,
are available on the NCCN Web site at www.NCCN.org.)
These guidelines are also available on the Internet. For the

latest update, visit www.NCCN.org.
© JNCCN–Journal of the National Comprehensive Cancer Network | Volume 9 Number 7 | July 2011
715
NCCN
Guidelines™
Journal of the National Comprehensive Cancer Network Venous Thromboembolic

Disease
erative evaluations of the therapeutic advantages of extremity (e.g., calf); splanchnic vasculature; and
implementing pharmacologic anticoagulation mea- central venous access device (CVAD)–related DVT.
sures based on both the perceived risk of bleeding The association of VTE with underlying ma-
(i.e., contraindications to anticoagulation) and the lignancy was first reported by Armand Trousseau in
cancer status of the patient. 1865 and is supported by the results of more recent
These NCCN Guidelines define VTE broadly to studies.3,4 Pathophysiologic explanations of the origin
include deep venous thrombosis (DVT), pulmonary of VTE in cancer include known hypercoagulability
embolism (PE), superficial vein thrombosis (SVT), (e.g., procoagulants such as tissue factor expressed
and thrombosis in other vascular territories (e.g., por- by cancer cells), vessel wall damage, and vessel stasis
tal vein, mesenteric vein, inferior vena cava [IVC], from direct compression.5–7 The incidence of cancer-
superior vena cava [SVC], pelvis). DVT management associated VTE is further increased by the presence
is divided into 5 categories, which differ in terms of of additional risk factors such as acquired or congeni-
associated morbidity, treatment, and long-term ef- tal thrombophilia (e.g., antiphospholipid syndrome,
fects. These categories include the upper extremity factor V Leiden), prolonged immobilization, surgical
and SVC; the lower extremity, including the IVC, procedures, and chemotherapeutic regimens6,8 (see
pelvis, iliac, femoral, and popliteal veins; distal lower the next section).
Text continues on p. 737
NCCN Venous Thromboembolic Disease Bjorn Holmstrom, MDÞ

H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute
Panel Members
Kimberly A. Jones, MD†
*Michael B. Streiff, MD/Chair‡ Huntsman Cancer Institute at the University of Utah
The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center at Nicole Kuderer, MD, MS‡
Johns Hopkins Duke Cancer Institute
Paula L. Bockenstedt, MD‡ Jason T. Lee, MD¶
University of Michigan Comprehensive Cancer Center Stanford Comprehensive Cancer Center
Spero R. Cataland, MD‡ Michael M. Millenson, MD‡Þ
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center – Fox Chase Cancer Center
James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute Anne T. Neff, MD‡
Carolyn Chesney, MD Vanderbilt-Ingram Cancer Center
St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital/ Thomas L. Ortel, MD, PhD‡
University of Tennessee Cancer Institute Duke Cancer Institute
Charles Eby, MD‡ Judy L. Smith, MD¶
Siteman Cancer Center at Barnes-Jewish Hospital and Roswell Park Cancer Institute
Washington University School of Medicine Gary C. Yee, PharmD, BCOPΣ
John Fanikos, RPH, MBAΣ UNMC Eppley Cancer Center at
Dana-Farber/Brigham and Women’s Cancer Center The Nebraska Medical Center
Patrick F. Fogarty, MD†‡ Anaadriana Zakarija, MD‡
UCSF Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center of
Shuwei Gao, MDÞ Northwestern University
The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center
NCCN Staff: Lauren Gallagher, RPh, PhD; Nicole McMillian,
Julio Garcia-Aguilar, MD, PhD¶
MS; and Maoko Naganuma, MSc
City of Hope Comprehensive Cancer Center
Samuel Z. Goldhaber MDλ KEY:
Dana-Farber/Brigham and Women’s Cancer Center
*Writing Committee Member
Hani Hassoun, MD†Þ‡
Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center Specialties: ¶Surgery/Surgical Oncology; ‡Hematology/
Paul Hendrie, MD‡ Hematology Oncology; ΣPharmacology/Pharmacy; †Medical
University of Washington/Seattle Cancer Care Alliance Oncology; λCardiology; ÞInternal Medicine; #Nursing
716
Venous Thromboembolic Disease Version 2:2011
INPATIENT VENOUS THROMBOEMBOLISM PROPHYLAXIS
AT-RISK WORKUP INITIAL PROPHYLAXIS

POPULATION
Prophylactic anticoagulation therapy c

(category 1)
Initial Workup: No ± Intermittent pneumatic venous
• History and physical compression device (IPC)
• Adult patient • CBC with platelet ± Graduated compression stockings d
• Diagnosis of count
cancer or • Prothrombin time (PT) Contraindication to
clinical • Activated partial anticoagulation b
suspicion of thromboplastin time
cancer a (aPTT)
• Serum creatinine
Yes • Mechanical prophylaxis (optional) e

➤ IPC ± graduated compression
stockings d
a See VTE Risk Factors in Cancer Patients (page 729).

b See Contraindications to Prophylactic or Therapeutic Anticoagulation Treatment (page 730).
c Pharmacologic intervention. See Inpatient/Outpatient Prophylactic Anticoagulation Treatment (page 730).
d Patient should be appropriately measured for stockings and monitored for adverse effects, especially in immobilized patients with peripheral neuropathy.
Dennis M, Sandercock PA, Reid J, et al. Effectiveness of thigh-length graduated compression stockings to reduce the risk of deep vein thrombosis
after stroke (CLOTS trial 1): a multicentre, randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2009;373:1958-1965.
e Most data come from surgical patients; this is an extrapolation to the medical population.
Clinical trials: NCCN believes that the best management of any cancer patient is in a clinical trial. Participation in clinical trials is especially encouraged. All
recommendations are category 2A unless otherwise indicated.
717
NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology
VTE PROPHYLAXIS FOLLOWING DISCHARGE AND

FOR AMBULATORY CANCER PATIENTS AT RISK
AT-RISK POPULATION
Out-of-hospital primary VTE prophylaxis is recommended for

Cancer up to 4 weeks postoperatively (particularly for high-risk
surgery patient abdominal or pelvic cancer surgery patients f)
• Adult patient See Inpatient/Outpatient Prophylactic Anticoagulation
• Diagnosis of cancer Treatment (page 730)
• Patient received
venous thromboembolism
(VTE) prophylaxis
during hospitalization
• Cancer inpatient
intended for discharge
• Ambulatory patients
at risk Medical oncology Recommend VTE prophylaxis in high risk settings g
patient Consider VTE prophylaxis in other outpatients at risk a
a See VTE Risk Factors in Cancer Patients (page 729).

f High-risk abdominal/pelvic cancer surgery patients include those undergoing surgery for gastrointestinal malignancies, with a previous history of VTE, under
anesthesia time of > 2 hours, on bed rest for > 4 days, with advanced-stage disease, or > 60 years.
g For high-risk patients receiving highly thrombotic antiangiogenic therapy (i.e., multiple myeloma patients receiving thalidomide/lenalidomide in combination
with high-dose dexamethasone [≥ 480 mg/mo] or doxorubicin or multiagent chemotherapy) or for myeloma patients with 2 or more individual or myeloma risk
factors (see VTE Risk Factors in Cancer Patients, page 729), recommended prophylaxis is LMWH (e.g., enoxaparin, 40 mg subcutaneous every 24 h) or
warfarin (adjusted to INR 2-3). For low-risk myeloma patients with one or no individual or myeloma risk factors, aspirin, 81-325 mg daily, may be used.
Aspirin should not be used in nonmyeloma patients for VTE prevention.
Version 2.2011, 04-07-11 ©2011 National Comprehensive Cancer Network, Inc. All rights reserved. The NCCN Guidelines™ and this illustration may not be
reproduced in any form without the express written permission of NCCN®.
718
DEEP OR SUPERFICIAL VEIN THROMBOSIS Venous Thromboembolic Disease Version 2:2011
DVT: DIAGNOSIS
DIAGNOSIS WORKUP/IMAGING a IMAGING FINDINGS ADDITIONAL

IMAGING
Peripheral
Clinical Remove
suspicion of
catheter-
related
catheter • Symptomatic treatment,
including warm compresses,
deep venous
thrombosis (DVT) anti-inflammatory
or superficial vein medications and elevation
thrombosis (SVT):
Superficial Not in
proximity to
• Reevaluate if there are
vein thrombus
• Swelling of deep
progressive symptoms
unilateral venous
extremity system
• Heaviness in Non-
catheter-
extremity
• Pain in
• Comprehensive
related
In proximity to Recommend anticoagulation b
extremity
deep venous for at least 4 wk
• Unexplained medical history and
physical system (category 2B)
persistent calf
cramping examination
• Swelling in • CBC with platelet
Positive for DVT
face, neck, or count
supraclavicular • PT
space • aPTT
• Detected
• Serum creatinine
radiographically
• Venous ultrasound a
in
asymptomatic
patients Negative or
Venous imaging:
• Catheter indeterminate
• Repeat venous Positive
dysfunction ultrasound for DVT
(if catheter is
Yes • CT scan
present, see
Catheter-
• Magnetic
Continued resonance Negative
Related DVT: venogram (MRV)
clinical
Diagnosis and
suspicion • Venogram • Reassurance
Treatment,
page 720) of DVT • Evaluate for
other causes
No
a Imaging recommendations reflect initial diagnostic workup of an individual not previously diagnosed with DVT.
b See Therapeutic Anticoagulation Treatment for Venous Thromboembolism (page 731).
719
Venous Thromboembolic Disease Version 2:2011 DEEP OR SUPERFICIAL VEIN THROMBOSIS
DVT: TREATMENT
DVT LOCATION
• Anticoagulation therapy b,d

• Consider catheter-directed
No pharmacomechanical thrombolysis in
appropriate candidates e
• Graduated compression stockings
• Pelvic/iliac/IVC Contraindication to
• Femoral/popliteal anticoagulation c No
Anticoagulation therapy b,d
Consider filter removal
Contraindication c
Yes IVC filter
persists
Reevaluate as
Yes
clinically indicated
No Anticoagulation therapy b,d
Contraindication to
Calf See Pelvic/iliac/IVC and
anticoagulation c Progression
Femoral/popliteal pathway above
Follow-up for DVT
Yes progression initially
at 1 wk
Continue to follow as
No progression
clinically indicated
• Anticoagulation therapy b,d

No • Consider catheter-directed pharmacomechanical
e
thrombolysis in appropriate candidates
• Upper extremity Contraindication to
• Superior vena anticoagulation c
cava (SVC) Reevaluate for
Follow until contraindication is
Yes risk/benefit of
resolved or progression of DVT
anticoagulation f

c See Contraindications to Prophylactic or Therapeutic Anticoagulation Treatment (page 730).
d See Therapeutic Anticoagulation Failure (page 736), if extension of VTE or new VTE while on recommended anticoagulation therapy .
e Choice of regimen should be made based on institutional expertise/preferences in conjunction with interventional radiology or vascular surgery colleagues.
(Vedantham S, Thorpe PE, Cardella JF, et al. Quality improvement guidelines for the treatment of lower extremity deep vein thrombosis with use of
endovascular thrombus removal. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2009;20[7 Suppl]:S227–239.)
f See Elements for Consideration in Decision Not To Treat (page 735).
720
DEEP OR SUPERFICIAL VEIN THROMBOSIS Venous Thromboembolic Disease Version 2:2011
CATHETER-RELATED DVT: DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT
DIAGNOSIS WORKUP/IMAGING TREATMENT
• Anticoagulate b,d for as long as catheter is in place;

recommended total duration of therapy is at least 3 mo
No contraindication
to anticoagulation c • Consider catheter removal if symptoms persist
• Consider catheter-directed pharmacomechanical
e
thrombolysis in appropriate candidates
DVT
Anticoagulate b,d;
recommended total
Resolved
duration of therapy is
Clinical at least 3 mo
suspicion of Follow for
catheter-related change in
DVT Contraindication to Remove contra-
• Unilateral
• Ultrasound
anticoagulation c catheter indication
arm/leg as clinically
swelling • CT/MRI indicated
• Pain in supra- • Venogram Reevaluate for risk/
clavicular Not benefit of anti-
space or neck resolved coagulation f
• Dysfunctional
catheter
Evaluate for other causes
No DVT
•Consider further imaging/testing with
another modality if clinical suspicion is high
and initial imaging failed to show DVT

e Choice of regimen should be made based on institutional expertise/preferences in conjunction with interventional radiology or vascular surgery colleagues.
f See Elements for Consideration in Decision Not To Treat (page 735).
721
Venous Thromboembolic Disease Version 2:2011 PULMONARY EMBOLISM
PE: DIAGNOSIS
DIAGNOSIS WORKUP a IMAGING
Clinical suspicion of
pulmonary embolism (PE):
• Current DVT or recent
• Comprehensive • CT angiography (CTA) Negative
Evaluate for
•
history of DVT
Unexplained
medical history • Pulmonary angiography other causes
and physical (rarely used unless
shortness of breath, examination coupled with clot
chest pain,
tachycardia,
• CBC with extraction or
See PE:
Treatment
platelet count thrombolytic therapy) Positive
apprehension,
• PT (page 722)
•
tachypnea
• aPTT • VQ scan (lung scan;
•
Syncope
O2 desaturation
• Serum if patient has renal Clinical judgment
creatinine insufficiency or Nondiagnostic See DVT/SVT:
• Detected
• Chest x-ray uncorrectable allergy to Diagnosis (page 718)
radiographically in
asymptomatic
• EKG contrast)
Evaluate for
patients Negative
other causes
a D-dimer has limited efficacy in cancer patients.
722
PULMONARY EMBOLISM Venous Thromboembolic Disease Version 2:2011
PE: TREATMENT
Continue
Normal
anticoagulation therapy c,d
Upon admission, PE
patients should be
risk stratified f with:
Transthoracic
echocardiogram or Acute management
Acute management
No CT angiography to
Anticoagulation therapy c,d anticoagulation
assess for right therapy c,d
ventricular Assess cancer status g
enlargement or and consider:
dysfunction ➤ Thrombolytic therapy h
Troponin for massive PE or
Abnormal submassive PE with
moderate or severe
right ventricular
Contraindication to enlargement or
anticoagulation b dysfunction
➤ Embolectomy
(catheter or surgical)
➤ IVC filter e
Resolved
Follow frequently
Yes IVC filter e for change in
clinical status
Not
resolved
b See Contraindications to Prophylactic or Therapeutic Anticoagulation Treatment (page 730).

c See Therapeutic Anticoagulation Treatment for Venous Thromboembolism (page 731).
e See Clinical Scenarios Warranting Consideration of Filter Placement (page 735).
f The Pulmonary Embolism Severity Index (PESI) clinical prediction rule can also be considered, but should not be substituted for the risk stratification
procedures indicated above. (Donze J, Le Gal G, Fine MJ, et al. Prospective validation of the Pulmonary Embolism Severity Scale. Throm Haemost
2008;100:943-948.)
g See Elements for Consideration in Decision Not to Treat (page 735).
h Alteplase (t-PA), 100 mg IV over 2 h, is the recommended thrombolytic regimen for PE in patients judged to be appropriate candidates for thrombolysis.
723
Venous Thromboembolic Disease Version 2:2011 HEPARIN-INDUCED THROMBOCYTOPENIA
DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT OF HEPARIN-INDUCED THROMBOCYTOPENIA
Weigh risks/benefits of heparin vs. direct thrombin inhibitor

(DTI) or fondaparinux c and consider continuing heparin
Low Consider alternative causes of thrombocytopenia
(4T’s Score < 4) Monitor clinical status
Consider sending HIT antibody test for select patients d
(see HIT antibody test results, page 724)
Calculate HIT
Heparin-induced
Pretest
thrombocytopenia
Probability
(HIT) suspected
(4T’s Score) a,b
Eliminate unfractionated heparin and low-
molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) exposure,
including treatment, prophylaxis, flush
doses, and coated catheters
For patients receiving warfarin, discontinue it
HIT antibody
Moderate/high and reverse with vitamin K
test results
(4T’s Score 4) HIT antibody test
(page 724)
Start DTI (preferred) or fondaparinux c
Recommend 4 extremity duplex ultrasound to
identify subclinical DVT
Avoid platelet transfusions unless patient is
actively bleeding or at high risk of bleeding
a See HIT Pretest Probability Score Assessment (page 725).

b The 4T’s Score has not been validated in cancer patients, so it may have less efficacy, particularly in patients undergoing chemotherapy.
c See Therapeutic Options for Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia, page 726.
d A “Low” pretest probability score combined with a negative antibody test is useful in ruling out a diagnosis of HIT. A positive test increases the suspicion for
HIT. Sending for the HIT antibody test should be individualized and based on clinical judgment.
724
HEPARIN-INDUCED THROMBOCYTOPENIA Venous Thromboembolic Disease Version 2:2011
DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT OF HEPARIN-INDUCED THROMBOCYTOPENIA (cont.)
HIT ANTIBODY
TEST RESULTS
HIT antibody
Discontinue DTI or fondaparinux
Reassess anticoagulation and/or
Resume heparin, if clinically indicated
therapy (DTI or fondaparinux SRA negative
vs. heparin) based on
pretest probability
HIT antibody
Consider sending serotonin
negative
release assay (SRA) or
repeating HIT antibody test
HIT antibody
depending on pretest
and/or Start/continue DTI or fondaparinux
probability
SRA positive Start warfarin when platelets 150,000/mcL or
when platelets return to previous baseline
Discontinue DTI or fondaparinux after at least
5-7 d and when the INR reaches intended
target range (argatroban can prolong the INR
during warfarin cotherapy) e
Duration of therapy:
➤ HIT without thrombosis: 4-6 wk
➤ HIT with thrombosis: at least 3-6 mo as
SRA positive, continue
anticoagulation therapy indicated for thrombotic event
with DTI or fondarinux
Pretest probability score

low, consider sending SRA
SRA negative, reassess

anticoagulation therapy
with DTI or fondaparinux
HIT antibody
positive
Pretest probability
Continue DTI or fondaparinux
score moderate/high
e See Therapeutic Options for Hepatitis-Induced Thrombocytopenia; section on "warfarin" (page 726).
725
Venous Thromboembolic Disease Version 2:2011 HEPARIN-INDUCED THROMBOCYTOPENIA
HIT PRETEST PROBABILITY SCORE ASSESSMENT 1
Suspicion of HIT based on the “4T’s” HIT Pretest Probability Score Criteria
Score 2 1 0
Nadir 20,000-100,000/mcL Nadir 10,000-19,000/mcL Nadir < 10,000/mcL

Thrombocytopenia
or > 50% platelet fall or 30%-50% platelet fall or < 30% platelet fall
Days 5-10 > day 10 day 1

Timing of onset platelet fall
or day 1 with or timing unclear (no recent heparin)
(days of heparin therapy)
recent heparin 2 (but fits with HIT)
Proven thrombosis, Progressive, recurrent, None

Thrombosis or other sequelae skin necrosis, or silent thrombosis;
or ASR 3 erythematous skin
lesions
OTher cause of platelet fall None evident Possible Definite
Total Pretest Probability Score Periodic reassessment as new information can change pretest probability
(e.g., positive blood cultures)
Total HIT Pretest Probability Score
High Moderate Low
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
1 Modified with permission from Warkentin TE, Aird WC, Rand JH. Platelet-endothelial interactions: sepsis, HIT, and antiphospholipid syndrome.
Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program 2003;497-519.
2 Recent heparin indicates exposure within the past 30 days (2 points) or past 30-100 days (1 point).
3 ASR, acute systemic reaction after intravnous heparin bolus.
726
HEPARIN-INDUCED THROMBOCYTOPENIA Venous Thromboembolic Disease Version 2:2011
THERAPEUTIC OPTIONS FOR HEPARIN-INDUCED THROMBOCYTOPENIA
Direct Thrombin Inhibitors: Preferred 1

Argatroban (half-life 45 minutes - normal liver function) (aPTT ratio 1.5-3)
Normal liver function (non-ICU patient): 1 mcg/kg/min adjusted to aPTT ratio (first check in 4 hours)
Abnormal liver function (total bilirubin,1.8-3.6 mg/dL; AST/ALT, 150-600 IU/L) or ICU, heart, or multiorgan failure patient:
0.25-0.5 mcg/kg/min
Severe liver dysfunction (total bilirubin > 3.6 mg/dL or AST/ALT > 600 IU/L): use lepirudin, bivalirudin, or fondaparinux
Lepirudin (half-life 80 minutes - normal renal function) (aPTT ratio 1.5-2) 2

Normal renal function (estimated C Cr 60 mL/min): 0.08 mg/kg/h adjusted to aPTT (first check in 6 hours)
(consider 0.2 mg/kg bolus if life or limb-threatening thrombosis)
Abnormal renal function
Estimated C Cr 30-60 mL/min: 0.04 mg/kg/h
Estimated C Cr < 30 mL/min: use argatroban
Bivalirudin (half-life 25 minutes-normal renal function) (aPTT ratio 1.5-2.5) 2

Consider strongly for patients with combined hepatic and renal dysfunction
Dosing: estimated C Cr > 60 mL/min): 0.15 mg/kg/h – adjust to aPTT (first check in 2 hours)
Estimated C Cr < 30 mL/min (no renal replacement therapy): 0.05 mg/kg/h
Renal replacement therapy or combined hepatic/renal failure: consider argatroban for isolated renal failure or use 0.03 mg/kg/h
Indirect Factor Xa Inhibitor 3 (category 2B)

Fondaparinux (half-life 17-21 hours - normal renal function)
For patients with C Cr < 50 mL/min (clearance 40% lower): consider alternative agent
For patients with C Cr < 30 mL/min: avoid
Dose
5 mg subcutaneous daily (body weight < 50 kg)
7.5 mg subcutaneous daily (body weight 50-100 kg)
10 mg subcutaneous daily (body weight > 100 kg)
Warfarin
Initiate once platelets 150,000/mcL or return to baseline
Initial dose 5 mg (consider lower dose for patients: age > 75 years, CYP2C9 inhibitors, poor oral intake, liver disease)
DTI/fondaparinux-warfarin overlap should be at least 5 days: continue warfarin until INR ≥ 2 for 24 hours
Argatroban can increase the INR substantially during warfarin cotherapy therefore a higher target INR (∼ 4.0) should be
achieved before argatroban is discontinued. Bivalirudin and lepirudin, to a lesser extent, slightly prolong the INR during cotherapy
INR and aPTT should be repeated within 3-6 hours after argatroban has been discontinued
Alternatively, chromogenic factor X activity, which is not affected by DTIs, can be used to monitor warfarin during cotherapy
Treat for at least 1 mo (no thrombosis) or at least 3-6 mo as dictated by thrombotic event
Platelet Transfusions
Generally not necessary unless active bleeding or invasive procedure necessary and platelet count < 50,000/mcL
1 A direct thrombin inhibitor is preferred over fondaparinux for the immediate treatment of patients with acute HIT with thrombosis.
2 Patients reexposed to lepirudin within the past 3 mo may be susceptible to anaphylaxis. Anaphylaxis has also occurred with bivalirudin.
3 Used as a second-line agent. Fondaparinux has been rarely associated with HIT.
727
Venous Thromboembolic Disease Version 2:2011 SPLANCHNIC VEIN THROMBOSIS
SPVT: DIAGNOSIS
CLINICAL SUSPICION DIAGNOSTIC EVALUATION

OF SPVT a
Splanchnic vein History and physical:

thrombosis (SPVT) Based on H&P consider
suspected: further diagnostic testing
Abdominal
Lab testing:
or mid-abdominal pain
CBC with differential
Colicky
PT/aPTT
Abdominal distention
Basic metabolic profile
Rebound tenderness Investigate
Hepatic profile
Guarding No
Thrombophilia evaluation b other causes
Fever
PNH panel, JAK2 mutation b
Anorexia Negative or Continued
Serum lactate
Nausea, vomiting indeterminate suspicion
Diarrhea Imaging: Yes Repeat imaging
GI bleeding Abdominal duplex
Hepatomegaly ultrasound
Ascites Abdominal CTA
Lower-extremity edema Abdominal MRV See Treatment
Positive
(page 728)
a Risk Factors relevant to cancer population for SPVT:

Recent abdominal surgery (e.g., splenectomy)
Cancer
Abdominal mass
Pancreatitis
Cirrhosis
Thrombophilia
Exogenous estrogens
Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria (PNH)
Myeloproliferative disorder (polycythemia vera, essential thrombocytosis)
b Consider performing thrombophila evaluation, PNH panel, and JAK2 mutation testing if SPVT is diagnosed on imaging.
728
SPLANCHNIC VEIN THROMBOSIS Venous Thromboembolic Disease Version 2:2011
SPVT: TREATMENT
SPVT LOCATION/ACUITY TREATMENT
Anticoagulation d,e
No Hepatology evaluation
Consider catheter-directed thrombolysis f
Contraindication
Acute Hepatic Vein Thrombosis
to
Symptoms/signs 8 wk
anticoagulation c
Hepatology evaluation
Yes Reassess contraindications to anticoagulation regularly
Consider TIPS or surgical shunt
Hepatology evaluation
Chronic Hepatic Vein Thrombosis
Consider TIPS or surgical shunt
Symptoms > 8 wk Consider anticoagulation d,e
Anticoagulation d,e
No Surgery (if bowel infarction)
Consider catheter-directed thrombolysis f
Acute Portal, Mesenteric, and/or Splenic Vein Thrombosis
Contraindication
Symptoms/signs 8 wk and
to
No cavernous transformation/collaterals and
No signs of portal hypertension anticoagulation c
Gastrointestinal/surgery evaluation
Yes Surgery (if bowel infarction)
Reassess contraindications to anticoagulation regularly
Chronic, Portal, Mesenteric, and/or Splenic Vein Thrombosis Gastrointestinal evaluation

Symptoms > 8 wk or Beta blockade
Cavernous transformation/collaterals noted or Consider variceal banding or sclerosis
Signs of portal hypertension Consider anticoagulation d,e

d Weigh risks/benefits of anticoagulation, particularly for chronic thromboses. Duration of anticoagulation at least 6 mo for triggered events (e.g., postsurgical);
indefinite if active cancer, thrombophilic state, or idiopathic thrombosis.
e See Therapeutic Anticoagulation Treatment for Venous Thromboembolism (page 731).
f Decision to offer thrombolysis should be based on local availability/expertise, location of thrombus, and risk of bleeding. Regimen should be selected based
on institutional expertise/preferences in conjunction with interventional radiology or vascular surgery colleagues.
729
VTE RISK FACTORS IN CANCER PATIENTS
General Patient Risk Factors Treatment-Related Risk Factors

Active cancer Major surgery
Advanced stage of cancer Central venous catheter/IV catheter
Cancer types at higher risk: Chemotherapy, especially use of:
Brain Bevacizumab
Pancreas Thalidomide/lenalidomide plus high-dose
Stomach dexamethasone
Bladder Exogenous estrogen compounds
Gynecologic Hormone replacement
Lung Contraceptives
Lymphoma Tamoxifen/raloxifene
Myeloproliferative neoplasms Diethylstilbestrol
Kidney
Metastatic Modifiable Risk Factors
Regional bulky lymphadenopathy with extrinsic vascular Smoking, tobacco
compression Obesity
Familial and/or acquired hypercoagulability (including pregnancy) Activity level/exercise
Medical comorbidities: infection, renal disease, pulmonary disease,
congestive heart failure, arterial thromboembolism Multiple Myeloma Risk Factors3
Poor performance status M spike > 1.6 g/dL
Older age Progressive disease
Hyperviscosity
High-Risk Outpatients on Chemotherapy, Based on Combinations of
the Following Risk Factors1,2
Active cancers associated with high incidence of VTE: stomach,
pancreas, lung, lymphoma, gynecologic, bladder, and testicular
Prechemotherapy platelet count > 300,000/mcL
Prechemotherapy WBC > 11,000/mcL
Hemoglobin < 10 g/dL
Use of erythropoietic stimulating agents
Body mass index 35 kg/m 2
Prior VTE
1 Additional prospective randomized data are required to assess the benefit and safety of routine VTE prophylaxis in a cancer outpatient population with a
favorable risk/benefit ratio. Listed risk factors are limited to cancer populations included in recent prospective, observational studies of solid tumor or
lymphoma outpatients undergoing chemotherapy (Khorana AA, Kuderer NM, Culakova E, et al. Development and validation of a predictive model for
chemotherapy-associated thrombosis. Blood 2008;111:4902-4907).
2 Mandalà M, Prins M, Labianca C, et al. Acquired and inherited risk factors for developing venous thromboembolism in cancer patients receiving adjuvant
chemotherapy: a prospective trial. Ann Oncol 2010;21:871-876.
3 Palumbo A, Rajkumar SV, Dimopoulos MA, et al. Prevention of thalidomide- and lenalidomide-associated thrombosis in myeloma. Leukemia
2008;22:414-423.
730
CONTRAINDICATIONS TO PROPHYLACTIC OR THERAPEUTIC

ANTICOAGULATION TREATMENT
Recent central nervous system bleed, intracranial or spinal lesion at

high risk for bleeding
Active bleeding (major): more than 2 units transfused in 24 hours
Chronic, clinically significant measurable bleeding > 48 hours
Thrombocytopenia (platelets < 50,000/mcL)
Severe platelet dysfunction (uremia, medications, dysplastic hematopoiesis)
Recent major operation at high risk for bleeding
Underlying coagulopathy:
➤ Clotting factor abnormalities (e.g., factor VIII deficiency, severe liver disease)
➤ Elevated PT or aPTT (excluding lupus inhibitors)
Spinal anesthesia/lumbar puncture
High risk for falls (head trauma)
INPATIENT/OUTPATIENT PROPHYLACTIC ANTICOAGULATION TREATMENT 1,2,3
LMWH 4 (category 1 for inpatient):

➤ Dalteparin, 5000 units subcutaneous daily
➤ Enoxaparin, 40 mg subcutaneous daily
➤ Tinzaparin, 5 4500 units (fixed dose) subcutaneous daily or 75 units/kg subcutaneous daily
Fondaparinux 6 (category 1 for inpatient):
Fondaparinux, 2.5 mg subcutaneous daily
Unfractionated heparin: 5000 units subcutaneous 3 times daily (category 1 for inpatient)
Aspirin, 81-325 mg/d (for low-risk multiple myeloma outpatients only) 7
Warfarin (adjusted to INR 2-3) 8
For Diagnosis and Treatment of Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia, see page 723
1 Agent selection based on:

Renal failure (Ccr < 30 mL/min)
FDA approval
Cost
Ease of administration
Monitoring
Ability to reverse anticoagulation
2 Follow institutional standard operating procedures (SOP) for dosing schedules; if no SOP then use the American College of Chest Physicians (ACCP)
recommendations. Geerts WH, Bergqvist D, Pineo GF, et al. Prevention of venous thromboembolism: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-
based clinical practice guidelines. Chest 2008;133(6 Suppl):381S-453S.
3 After initiation of heparin: hemoglobin, hematocrit, and platelet count every 2-3 days up to at least day 14, and every 2 weeks thereafter or as clinically
indicated.
4 LMWHs should be used with caution in patients with renal dysfunction. Dose adjustments and anti-factor Xa monitoring may be required. Follow package
insert for renal dysfunction and body weight-based dosing.
5 Tinzaparin should be avoided in patients > 70 y with renal insufficiency. Refer to the FDA Web site for additional information
(http://www.fda.gov/medwatch/safety/2008/safety08.htm#Innohep).
6 Fondaparinux is contraindicated in patients with C < 30 mL/min. It should be used with caution in patients with moderate renal insufficiency
cr
(Ccr 30-50 mL/min), weight < 50 kg, or age > 75 y.
7 Use only for lower-risk multiple myeloma outpatients with one or no individual or myeloma risk factors (see VTE Risk Factors in Cancer Patients, page 729).
8 Warfarin (INR 2-3) or LMWH (e.g., enoxaparin, 40 mg subcutaneous every 24 hours) are prophylaxis options for select high-risk myeloma outpatients receiving
highly thrombotic antiangiogenic therapy (i.e., multiple myeloma patients receiving thalidomide/lenalidomide in combination with high-dose dexamethasone
[ ≥ 480 mg/mo] or doxorubicin or multiagent chemotherapy) or for myeloma patients with ≥ 2 individual or myeloma risk factors (see VTE Risk Factors in
Cancer Patients, page 729).
For VTE Risk Factors in Cancer Patients, see page 17.
731
THERAPEUTIC ANTICOAGULATION TREATMENT FOR VENOUS THROMBOEMBOLISM 1,2,3
Acute Management (at Diagnosis or During Diagnostic Evaluation) :

LMWH 4
➤ Dalteparin (200 units/kg subcutaneous daily) 5
➤ Enoxaparin (1 mg/kg subcutaneous every 12 hours)
➤ Tinzaparin 6 (175 units/kg subcutaneous daily)
Fondaparinux 7 (5 mg [< 50 kg]; 7.5 mg [50-100 kg]; 10 mg [> 100 kg] subcutaneous daily)
Unfractionated heparin (IV) (80 units/kg load, then 18 units/kg/h, target aPTT of 2-2.5 x control or per hospital SOP)
Chronic Management: 1
LMWH 4 (category 1) is preferred for the first 6 mo as monotherapy without warfarin in patients with proximal DVT or PE
and prevention of recurrent VTE in patients with advanced or metastatic cancer
Warfarin (2.5-5 mg every day initially, subsequent dosing based on INR value; target INR 2-3)
➤ If warfarin is selected for chronic anticoagulation, initiate warfarin concurrently with the parenteral agent used for acute
therapy and continue both therapies for at least 5 days and until the INR 2 for 24 hours.
➤ During the transition to warfarin monotherapy, the INR should be measured at least twice weekly. Once the patient is on
warfarin alone, the INR should be measured initially at least once weekly. Once the patient is on a stable dose of
warfarin with an INR between 2 and 3, INR testing can be gradually decreased to a frequency no less than once monthly.
Duration of Anticoagulation as Recommended by Guideline:

Minimum time of 3-6 mo for DVT and 6-12 mo for PE
Recommend indefinite anticoagulation if active cancer or persistent risk factors
For catheter associated thrombosis, anticoagulate as long as catheter is in place; recommended total duration of therapy is
at least 3 mo
For Diagnosis and Treatment of Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia, see page 723

For Reversal of Anticoagulation, see pages 732-734
1 Agent selection based on: renal failure (C < 30 mL/min), inpatient/outpatient, FDA approval, cost, ease of administration, monitoring, and ability to reverse
cr
anticoagulation.
2 Follow institutional standard operating procedures (SOP) for dosing schedules; if no SOP then use the American College of Chest Physicians (ACCP)
recommendations. Kearon C, Kahn SR, Agnelli G, et al. Antithrombotic therapy for venous thromboembolic disease: American College of Physicians
evidence-based clinical practice guidelines (8th edition). Chest 2008;133(6 Suppl):454S-545S.
3 After initiation of heparin: hemoglobin, hematocrit, and platelet count every 2-3 days for the first 14 days and every 2 wk thereafter or as clinically
indicated.
4 LMWHs should be used with caution in patients with renal dysfunction. Dose adjustments and anti-factor Xa monitoring may be required. Follow package
insert for renal dysfunction and body weight-based dosing.
5 For chronic treatment, dalteparin, 150 units/kg/d, after 30 days. Although each of the LMWHs have been studied in randomized controlled trials in cancer
patients, the efficacy of dalteparin in this population is supported by the highest quality evidence and it is the only LMWH approved by the FDA for this
indication. Lee AY, Levine MN, Baker RI, et al. Low-molecular-weight heparin versus a coumarin for the prevention of recurrent venous thromboembolism in
patients with cancer. N Engl J Med 2003;349:146-153.
6 Tinzaparin should be avoided in patients > 70 y with renal insufficiency. Refer to the FDA Web site for additional information
(http://www.fda.gov/medwatch/safety/2008/safety08.htm#Innohep).
7 Fondaparinux is contraindicated in patients with C < 30 mL/min. It should be used with caution in patients with moderate renal insufficiency (C 30-50
cr cr
mL/min), weight < 50 kg, or age > 75 y.
732
REVERSAL OF ANTICOAGULATION
In the event of bleeding or the need for urgent/emergent invasive procedures, anticoagulant effect must be reversed promptly.
The reversal guidelines for different anticoagulants are displayed in the table below:
Anticoagulant Reversal Precautions/Additional Considerations
Unfractionated Protamine, 1 mg per 100 units of heparin

heparin (taking into account UFH ~1-hour half-life) by slow IV
(half-life 1 hour) infusion (no faster than 5 mg/min)
Follow aPTT closely
Maximum dose: 50 mg
(example: patient bleeds immediately after 5000 unit
Protamine can cause anaphylaxis if administered
bolus is given 50 mg of protamine. Patient on 1250 units
too rapidly
per hour bleeds and is given 24 mg of protamine to
Patients with fish allergies, previous exposure to
reverse the heparin remaining from the last 4 hours of
protamine (e.g., NPH insulin), or vasectomized or
the infusion)
infertile men are at increased risk
Excessive protamine (protamine: heparin ratios
> 1.3:1) are associated with platelet dysfunction
LMWH Protamine, 1 mg/mg of enoxaparin or 1 mg per and decreased thrombin activity, resulting in
(half-life 3-7 hours) 100 units of dalteparin or tinzaparin within 8 hours of bleeding
dose Protamine will reverse no more than 60% of the
Protamine, 0.5 mg/mg of enoxaparin or 0.5 mg activity of LMWH, regardless of dose
per 100 units of dalteparin or tinzaparin if dose
administered > 8 hours prior
If > 12 hours since dose, consider clinical scenario
(e.g., LMWH dose, renal function, bleeding severity) in
deciding whether protamine is indicated
Administer protamine by slow IV infusion
(no faster than 5 mg/min)
Maximum dose: 50 mg
Cont. on facing page
The Reversal of Anticoagulation tables comprise data from the following references:
Crowther MA, Warkentin TE. Bleeding risk and management of bleeding complications in patients undergoing anticoagulant therapy: focus on new
anticoagulant agents. Blood 2008;111:4871-4879.
Ansell J, Hirsh J, Hylek E, et al. The perioperative management of antithrombotic therapy: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical
practice guidelines (8th edition). Chest 2008;133(6 Suppl):160S-198S.
Schulman S, Bjisterveld NR. Anticoagulants and their reversal. Transfus Med Rev 2007;21:37-48.
Holland L, Warkentin TE, Rafaai M, et al. Suboptimal effect of a three-factor prothrombin complex concentrate (Profilnine-SD) in correcting supratherapeutic
international normalized ratio due to warfarin overdose. Transfusion 2009;49:1171-1177.
Koster A, Buz S, Krabatsch T, et al. Effect of modified ultrafiltration on bivalirudin elimination and postoperative blood loss after on-pump coronary artery
bypass grafting: assessment of different filtration strategies. J Card Surg 2008;23:655-658.
733
REVERSAL OF ANTICOAGULATION (cont.)
Warfarin
(Effective half-life 20-60 hours) Hold warfarin dose
INR < 5, no bleeding
INR 5-9, no bleeding Hold warfarin dose

Consider small dose of oral vitamin K 1
(phytonadione), 1-2.5 mg, in patients at high-
risk of bleeding
Follow INR closely Vitamin K 1 (phytonadione) should not be given
subcutaneously because its absorption is erratic
and delayed compared to oral or IV vitamin K 1
INR > 9, no bleeding Hold warfarin dose
Consider small dose of oral vitamin K 1
(phytonadione), 2.5 mg, especially in patients
at high-risk of bleeding
Follow INR closely
Serious bleeding Hold warfarin dose Administer IV vitamin K 1 (phytonadione) slowly

at any INR Administer vitamin K 1 (phytonadione), 10 mg IV, (< 1 mg/min). Rapid administration of IV
over 60 minutes vitamin K 1 associated with a higher risk of
Life-threatening bleeding Administer 3-factor prothrombin complex anaphylaxis (risk ~1 in 3000 doses)
concentrate (PCC), 25-50 units/kg, + fresh frozen Monitor vital signs closely
plasma (FFP), 2-3 units PCC and rhFVIIa have been associated with
or FFP, 15 mL/kg (if no PCC available) thromboembolic events
or rhFVIIa, 10-90 mcg/kg IV
Monitor INR closely and repeat PCC or FFP if
necessary
Cont. on page 734
Holland L, Warkentin TE, Refaai M, et al. Suboptimal effect of a three-factor prothrombin complex concentrate (Profilnine-SD) in correcting supratherapeutic
734
REVERSAL OF ANTICOAGULATION (cont.)
Fondaparinux rhFVIIa, 90 mcg/kg IV, intended for reversal of therapeutic rhFVIIa has been associated
(half-life 17-21 hours) doses of fondaparinux with thromboembolic events
Direct thrombin inhibitors* No specific antidote exists. Beneficial effects have been
ascribed to the following:
Bivalirudin 1. rhFVIIa, 90 mcg/kg IV Limited data exist to support all reversal
(half-life 25 min - 2. Hemodiafiltration with polysulfone membranes is more strategies for bivalirudin
normal renal function) effective than hemofiltration Repeated doses (> 3 or 4 doses) of
3. DDAVP, 0.3 mcg/kg IV DDAVP associated with tachyphylaxis and
4. Cryoprecipitate, 10 units IV
hyponatremia
5. FFP, 15 mL/kg
6. Antifibrinolytics (aminocaproic acid, 0.1 g/kg IV followed
by 1 g/h, or tranexamic acid, 10 mg/kg IV every 6 hours)
Lepirudin No specific antidote exists. Beneficial effects have been Limited data exist to support all reversal
normal renal ascribed to the following: strategies for lepirudin
(half-life 80 min - 1. rhFVIIa, 90 mcg/kg IV Repeated doses (> 3 or 4 doses) of
function) 2. Hemofiltration using polysulfone membranes DDAVP associated with tachyphylaxis
3. DDAVP, 0.3 mcg/kg IV
and hyponatremia
5. FFP, 15 mL/kg
by 1 g/h, or tranexamic acid, 10 mg/kg IV every 6 hours)
Argatroban No specific antidote exists. Beneficial effects have been Limited data exist to support all reversal
(half-life 45 min - ascribed to the following: strategies for argatroban
normal hepatic 1. rhFVIIa, 90 mcg/kg IV Repeated doses (> 3 or 4 doses) of
function) 2. DDAVP, 0.3 mcg/kg IV
DDAVP associated with tachyphylaxis
4. FFP, 15 mL/kg and hyponatremia
by 1 g/h, or tranexamic acid, 10 mg/kg IV every 6 hours
* Limited information is available on the clinical efficacy of all these proposed reversal strategies. For life-threatening bleeding, the NCCN panel
currently favors use of rhFVIIa as the first-line agent. Hemofiltration or hemodiafiltration can accelerate the clearance of lepirudin and bivalirudin.
Holland L, Warkentin TE, Refaai M, et al. Suboptimal effect of a three-factor prothrombin complex concentrate (Profilnine-SD) in correcting supratherapeutic
735
ELEMENTS FOR CONSIDERATION IN DECISION NOT TO TREAT
Patient refusal
No therapeutic advantage
➤ Limited survival
➤ High risk
➤ No planned oncologic intervention
No palliative benefit (e.g., alleviate dyspnea, prevent leg
swelling)
Unreasonable burden of anticoagulation treatment
➤ Painful injections
➤ Frequent monitoring with phlebotomy
CLINICAL SCENARIOS WARRANTING

CONSIDERATION OF FILTER PLACEMENT
Contraindication to anticoagulation 1
Failure of anticoagulation 2
Patient noncompliance with prescribed anticoagulation
Baseline cardiac or pulmonary dysfunction severe enough to make any new or recurrent PE life-threatening
Patient with documented multiple PE and chronic pulmonary hypertension
1 See Contraindications to Prophylactic or Therapeutic Anticoagulation Treatment (page 730).

2 See Therapeutic Anticoagulation Failure (page 736).
736
THERAPEUTIC ANTICOAGULATION FAILURE 1
Switch to heparin (LMWH preferred)

Therapeutic INR
or fondaparinux
Patient on warfarin 2,3 Check INR

Increase warfarin dose and treat with
parenteral agent until INR target achieved
Subtherapeutic INR
or Consider switching to heparin
(LMWH preferred) or fondaparinux
Increase dose of heparin

or Switch to LMWH
Therapeutic aPTT 4 or Switch to fondaparinux
and Consider placement of IVC filter 2
and Consider HIT 3
Patient on heparin Check aPTT levels
Increase dose of heparin to

Subtherapeutic aPTT
reach therapeutic level
Move to a BID schedule

or Increase dose 5
Patient on LMWH or Switch to fondaparinux
and Consider HIT 3
Switch to heparin
or Increase dose 5
Fondaparinux
and Consider HIT 3
1 Anticoagulation failure is defined as an extension of DVT or new DVT or PE while on therapeutic levels of recommended anticoagulation therapy (page 731).
2 If failure of anticoagulation involves a PE or central DVT progression, placement of a filter is recommended to prevent fatal PE, and consider thrombolysis
should be considered for high-risk patients (for submassive or massive PE or massive DVT that is life- or limb-threatening).
3 Evaluate for HIT (page 723). If clinical suspicion of HIT is high, see page 723.
.
4 Therapeutic aPTT range based on hospital SOP range or 2.0-2.5 x control, if local ranges are unavailable.
5 Although data are limited, doses are generally increased by 25%.
NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology 737

Text continued from p. 715
The occurrence of VTE has been reported to in- with an increased risk of VTE in some clinical set-
crease the likelihood of death in cancer patients by 2- tings,1,14,21 and obesity was also identified as a risk fac-
to 6-fold.9–13 For example, patients with gynecologic tor.21–24 Evidence also shows that prechemotherapy
cancer and PE were found to have a 6-fold increased thrombocytosis,24–26 leukocytosis,24 and hemoglobin
risk of death at 2 years compared with similar patients level less than 10 g/dL24,25 are predictive of VTE in
without PE.12 Furthermore, VTE has been reported to patients undergoing chemotherapy, although the
be the most common cause of death at 30-day follow- association of anemia with VTE may be complicat-
up among cancer patients undergoing surgery.14 ed by the use of erythropoietic stimulating agents.
The critical need for the development of clini- Acquired risk factors for VTE include a history of
cal practice guidelines focusing specifically on VTE VTE and certain hypercoagulable conditions, such
in patients with cancer is further underscored by the as pregnancy. A history of VTE has been identified
results of practice surveys of VTE prophylaxis. The in several studies as an independent risk factor for
Fundamental Research in Oncology and Thrombo- developing a subsequent VTE.14,23,26–29 Moreover, re-
sis (FRONTLINE) survey noted that only 50% of current VTE was found to be more common among
surgical oncologists and 5% of medical oncologists patients with cancer; for example, 12-month cumula-
routinely used VTE prophylaxis in their patients.15 tive incidences of 20.7% and 6.8% of recurrent VTE
Similar results were documented in the multina- were reported for patients with and without cancer,
tional IMPROVE and ENDORSE registries of hos- respectively, undergoing anticoagulant treatment.30
pitalized medically ill patients, in which only 45% of Although factor V Leiden and prothrombin muta-
patients with cancer received any form of VTE pro- tions were identified in 3.7% and 2.6%, respectively,
phylaxis.16,17 These results are of particular concern of patients with breast or colon cancer undergoing
when juxtaposed with a recent review of postmortem adjuvant chemotherapy in a recent prospective ob-
reports that showed that approximately 80% of cases servational study, these inherited risk factors were
of fatal PE occur in nonsurgical patients.18 not associated with an increased risk of VTE among
To address the important problem of VTE in cancer patients.26 Several other patient-related
cancer patients, the NCCN initially convened a VTE risk factors, although not exclusive to cancer
panel of experts in 2005 and then annually thereaf- patients, are commonly found in this population.
ter. The interdisciplinary NCCN Venous Thrombo- These include hospitalization, other medical comor-
embolic Disease Panel includes medical and surgical bidities (e.g., infection), poor performance status,
oncologists, hematologists, cardiologists, internists, and prolonged immobilization.3
interventional radiologists, nurses, and pharmacists. Several VTE risk factors are exclusive to cancer
These NCCN Guidelines discuss the diagnosis, pre- patients, including the presence of malignancy, che-
vention, and treatment of VTE in cancer patients motherapy and extrinsic vascular compression due to
and provide recommendations for patient care based cancer-associated regional bulky lymphadenopathy.
on clinical research and experience in this field. Results from 2 population-based, case-control studies
showed that the presence of cancer increased the risk
of VTE by 4- and 7-fold.31,32 An increased risk of VTE
VTE Risk Assessment in Patients in patients with cancer has also been supported by the
With Cancer results of other studies.27,33 Furthermore, researchers
Many risk factors for VTE are common to patients have reported cancer as the cause of approximately
with cancer,19,20 and can be grouped into 3 general 20% of the VTE cases seen in the community,3 and
categories: patient-related factors (both intrinsic and a recent cancer diagnosis and the occurrence of ad-
extrinsic), cancer-related factors, and treatment- vanced malignancies and distant metastases also in-
related factors. Cancer patients probably have risk crease VTE risk.2,23,31,34,35 For example, Blom et al.31
factors from all 3 categories, and the VTE risk con- reported an adjusted odds ratio (OR) of 19.8 for VTE
ferred by a single risk factor cannot be evaluated in risk in patients with solid tumors with distant metas-
isolation from the others. tases compared with those without. In addition, tumor
More advanced age, a common characteristic of histology has been shown to influence the risk of VTE
many cancer patients, was shown to be associated in patients. Several studies have evaluated the associ-
738 NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology
ation between different types of cancer and the risk of vided here; rather, these NCCN Guidelines describe
developing a VTE.1,2,9,31,33,36 For example, pancreatic some of the evidence for the association of 3 repre-
cancer1,2,9,33,34,36 and brain tumors1,2,31,37–39 were associ- sentative classes of cancer drugs (cytotoxic chemo-
ated with a high risk of VTE in several studies. Ade- therapy regimens, hormone therapy with estrogenic
nocarcinomas seem to be associated with a higher risk compounds, and antiangiogenic agents) with in-
compared with squamous cell cancers.33 Although dif- creased VTE risk.
ferences in study designs make it difficult to compare The association of cytotoxic chemotherapy with
VTE rates according to specific type of malignancy, the development of VTE in cancer patients has been
other cancers that have been associated with an in- shown in several studies.24,25,44 For example, in one
creased risk of VTE include those of the stomach, kid- population-based, case-control study, ORs of 6.5
ney, uterus, lung, ovary, bladder, and testis.1,21,31 In ad- and 4.1 for development of VTE were determined
dition, an increased risk of VTE has been observed in when cancer patients receiving and not receiving
certain hematologic malignancies, such as lymphoma, chemotherapy, respectively, were compared with pa-
acute leukemia, and multiple myeloma.1,40,41 Patients tients without a malignant neoplasm.32 In another
with high-grade lymphoma and acute promyelocytic retrospective study, the annual incidence of VTE
leukemia seem to be at higher risk than those with was 10.9% in patients with colorectal cancer treated
other forms of lymphoma or leukemia.40 In a study of with chemotherapeutic regimens.8 Khorana et al.24
patients with high-grade non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, published a risk assessment model to estimate VTE
disease-related venous compression was shown to be risk in ambulatory cancer patients undergoing che-
the most common cause of VTE.42 motherapy. This risk assessment model was recently
Several factors associated with increased VTE validated and extended by Ay et al.,45 who identified
risk in patients with myeloma include the diagno- D dimer and P selectin as additional discriminatory
sis of multiple myeloma itself, hyperviscosity, and risk factors for VTE in ambulatory cancer patients.
treatment with thalidomide- or lenalidomide-based However, these laboratory tests are not routinely
combination regimens (combined with high-dose measured in cancer patients, and therefore their in-
dexamethasone, doxorubicin, or multiagent che- clusion in routine thrombotic risk assessment should
motherapy).41 Further validation of the influence be predicated on their validation in future studies.
of these risk factors on VTE rates in patients with The risk factors identified by Khorana et al.,24 which
myeloma is warranted. In contrast, breast cancer was formed the basis for the risk assessment models, set
associated with a relatively low risk for VTE in some the stage for prospective, confirmatory randomized
studies.1,10,43 Nevertheless, because of the relatively clinical trials evaluating the risks and benefits of risk-
high prevalence of breast cancer, the occurrence of targeted VTE prophylaxis in ambulatory cancer pa-
VTE in patients with breast cancer is not uncom- tients undergoing chemotherapy.
mon.38 Furthermore, the risk of VTE was shown to Increased VTE risk was shown to be associated
increase by 6-fold when patients with metastatic with the use of exogenous estrogen compounds,
breast cancer were compared with those with local- such as selective estrogen receptor modulators (e.g.,
ized disease.10 tamoxifen, raloxifene), for the prevention and treat-
Treatment-related risk factors include surgery, the ment of certain estrogen receptor–positive can-
presence of a CVAD, and administration of chemo- cers.46–50 Use of estrogenic compounds, such as hor-
therapy and other systemic treatments. For example, mone replacement therapy51,52 or oral contraceptive
Heit et al.32 reported nearly 22- and 8-fold increas- agents,53,54 has also been associated with increased
es in risks for the development of VTE in patients risk of developing VTE. Diethylstilbestrol phosphate
hospitalized or confined to a nursing home with and in combination with doxorubicin for the treatment
without recent surgery, respectively, compared with of hormone-refractory prostate cancer was reported
noninstitutionalized patients who had not undergone to increase VTE risk compared with doxorubicin
recent surgery. alone.55 Evidence has been presented to support the
Several specific agents used in cancer treatment association of immunomodulating agents that have
are associated with an increased risk of developing antiangiogenic properties (e.g., thalidomide in com-
VTE. A detailed listing of these agents is not pro- bination with doxorubicin and/or dexamethasone,
and lenalidomide in combination with dexametha- significant because of wide confidence intervals). In
sone) with an increased incidence of VTE when addition, the number of false-positive D-dimer assays
used in the treatment of multiple myeloma (see Out- was 3-fold higher in cancer patients than in non-
patient Prophylactic Therapy in Ambulatory Cancer cancer patients,73 and results of a large prospective
Patients, page 749).41,56–61 In addition, a meta-analysis study of patients with suspected DVT that had been
of randomized clinical trials showed that cancer pa- excluded on radiologic testing showed that high D-
tients undergoing chemotherapy with bevacizumab dimer levels were present in a large percentage of
had a significantly increased risk of VTE compared patients with cancer.74 D-dimer testing is not recom-
with those undergoing chemotherapy without this mended for diagnosing VTE in cancer patients, and
agent.62 Other agents used in supportive cancer care further investigation/validation of D-dimer testing
(e.g., erythropoietic stimulatory agents) have also and clinical prediction models is warranted before
been associated with the development of VTE.25,63 these strategies are incorporated into the diagnostic
Concomitant use of erythropoietin with other thera- evaluation of VTE in cancer patients.
pies associated with the development of VTE (e.g., In addition to the imaging described below, the
lenalidomide) may further increase risk.59 initial diagnostic workup of all patients with suspect-
Results from numerous studies have identified ed VTE should undergo the following tests: compre-
the presence of a CVAD as a risk factor for develop- hensive medical history and physical examination;
ment of an upper-extremity DVT (UEDVT),32,64–66 CBC with platelet count; prothrombin time (PT);
although discrepancies exist in the incidence of activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT); and
CVAD-related DVT.66,67 The association between serum creatinine (see pages 718 and 721).
catheter/device placement and the development of DVT
DVT may be the result of venous stasis and vessel Classic clinical symptoms (e.g., pain; unilateral ede-
injury after insertion of the CVAD,66,68,69 or infec- ma and heaviness in the extremity distal to the site of
tions occurring as a result of catheter placement.69,70 the venous thrombosis or edema in the face, neck, or
Possible reasons for the reported discrepancies in supraclavicular space; unexplained persistent cramp-
the incidence of CVAD-related DVT may include
ing) are not present in all cases of acute DVT. In the
recent improvements in catheter materials and de-
prospective MASTER registry of patients with VTE,
sign, and the different methods of diagnosing device-
the most common presenting symptoms of DVT
related DVT used in some of the studies (i.e., clini-
were extremity edema, pain, and erythema observed
cal, which are symptomatic, vs. radiologic, which
in 80%, 75%, and 26% of patients with DVT, re-
could be symptomatic or asymptomatic).66,67
spectively.75 Diagnosis of DVT in adults with cancer
should be tempered by an increased level of clini-
Diagnosis and Evaluation cal suspicion on presentation of any clinically overt
signs/symptoms that could represent an acute DVT.
VTE in Cancer Patients Duplex venous ultrasonography is recommended
Clinical prediction models, such as the Wells cri- as the preferred venous imaging method for initial
teria, in combination with D-dimer testing have diagnosis of DVT. Duplex ultrasonography allows
proven useful in diagnosing VTE, with comparable for both an analysis of venous compressibility and
results to conventional radiologic imaging strate- Doppler imaging of venous blood flow,76 although
gies. However, cancer patients constituted a minor- assessment of venous compressibility is considered
ity of the subjects in these studies,71,72 and therefore to be more definitive.65,77 Other advantageous char-
whether this strategy is as safe or effective in can- acteristics of ultrasonography include accuracy in
cer patients is unclear. Although one study using diagnosing symptomatic DVT in femoral and pop-
the Wells criteria and D-dimer testing to diagnose liteal veins; noninvasive methodology; the lack of
VTE noted that the performance of this strategy was need for intravenous contrast agents; ability to be per-
comparable in patients with and without cancer, the formed at the bedside; and lower cost.76,78 Two normal
number of cancer patients (in whom VTE had been ultrasound examinations obtained 1 week apart have
excluded with testing) with symptomatic VTE dur- been reported to exclude progressive lower-extremity
ing follow-up was 4-fold higher (2.0% vs. 0.5%; not DVT,77 although these types of studies have not been
performed in cancer patients. Disadvantages of ultra- The panel recommends that patients diagnosed
sonography include difficulties associated with imag- with calf and UEDVT who have contraindications
ing more central veins, such as large pelvic veins, the to anticoagulation therapy be reevaluated for clot
proximal subclavian vein, the IVC, and the SVC79,80; progression (e.g., at 1 week for patients with calf
a lower sensitivity for diagnosing distal lower- DVT) after initial diagnosis (see page 719). Simi-
extremity DVT and asymptomatic DVT81; limita- larly, patients with CVAD-related DVT and central/
tions associated with bandages, casts, or pain; and proximal DVT should undergo follow-up imaging as
results that are more operator-dependent.82 clinically indicated (see page 720). Reassessments of
In cases of negative or indeterminate ultrasound contraindications to anticoagulant therapy should
results after repeat venous imaging, and a continued accompany imaging evaluations.
high clinical suspicion of DVT, other imaging modal- The effectiveness of anticoagulation therapy in
ities (listed in order of preference) are recommended: patients with established DVT should be monitored
• Contrast-enhanced CT (i.e., indirect CT ve- clinically during and after treatment. Follow-up
nography) is reportedly as accurate as ultraso- examinations and imaging evaluations allow physi-
nography in diagnosing femoropopliteal DVT cians to assess clot progression in patients undergo-
and provides accurate imaging of the large pel- ing anticoagulation therapy, detect DVT recurrence
vic veins and IVC.78,83 However, this method re- after successful treatment, and identify chronic in-
quires relatively high concentrations of contrast jury to the venous system. These studies should be
agent. performed in response to symptoms.
• MRI (magnetic resonance venography [MRV]) SVT
provides a sensitive and specific evaluation of the An SVT is distinct from a DVT and generally does
pelvic veins and vena cava without the need for not have the same implications for morbidity and
nephrotoxic contrast agents.78,84,85 Drawbacks to mortality.88,89 Nevertheless, SVT and DVT can occur
this method include higher cost, longer imaging simultaneously and each predisposes the patient to
times, and limited availability in some practice the other condition.89 Few data are available on the
settings.84 incidence of SVT in patients with cancer; most SVTs
• Standard invasive venography, once considered in the lower extremities are estimated to occur in the
the gold standard for DVT diagnosis, has largely greater saphenous vein.88,89 Although the clinical se-
been replaced by less-invasive methods.84 quelae of SVT are generally less severe than those of
DVT, an extensive SVT in the saphenous vein can
Few studies of UEDVT have been performed. Al- progress to involve the deep venous system at the sa-
though UEDVT is frequently related to the presence phenofemoral junction. These clots can precipitate
of a CVAD64,65,68,86 and associated with device mal- PE. Therefore, the location and extent of SVT should
function,67 neither a clot within a catheter nor a sim- be evaluated with venous ultrasound if the possibility
ple fibrin sheath around a catheter represents a DVT. of proximal deep vein involvement exists.89
Ultrasonography has been reported to accurately de- SVT is diagnosed primarily based on clinical
tect a DVT in peripheral UEDVT involving the bra- symptoms (e.g., tenderness, erythema, and/or an in-
chial, distal subclavian, and axillary veins.65 However, durated cord associated with a superficial vein) and a
in one study, only 50% of isolated flow abnormalities negative ultrasound finding for DVT. Progression of
in the upper extremity were related to the presence of symptoms should be accompanied by follow-up im-
DVT.87 A CT venogram may provide a more accurate aging. SVT is more likely than DVT to be symptom-
assessment in cases of isolated flow abnormalities as- atic (e.g., associated with pain, tenderness, erythe-
sociated with an upper extremity.87 CT venography or ma), especially if occurring in the lower extremities.
MR angiography may be needed to diagnose UEDVT Peripheral catheter-related SVT, sometimes referred
located in the proximal subclavian vein, brachioce- to as infusion thrombophlebitis, is often associated with
phalic vein, or the SVC.68,69 Invasive venography for a palpable tender cord along the course of the af-
detecting UEDVT should be performed through a pe- fected vein.89 A key decision point in the treatment
ripheral vessel in the extremity, although vein access algorithm for SVT is the location of non–catheter-
may be limited by edema. related SVT.
Trousseau’s Syndrome ence of cancer was also a significant independent

The presence of migratory thrombophlebitis in the predictor of mortality.95 Several smaller retrospec-
presence of cancer should increase clinical suspi- tive studies have also reported on adverse outcomes
cion for the presence of a relatively rare condition for patients with mesenteric vein thrombosis, with
called Trousseau’s syndrome. The clinical character- a 30-day mortality rate of 20%.96,97 Thromboses in
istics of Trousseau’s syndrome can include warfarin the mesenteric vein can lead to intestinal infarc-
resistance, thrombocytopenia, chronic disseminated tion, which is frequently life-threatening.96,97 In one
intravascular coagulation, nonbacterial thrombotic study, intestinal infarction was present in 45% of pa-
(verrucous) endocarditis, and arterial emboli.90,91 tients diagnosed with mesenteric vein thrombosis,
Effective treatment of thrombosis in Trousseau’s of which 19% were fatal.94
syndrome requires the use of unfractionated or low- Various risk factors have been identified in the
molecular-weight heparin or fondaparinux. development of SPVT, including inherited throm-
Splanchnic Vein Thrombosis bophilic states (i.e., antithrombin deficiency, protein
Splanchnic vein thrombosis (SPVT) refers to a C deficiency, protein S deficiency, factor V Leiden
relatively rare group of VTEs within the splanch- mutation, prothrombin G20210A mutation) and
nic vasculature comprising the hepatic (charac- acquired risk factors, such as malignancies, myelo-
teristic of Budd-Chiari syndrome), portal, mesen- proliferative disorders (e.g., polycythemia vera, es-
teric, and splenic venous segments.92,93 Thrombotic sential thrombocythemia), JAK2V617F mutation
events may occur in multiple segments (38%–50% with or without overt myeloproliferative disorders,
of SPVT cases) or in isolated segments within the paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria (PNH), ab-
splanchnic vasculature, with isolated portal vein dominal surgery (e.g., splenectomy), pancreatitis, and
thrombosis (34%–40% of SPVT cases) being the cirrhosis.94,95,98–100 In addition, the use of exogenous
most common among the latter.93,94 Limited data are estrogen (e.g., oral contraceptives, hormone replace-
available to assess the relative prognosis of patients ment therapy) has also been linked to SPVT.95,98,100
with SPVT according to the venous segment affect- Patients with SPVT may have multiple risk factors,
ed. In a large single-center retrospective analysis of whether inherited and/or acquired. The presence of
patients with SPVT (N = 832), the 10-year survival cancer itself, especially abdominal malignancies (e.g.,
rate was significantly decreased among patients with hepatocellular carcinoma, pancreatic carcinoma), is
thrombosis in multiple segments compared with both a common risk factor for SPVT and a frequent
those with thrombosis in a single/isolated segment cause of death in cancer patients with SPVT.93,95,100
(48% vs. 68%; P < .001); the 10-year survival rate Several retrospective studies have reported cancer to
for the entire cohort was 60%.93 Moreover, the 10- be a significant independent predictor of mortality in
year survival rate was highest among patients with patients with SPVT.93,95–97 Moreover, among patients
isolated hepatic vein thrombosis (82%), whereas with cancer, the presence of SPVT has been associ-
the lowest survival rate (63%) was reported in those ated with decreased survival. Portal vein thrombosis
with isolated portal vein thrombosis (P = .045 for has been reported in 20% to 30% of patients with
comparison of Kaplan-Meier survival estimates hepatocellular carcinoma at diagnosis.101–103 In a ret-
across subgroups of isolated SPVT). The investiga- rospective study of patients with hepatocellular car-
tors attributed the lower survival rate of patients cinoma treated at a referral center in Germany (N =
with portal vein thrombosis to the relatively high 389), patients with portal vein thrombosis had signif-
incidence of malignancies present in this group; in icantly decreased median survival (6 months) com-
this retrospective study, the presence of malignancy pared with those without portal vein thrombosis (16
was significantly associated with decreased survival months); based on multivariate analysis, presence of
for patients with SPVT, both in univariate and mul- portal vein thrombosis was a significant independent
tivariate analyses.93 In a separate retrospective study predictor of 5-year survival in this population.102 The
in patients with extrahepatic portal vein thrombo- poor prognosis associated with SPVT in patients with
sis (N = 172), a concurrent diagnosis of mesenteric hepatocellular carcinoma was shown in another ret-
vein thrombosis was significantly predictive of de- rospective study (N = 194), which also showed sig-
creased survival based on multivariate analysis; pres- nificantly decreased median survival in patients with
portal vein thrombosis (2.3 vs. 17.6 months in pa- of SPVT involving the mesenteric veins, duplex ul-
tients without; P = .004).101 In a recent meta-analysis trasonography frequently may be limited by overlying
of 30 randomized controlled trials in patients with bowel gas; for suspected mesenteric vein thrombosis,
previously untreated hepatocellular carcinoma un- CTA should be the preferred method of diagnostic
dergoing palliative treatments, the presence of portal imaging.98,100,111 Once SPVT is diagnosed, evaluating
vein thrombosis was identified as one of the indepen- for thrombophilia or testing for PNH or the JAK2
dent predictors of decreased survival.104 gene mutation may be considered. PNH is a rare ac-
Clinical manifestations of acute SPVT typi- quired hematopoietic disorder that results in chronic
cally include abdominal pain, ascites, hepatomegaly, hemolysis, and has been associated with a high pro-
nausea, vomiting, anorexia, and diarrhea (see page pensity for venous thrombosis, particularly in the
727).100,105–110 Among patients with acute thrombosis splanchnic vasculature.113,114 PNH is an important
in the mesenteric vein, intestinal infarction has been acquired risk factor for SPVT98,100; in a recent post
reported in 30% to 45% of patients at diagnosis.94,96 hoc analysis (N = 77) from a study of patients with
Abdominal pain associated with mesenteric vein Budd-Chiari syndrome, patients who had underly-
thrombosis has been described as mid-abdominal, ing PNH more frequently presented with additional
colicky pain.100 Fever, guarding, and rebound tender- SPVT (i.e., portal, mesenteric, or splenic vein throm-
ness may also be present, which may indicate progres- bosis) at baseline than those without PNH (47% vs.
sion to bowel infarction.100 Chronic SPVT may often 10%, respectively; P = .002).115 The JAK2V617F
be asymptomatic because of the formation of collat- mutation is detected in a high proportion of patients
eral veins,100,105,107,111 although abdominal pain, nau- with polycythemia vera, essential thrombocythemia,
sea, vomiting, anorexia, lower-extremity edema, and and primary myelofibrosis, and is now part of both
splenomegaly have been reported with chronic pre- the diagnostic and the prognostic assessment of these
sentations.107,110 Weight loss, abdominal distension, myeloproliferative disorders.116–119 The presence of
and postprandial abdominal pain may also be associ- myeloproliferative disorders, or the JAK2V617F mu-
ated with chronic mesenteric vein thrombosis.111 The tation with or without myeloproliferative disorders,
presence of splenomegaly and/or esophageal varices is the most common acquired risk factor for SPVT.98
indicates portal hypertension associated with chronic In the absence of overt myeloproliferative disorders,
SPVT, and complications may arise because of bleed- JAK2V617F was detected in 20% to 40% of patients
ing from varices.106,107,111 with SPVT.98,120–122 Mutations in exon 12 of JAK2
The diagnostic evaluation includes both imag- may also be associated with SPVT in patients with-
ing and laboratory testing (see page 727). Diagnosis out JAK2V617F.123 In patients with a confirmed di-
is confirmed by the absence of blood flow or pres- agnosis of SPVT, testing for JAK2 mutations may be
ence of a thrombus in the splanchnic veins based warranted to monitor for potential development of
on noninvasive imaging by duplex ultrasonography, overt myeloproliferative disease.
CT angiography (CTA), and/or MRV of the abdo- PE
men. Acute SPVT is associated with presenting Diagnosis of PE in adults with cancer is facilitated
signs or symptoms lasting 8 weeks or less, with no by an increased level of clinical suspicion on pre-
portal cavernoma (cavernous transformation show- sentation of any clinically overt signs or symptoms
ing a network of collaterals around the portal vein) of acute PE. Classic clinical signs and/or symptoms
and no signs of portal hypertension.108 The presence (e.g., unexplained shortness of breath, chest pain,
of portal cavernoma on imaging indicates chronic particularly pleuritic chest pain, tachycardia, appre-
thrombosis.106,108,112 For suspected cases of SPVT hension, tachypnea, syncope, and hypoxia) are not
involving the hepatic and/or portal veins, duplex present in all cases of acute PE. The clinical presen-
ultrasonography is considered the initial choice of tation of PE can range from stable hemodynamics to
imaging.98,105,106,112 CTA or MRV may be useful for cardiogenic shock.124 In the prospective MASTER
evaluating vascular structure, venous patency, the registry, the most common presenting symptoms of
presence of ascites, and potential impairment of the PE were dyspnea, pain, and tachypnea, which were
bowel and other adjacent organs, and for identifying present in 85%, 40%, and 29% of patients with PE,
complications such as bowel ischemia.98,111,112 In cases respectively.75
Radiographic evidence of DVT is found in 50% dergo CTA or V-Q scanning, CTA identified signifi-
to 70% of patients presenting with symptomatic PE cantly more PEs than V-Q scans (19.2% vs. 14.2%;
and vice versa.75,125,126 Asymptomatic patients with 95% CI, 1.1%–8.9%).134 Elderly patients are more
incidental radiographic findings of PE should be likely than younger patients to be diagnosed with
treated similarly to those with symptomatic PE, be- an intermediate-probability V-Q scan result.135 Both
cause many have subtle clinical symptoms of active intermediate- and low-probability V-Q scan results
disease on further evaluation.127 They should un- lack diagnostic efficacy and should be considered
dergo additional workup and imaging (e.g., CTA) to indeterminate. Further diagnostic testing should
evaluate for PE (see page 721). be performed if indicated clinically. When a PE is
Neither a chest radiograph nor an EKG is sensi- clinically suspected, a high-probability V-Q scan is
tive or specific enough to diagnose PE when suspect- diagnostic. Conventional pulmonary angiography
ed. However, a chest radiograph facilitates the diag- (direct pulmonary angiography), often considered
nosis of comorbidities and conditions with clinically to be the gold standard for PE diagnosis, is infre-
similar presentations and is useful in interpreting a quently used because of its invasive nature. Rarely,
ventilation-perfusion (V-Q) lung scan.128 The EKG this method is combined with catheter-directed
provides information about existing cardiac disease thrombectomy or thrombolysis. These measures
and PE-related changes. Furthermore, EKG patterns should be planned before and executed simultane-
characteristic of right ventricular strain have been ously with conventional pulmonary angiography.
associated with PE,129 and inverted T waves in pre- Fatality caused by PE primarily occurs through
cordial leads may be evident in cases of massive PE.130 right ventricular heart failure and cardiogenic
The panel recommends CTA, which allows for shock.124 Because the 3-month mortality rate of pa-
indirect evaluation of pulmonary vessels, as the pre- tients with PE has been reported to be 15%, outpa-
ferred imaging technique for the initial diagnosis of tient management should be limited to individuals
PE in most patients (see page 721). Advantages of at low risk of adverse outcomes.136 The panel recom-
this method include accurate imaging of mediastinal mends that patients with PE be risk-stratified.137,138
and parenchymal structures; accurate visualization of CTA or echocardiography can be used to assess these
emboli in many regions of the pulmonary vasculature; patients for right ventricular enlargement/dysfunc-
capability of being performed in conjunction with tion, which is associated with an increased risk for
indirect CT venography, which can detect DVT78,131 adverse clinical outcomes.124,133,136,139–142 Elevated se-
(because the most common cause of PE is DVT in the rum troponin levels, which are released because of
lower extremities or pelvis132); and the ability to de- endomyocardial damage, have also been associated
tect signs of right ventricular enlargement, which can with adverse clinical outcomes,124,139,143,144 as has the
be used to assess the patient’s risk for adverse clini- presence of residual DVT on lower-extremity duplex
cal outcomes.133 Disadvantages of CTA include the imaging.145 A recent study showed that, compared
associated radiation exposure and the need for large with using individual tests alone, combining the
amounts of intravenous contrast, particularly when results from at least 2 of the previously mentioned
CTA is followed by indirect CT venography.78 tests (i.e., serum troponin measurement, echocar-
Alternative imaging modalities used for diag- diography for detecting right ventricular dysfunc-
nosing PE include a V-Q lung scan and convention- tion, lower-extremity ultrasonography for detecting
al pulmonary angiography. A V-Q scan is associated DVT) improved the specificity and positive predic-
with less fetal radiation exposure than CTA, and is tive value in identifying patients at high risk for PE-
therefore useful in pregnant patients and those with related mortality.137 A clinical risk assessment tool,
renal insufficiency or untreatable contrast allergies the Pulmonary Embolism Severity Index (PESI), has
in whom intravenous contrast is not feasible. It is also been used to assess the advisability of outpatient
also less invasive than conventional pulmonary an- management and intensity of initial follow-up and
giography. A normal scan result essentially excludes treatment. The PESI score is a validated patient as-
PE.134 In a recent noninferiority study in which 1417 sessment rule that includes age, sex, a history of heart
patients determined to have a high risk of PE ac- or lung disease, a history of cancer, and physiologic
cording to the Wells criteria were randomized to un- signs associated with PE that can be used to deter-
mine a patient’s risk for an adverse outcome associat- with extreme caution in patients receiving spinal an-
ed with PE.146,147 Patients with low PESI scores (≤ 85 esthesia or undergoing spinal puncture.152 Other fac-
points) are considered to be at low risk for an adverse tors, such as a patient’s risk of falling, should also be
outcome, whereas those with high PESI scores (≥ 86 considered before anticoagulation therapy is ordered.
points) are at high risk. Because the subject popula- A prolonged aPTT is not considered a contrain-
tions in the original PESI score derivation/validation dication to anticoagulation therapy in patients with a
study and subsequent studies only included a small lupus inhibitor or lupus anticoagulant (e.g., antiphos-
number of patients with cancer, further validation of pholipid syndrome). Antiphospholipid antibodies
this score is warranted in this population. The panel prolong the aPTT through interfering with the in-
recommends that all cancer patients with PE be risk teraction between coagulation factors (in the patient
stratified using a combination of imaging modalities plasma sample) and the phospholipids provided in
(CTA or echocardiography with or without duplex the aPTT test reagent. Antiphospholipid antibodies
ultrasonography) plus serum troponin measure- have been associated with an increased risk of VTE
ment.137,138 The PESI score can be included as an ad- and arterial thromboembolism, and with adverse
junctive risk assessment tool but should not be used pregnancy outcomes.153–155 Any patient who has ex-
in isolation until further validation is conducted in perienced a thrombotic event and fulfills diagnostic
cancer patients. criteria for antiphospholipid syndrome should be
considered for indefinite anticoagulation therapy.154
Risks Associated With Anticoagulation Therapy
Anticoagulation in Cancer Patients:
The use of anticoagulants in cancer patients is com-
Contraindications and Risks
plicated by the fact that these patients have higher
Contraindications to Anticoagulation risks of both recurrent VTE and bleeding.30,156,157 In
Contraindications to anticoagulation, possibly of a one prospective follow-up study of patients undergo-
temporal nature, that place patients at an increased ing anticoagulation therapy for VTE, the 12-month
risk for bleeding may include clinically significant ac- cumulative incidence of major bleeding was 12.4%
tive or chronic bleeding; recent central nervous sys- and 4.9% in patients with and without cancer, re-
tem bleeding or intracranial or spinal lesions at high spectively (hazard ratio [HR], 2.2; 95% CI, 1.2–
risk for bleeding; recent surgery with a high associated 4.1).30 In this study, one-third of all major bleeding
bleeding risk; spinal anesthesia/lumbar puncture; cases occurred during the initial 5 to 10 days of hep-
patients at a high risk for falls and/or head trauma; arinization, and the risk of bleeding increased with
thrombocytopenia or platelet dysfunction; and a the extent of cancer. In contrast to patients without
systemic coagulopathy, as evidenced by a prolonged cancer, those with cancer remain at increased risk
PT or aPTT (see page 730). The panel recommends for bleeding during vitamin K antagonist therapy
frequent reevaluation of these contraindications and regardless of International Normalized Ratio (INR)
the risks and benefits of anticoagulation therapy for level.30,156,157 These findings suggest that factors other
any cancer patient considered to be at increased risk than the intensity of anticoagulation (e.g., throm-
for bleeding to facilitate the implementation of this bocytopenia, organ or vascular invasion by tumors)
therapy if and when it becomes clinically prudent. are responsible for increased bleeding in cancer pa-
Patients with a recent history of bleeding associ- tients. Subsequent randomized controlled studies of
ated with the central nervous system or a spinal le- LMWHs and vitamin K antagonists in the chronic
sion are at increased risk for anticoagulant-associated treatment of VTE in cancer patients have shown
bleeding. Package inserts for all 3 of the low-molec- that LMWH is associated with a similar incidence
ular-weight heparins (LMWHs) and fondaparinux of bleeding events, including major bleeding158–160;
include boxed warnings specifying that the risk of however, in one study, fatal bleeding within the
spinal or epidural hematoma resulting in long-term 3-month treatment period was reported in 8% of
paralysis is increased when these anticoagulants are patients receiving vitamin K antagonists compared
administered to patients receiving epidural or spinal with none receiving LMWH.160 Other risks associ-
anesthesia or those undergoing spinal puncture.148–151 ated with chronic use of anticoagulants include os-
Unfractionated heparin (UFH) should also be used teoporosis and heparin-induced thrombocytopenia
(HIT) for patients receiving heparins (see Related ulation therapy in the absence of contraindications
Issues in VTE Prophylaxis and Treatment, page 760), (category 1).
and drug and food interactions for patients receiving Anticoagulants
oral anticoagulants. For example, in patients who Anticoagulation agents used in the prophylaxis and/
underwent chronic anticoagulant therapy for 3 to 24 or treatment of VTE that are listed and described
months with an oral anticoagulant or enoxaparin, according to guideline recommendations (see In-
decreases in bone mineral density of 1.8% and 3.1% patient/Outpatient Prophylactic Anticoagulation
at 1-year follow-up, and 2.6% and 4.8% at 2-year Treatment, page 730; Therapeutic Anticoagula-
follow-up, respectively, were seen.161 tion Treatment for VTE, page 731; and Therapeutic
Warfarin has a very narrow therapeutic window, Options for HIT, page 726). FDA indications and
and its activity is known to be affected by the admin- NCCN recommendations for use of each of these
istration of many other drugs. For example, several therapies are listed in the NCCN Drugs & Biolog-
antibiotics and antifungal therapies, including trim- ics Compendium (NCCN Compendium) for Venous
ethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, ciprofloxacin, metroni- Thromboembolic Disease (to view the NCCN Com-
dazole, and fluconazole, potentiate the effect of war- pendium, visit the NCCN Web site at www.NCCN.
farin, whereas other antibiotics, such as rifampin and org). The panel recommends that agent selection be
dicloxacillin, antagonize the effect of warfarin.162,163 based on criteria such as the presence of renal in-
Furthermore, certain chemotherapeutic agents such sufficiency, FDA approval, cost, ease of administra-
as the fluoropyrimidines (e.g., 5-fluorouracil and tion, need for therapeutic monitoring, and ease of
capecitabine) are known to increase the INR in pa- reversibility. Suggested dosing schedules included in
tients undergoing warfarin anticoagulation,164,165 and the NCCN Guideline were established according to
drug interactions between warfarin and certain selec- panel consensus and follow, with several exceptions,
tive estrogen-receptor modulators (e.g., tamoxifen manufacturer recommendations. To avoid potential
and raloxifene) have also been reported.166 Dietary conflicts, users can also consult dosing schedules
intake of vitamin K and certain dietary supplements listed in specific institutional standard operating
can also influence the effects of warfarin.167,168 Final- procedure (SOP) documents. Recommendations of
ly, acetaminophen, which is found in many medica- the American College of Chest Physicians (ACCP)
tions, can increase the therapeutic effects of warfarin provide another legitimate source for anticoagulant
when taken in daily doses exceeding 2 g.169 dosing schedules.172,173
Low-Molecular-Weight Heparins: LMWHs such as
dalteparin, enoxaparin, and tinzaparin are attractive
Therapies for Prophylaxis or agents for VTE treatment and prevention because
Treatment of VTE in Cancer Patients they facilitate outpatient treatment and eliminate
The only placebo-controlled randomized clinical tri- the need for therapeutic monitoring in most pa-
al on the use of anticoagulants to treat VTE was per- tients. Although these 3 LMWHs are commonly
formed in 1960.170,171 Results from this study showed considered therapeutically equivalent and are often
that treatment with heparin followed by warfarin used interchangeably, few clinical studies have tested
dramatically reduced VTE recurrence and associ- whether the clinical effects of these agents are com-
ated mortality in patients with symptoms of acute parable. Furthermore, the 3 agents differ pharma-
PE. Although most of the subsequent clinical trials cologically with respect to mean molecular weight,
evaluating the use of anticoagulation therapy in the half-life, and ability to inhibit thrombin and factor
prevention and treatment of VTE have not been Xa. Results from a randomized clinical study com-
placebo-controlled, the evidence supporting the ef- paring tinzaparin with dalteparin in the treatment
fectiveness of these therapies is strong.171–173 Clinical of DVT and PE in 505 patients, including 113 with
evidence for the safety and efficacy of anticoagula- active cancer, support the premise that these 2 drugs
tion therapy in cancer patients is described later (see are equivalent in efficacy (preventing recurrence
VTE Prophylaxis, page 748, and VTE Treatment, of VTE) and safety,174 although the results of stud-
page 752). It is the directive of NCCN that all hos- ies in patients with renal insufficiency suggest that
pitalized adult patients with cancer receive anticoag- not all LMWHs behave identically in this patient
population (see later discussion). Enoxaparin149 is dose adjustments of enoxaparin in the management
approved by the FDA for both prophylaxis and im- of patients with Ccr of 30 to 60 mL/min.186
mediate treatment of VTE; tinzaparin148 is currently Some data are available with respect to the safety
approved only for immediate VTE treatment; and of dalteparin and tinzaparin in patients with renal in-
dalteparin151 is approved for VTE prophylaxis, and sufficiency. In a small study of patients treated with
also for extended treatment of symptomatic VTE in dalteparin (N = 22), mean anti-Xa activity was simi-
patients with cancer. lar between patients with renal impairment (mean
NCCN-recommended dosing regimens for dalte- Ccr, 26 mL/min; range, 16–38) and those with normal
parin in immediate VTE treatment and tinzaparin in renal function (Ccr > 80 mL/min).187 In a more recent
VTE prophylaxis are based on the results of clinical study of prophylactic dalteparin in critically ill pa-
studies and panel consensus (see page 731).159,174–178 tients (N = 138 evaluable) with severe renal impair-
Extended or chronic anticoagulation therapy with an ment (Ccr < 30 mL/min), no bioaccumulation was
LMWH may require dosage reduction after an initial detected after a median of 7 days of dalteparin (5000
period. For example, in the CLOT study (Compari- IU daily), and treatment was not associated with
son of Low-Molecular-Weight Heparin Versus Oral excessive anticoagulation; peak anti-Xa levels were
Anticoagulant Therapy for the Prevention of Recur- between 0.29 and 0.34 IU/mL.188 For cancer patients
rent Venous Thromboembolism in Patients With with Ccr less than 30 mL/min receiving dalteparin for
Cancer), the dalteparin dosing was lowered from 200 extended treatment of acute VTE, the manufacturer
to 150 units/kg every day after 1 month.159 In addi- recommends monitoring of anti-Xa levels to achieve
tion, the European Society for Medical Oncology a target range of 0.5 to 1.5 IU/mL.151
(ESMO) clinical recommendations for the manage- In addition, tinzaparin, unlike enoxaparin, did
ment of VTE in cancer patients specifies using 75% not accumulate when used as VTE prophylaxis for
to 80% of the initial dose of LMWH for extended 8 days in elderly patients with a mean Ccr of 35 mL/
anticoagulation therapy.179 Only limited evidence ex- min189 or in elderly patients (> 70 years of age) with
ists concerning the safety and efficacy of LMWHs in renal insufficiency (but Ccr > 20 mL/min) receiving
special populations, such as patients with renal insuf- therapeutic doses of tinzaparin (175 IU/kg daily) for
ficiency, obese patients (body mass index > 30 kg/m2), 10 days.190,191 However, results from a randomized
patients weighing less than 50 kg, elderly patients clinical trial of elderly patients with a CCr less than
(≥ 70 years of age), and patients with cancer.180–182 60 mL/min undergoing initial treatment for VTE
Among the 3 LMWHs, specific dosing recom- showed that those receiving tinzaparin had a sub-
mendations for patients with severe renal insuffi- stantially higher mortality rate compared with those
ciency (creatinine clearance [Ccr] < 30 mL/min) are receiving UFH (11.2% vs. 6.3%; P = .049).192 Al-
available for enoxaparin.149,183 For patients with Ccr though the rates of bleeding and recurrent VTE did
less than 30 mL/min, manufacturer recommenda- not differ between the arms, the trial was terminated
tions specify 30 mg of enoxaparin subcutaneously early, and the panel recommends that tinzaparin be
daily for VTE prophylaxis, and 1 mg/kg subcutane- avoided in patients aged 70 years or older with renal
ously every 24 hours for VTE treatment. These rec- insufficiency (see page 730).
ommendations are supported by results of a meta- The panel currently recommends using caution
analysis showing that enoxaparin is associated with when administering LMWH to patients with severe
a 2- to 3-fold increase in risk of bleeding when ad- renal insufficiency and following manufacturer speci-
ministered in standard, unadjusted therapeutic doses fications when administering enoxaparin to these pa-
to patients with severe renal insufficiency compared tients.149 The panel also recognizes current evidence
with those without severe renal insufficiency.184 In suggesting caution should be used when administer-
another study, renal clearance of enoxaparin was ing LMWHs to patients with Ccr less than 50 mL/
shown to be reduced by 31% and 44% in patients min. Additional studies are needed to determine the
with moderate and severe renal impairment, respec- safety of LMWH in patients with compromised renal
tively, leading the authors to suggest dose reductions function, including patients with cancer.
for patients with Ccr values less than 50 mL/min.185 Concerns also exist with respect to maintaining
Furthermore, some evidence supports downward and monitoring therapeutic concentrations of anti-
coagulants in obese patients. In one study, thrombo- 50 mL/min), and elderly patients (> 75 years of age).
prophylaxis with 5000 units of dalteparin per day was UFH: UFH is generally administered subcutaneously
ineffective in reducing the incidence of symptomatic for VTE prophylaxis (low-dose heparin) and intrave-
VTE and asymptomatic DVT in patients with a body nously for VTE treatment.198 Low-dose UFH (5000
mass index of 40 kg/m2 or greater.193 Hospitalization units) administered 3 times daily (every 8 hours)
of morbidly obese cancer patients with administra- was shown to be more effective than low-dose UFH
tion of UFH should be considered. The panel sug- administered twice daily in preventing DVT in gen-
gests that each institution prepare a LMWH dosing eral surgery patients,199 and is the regimen the panel
algorithm tailored for obese patients. Because only recommends for VTE prophylaxis in cancer patients.
limited data are available for the use of LMWHs in However, a meta-analysis of clinical trials conducted
patients weighing less than 50 kg,148,149,151 the panel in general medical patients noted no difference in the
also recommends caution when using these agents in overall rate of VTE based on the dosing of prophylac-
patients with low body weight and those who are el- tic UFH (5000 units, twice daily vs. 3 times daily),
derly. LMWHs are contraindicated in patients with although a decrease was seen in the combined end
HIT, and should only be used with caution in pa- point of proximal DVT and PE (P = .05), and the risk
tients with a history of HIT. In this situation, a direct for major bleeding was significantly higher when UFH
thrombin inhibitor (DTI) or fondaparinux represents was administered 3 times daily (P < .001).172,200
a safer alternative (see Related Issues in VTE Prophy- Initial dosing of UFH in the treatment of VTE
laxis and Treatment, page 760). Later sections sum- is weight-based, with a recommended regimen of 80
marize the clinical evidence for the safety and efficacy units/kg bolus followed by 18 units/kg per hour in-
of LMWHs in cancer patients (see VTE Prophylaxis, fusion.181 The safety and efficacy of fixed-dose, un-
page 748, and VTE Treatment, page 752). monitored, subcutaneous UFHs were reported to be
Fondaparinux: Fondaparinux is the only specific comparable to LMWHs for treating patients with
factor Xa inhibitor approved by the FDA for the acute VTE,201 but further investigation is needed
prophylaxis and treatment of VTE.150 Advantages before this regimen can be used routinely in cancer
of fondaparinux in the treatment of VTE include patients. Patients receiving intravenous UFH must
specific neutralization of factor Xa, elimination of initially be hospitalized and monitored for anticoag-
the need to monitor anticoagulant response in most ulant response. The panel recommends UFH as the
patients, and the lack of cross-reactivity with the preferred agent in patients with Ccr less than 30 mL/
antibody associated with HIT.150,194–196 However, the min, because the liver is a main site of heparin bio-
use of fondaparinux in patient populations with re- transformation.152,194 Some exceptions include pa-
nal insufficiency, obesity, or HIT has not been well tients with severe renal dysfunction but without in-
defined,182,196 although some evidence shows that it travenous access, and those with a new diagnosis of
is safe and effective for VTE prophylaxis in older pa- VTE despite therapeutic doses of UFH. UFH is con-
tients with a broad range of body weights.197 Phar- traindicated in patients with HIT and should only be
macologic characteristics of fondaparinux include used with extreme caution in patients with a history
renal elimination and a very long half-life of 17 to of HIT. In this situation, a DTI or fondaparinux is
21 hours.150 Prescribing information provided by the a better alternative (see Related Issues in VTE Pro-
manufacturer specifies that fondaparinux is contra- phylaxis and Treatment, page 760).
indicated in patients with severe renal insufficiency Warfarin: Warfarin is an option for long-term treat-
(Ccr < 30 mL/min) and for treating thromboprophy- ment of VTE in cancer patients. If warfarin is to be
laxis in patients weighing less than 50 kg undergo- used for chronic therapy, it should be administered
ing orthopedic or abdominal surgery.150 It should be concomitantly with UFH, LMWH, or fondaparinux
used with caution in elderly patients197 and individu- for at least 5 days and until an INR of 2 or more is
als with moderate renal insufficiency (Ccr < 50 mL/ achieved before the parenteral anticoagulant agent is
min).150 The panel recommends against its use in discontinued. When treating patients with HIT, war-
patients with severe renal insufficiency and advises farin should not be initiated until the platelet count
caution when using it in all patients weighing less has recovered, and then it should be overlapped with
than 50 kg, patients with renal dysfunction (Ccr, 30– a DTI for at least 5 days and until the INR is 2 or
more (see Related Issues in VTE Prophylaxis and who received a retrievable filter, and only 60.8% of
Treatment, page 760). During the transition to war- those attempts were successful.213 No significant dif-
farin monotherapy, the INR should be measured at ferences in protection or complication rates were
least twice weekly and then at least once every week observed with the 2 types of filters, although mean
when the patient is receiving warfarin monotherapy. follow-up time was limited to 11.5 months in this
Warfarin can be safely administered to patients with study. A recent case series of patients who received a
renal insufficiency, although response may be poten- Bard G2 or Recovery filters noted filter strut fracture
tiated in patients with hepatic insufficiency.202 in up to 25% of recipients after a mean follow-up
Aspirin: Aspirin (81–325 mg daily) is an option for of 24 and 50 months, respectively.214 Whether the
VTE prophylaxis in only a select group of patients frequency of this complication is device-specific or
with multiple myeloma who have one or no indi- a property of all filters remains unclear. Until fur-
vidual or multiple myeloma risk factors (Table 1). ther data are available, this experience emphasizes
Aspirin is not considered to be effective VTE pro- the importance of placing filters only in patients in
phylaxis in other settings. For example, in the Wom- whom the benefits outweigh the risks, and of retriev-
en’s Health study, a 10-year study of healthy women ing filters whenever possible.
randomly assigned to aspirin or placebo on alternate
days, no significant differences in the incidence of
VTE were observed between the arms.203 VTE Prophylaxis
DTIs: DTIs are discussed in a later section (see pag-
Prophylactic Anticoagulation Therapy
es 723 and 724).
Inpatient Prophylactic Therapy: Hospitalized pa-
Mechanical Devices tients with cancer are at high risk for VTE.215 The
Intermittent Pneumatic Venous Compression De- panel recommends prophylactic anticoagulation
vice: One of the main advantages of an intermittent therapy for all inpatients diagnosed with active
pneumatic venous compression (IPC) device is the cancer (or in whom cancer is clinically suspected)
absence of an associated bleeding risk. However, who do not have a contraindication to this therapy
disadvantages include the potential for interference (category 1; see pages 716 and 730). This recom-
with ambulation and the need to keep the devices in mendation is based on an assumption that ambula-
place nearly continuously.172 Graduated compression tion in hospitalized cancer patients is inadequate to
stockings can be used in conjunction with an IPC reduce VTE risk. Recommended anticoagulant op-
device as a method of mechanical prophylaxis. tions for VTE prophylaxis in cancer inpatients are
Vena Cava Filters: Vena cava filters are indicated listed in the algorithm (see page 730). The LMWHs,
for prevention of PE in patients who cannot be an- fondaparinux, and subcutaneous UFH (5000 units, 3
ticoagulated because of a contraindication or com- times daily) are category 1 options for inpatient pro-
plication.204–208 However, placement of an IVC filter phylactic therapy. Anticoagulation therapy should
does not prevent DVT and has been associated with be administered throughout hospitalization. Adult
an increased risk of recurrent DVT.204,209,210 Only one inpatients with cancer should undergo the following
randomized controlled trial has compared the effi- tests before initiation of thromboprophylaxis: com-
cacy and safety of IVC filters in conjunction with prehensive medical history and physical examina-
anticoagulation versus anticoagulant therapy alone tion, CBC with platelet count, PT, aPTT, and serum
in the treatment of acute VTE. Unfortunately, this creatinine (see page 716).
pivotal trial did not test the efficacy of IVC filters in Studies comparing different anticoagulant regi-
the usual clinical scenario in which they are used: in mens for VTE prevention in cancer patients have not
patients without concomitant anticoagulation.204,209 clearly identified a particular regimen with superior
Both retrievable (“optional”) and permanent efficacy. In a randomized multicenter clinical trial,
IVC filters are available; however, the period for re- no difference in VTE and bleeding rates were seen
covery of a retrievable filter is limited.211,212 Results for cancer patients receiving perioperative enoxapa-
from a recent retrospective cohort study of 702 parin (40 mg) once daily versus low-dose UFH 3 times
tients with IVC filter placement showed that filter daily to prevent VTE after major elective abdominal
retrieval was attempted for only 15.5% of patients or pelvic surgery.216 Furthermore, results from a meta-
Table 1 Risk Assessment for Venous Thromboembolic Disease in Patients With Multiple Myeloma
Risk Factors Recommended Action
Individual risk factors No Risk Factor or Only One Individual/Myeloma Risk Factor:
Obesity (body mass index ≥ 30 kg/m2) Aspirin, 81-325 mg, once daily
Prior venous thromboembolic disease ≥ 2 Individual/Myeloma Risk Factors:
Central venous access device or pacemaker Low-molecular-weight heparin (equivalent to enoxaparin, 40
mg, once daily); or
Associated disease:
Full-dose warfarin (target INR 2-3)
• Cardiac disease
• Chronic renal disease
• Diabetes
• Acute infection
• Immobilization
Surgery:
• General surgery
• Any anesthesia
• Trauma
Use of erythropoietin
Blood clotting disorders
Myeloma-Related Risk Factors
• Diagnosis of myeloma, per se
• Hyperviscosity
Myeloma Therapy Therapies as Described in the Left Column:
Thalidomide or lenalidomide in combination with: Low-molecular-weight heparin (equivalent to enoxaparin, 40
mg, once daily); or
• High-dose dexamethasone
(≥ 480 mg/mo) Full-dose warfarin (target INR 2-3)
• Doxorubicin
• Multiagent chemotherapy
Abbreviation: INR, International Normalized Ratio.

Adapted with permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd: Leukemia. Palumbo A, Rajkumar SV, Dimopoulos MA, et al. Prevention
of thalidomide- and lenalidomide-associated thrombosis in myeloma. Leukemia 2008;22:414–423. ©2008.
analysis of randomized clinical studies of general sur- efficacy of prophylactic doses of LMWH dose or low-
gery patients found LMWHs to be as safe and effec- dose warfarin (1 mg daily).220–222 A recent random-
tive as UFH in preventing VTE.217 However, results ized trial showed that dose-adjusted warfarin (INR,
from a nonrandomized, historically controlled study 1.5–2.0) was significantly more effective than fixed-
comparing the effectiveness of the LMWH daltepa- dose warfarin (1 mg daily) in preventing CVAD-
rin (5000 units, once daily) to low-dose UFH (5000 associated VTE at a cost of a trend toward more
units, 3 times daily) as VTE prophylaxis in high-risk bleeding; however, neither dose-adjusted nor fixed-
women undergoing surgery for gynecologic cancer dose warfarin showed statistically significant reduc-
indicated that the dalteparin dosing regimen may tions in VTE compared with placebo.223 These data
not be optimal in these patients.218 More recently, a suggest that therapeutic or near therapeutic doses of
meta-analysis comparing outcomes of perioperative anticoagulation are probably necessary to successful-
VTE prophylaxis with LMWH versus UFH in can- ly prevent CVAD-associated VTE. Until additional
cer patients showed no difference in mortality rates, data are available, the panel does not recommend
suspected DVT, PE, or bleeding events.219 VTE prophylaxis for cancer patients with a CVAD.
For prevention of CVAD-associated VTE, ran- Outpatient Prophylactic Therapy in Ambulatory
domized controlled studies have not established the Cancer Patients: Certain groups of cancer patients
are known to remain at risk for VTE after discharge bination regimens associated with a thrombotic risk
from the hospital. The risk of VTE is sufficiently high or in patients with 2 or more individual or disease-
in some surgical and medical oncology patients that related risk factors (see Table 1). Aspirin prophylaxis
VTE prophylaxis should be considered in the out- (81–325 mg/d) is an option for patients with multiple
patient setting (see pages 717 and 730). Cancer pa- myeloma receiving thalidomide or lenalidomide with
tients undergoing abdominal or pelvic surgery with one or no individual or multiple myeloma risk factors.
additional VTE risk factors should be considered for In a recent open-label, multicenter, randomized,
outpatient prophylaxis.224 Features that place surgi- phase III trial in patients with previously untreated
cal oncology patients at higher risk for VTE include multiple myeloma (N = 667) receiving thalidomide-
a previous episode of VTE, anesthesia times longer containing regimens, both aspirin (100 mg/d) and
than 2 hours, advanced-stage disease, perioperative fixed-dose warfarin (1.25 mg/d; dose adjustment
bed rest of 4 or more days, and patient age of 60 years allowed to maintain INR < 3) were similarly effec-
or older.14 Extended prophylaxis to 4 weeks postsur- tive in reducing thromboembolic events compared
gery was associated with a greater than 50% reduc- with LMWH (enoxaparin, 40 mg/d).231 The primary
tion in venographic VTE in patients undergoing end point was a composite measure, including symp-
major abdominal surgery.225,226 Because thromboem- tomatic DVT, PE, arterial thrombosis, acute cardio-
bolic postoperative complications greatly exceeded vascular events, or sudden otherwise unexplained
hemorrhagic complications as a cause of death in the death, during the first 6 months from randomization.
@RISTOS observational cohort study of cancer sur- The incidence of the composite end point was 6.4%,
gery patients,14 extended (up to 4 weeks) VTE pro- 8.2%, and 5% in the aspirin, warfarin, and LMWH
phylaxis is recommended for high-risk cancer surgery groups, respectively.231 The absolute risk for the com-
patients. posite end point was not statistically different when
Despite a lack of consistent evidence support- comparing aspirin with LMWH (absolute difference
ing extended outpatient prophylaxis in most popula- +1.3%; P = .544) or when comparing warfarin with
tions of ambulatory medical oncology patients,227 this LMWH (absolute difference +3.2%; P = .183). Al-
practice is recommended for patients with multiple though not statistically significant, LMWH was asso-
myeloma receiving highly thrombogenic combina- ciated with trends for decreased risks for grades 3 and
tion chemotherapy regimens based on limited data. 4 thromboembolic events and major bleeding events
Immunomodulating agents with antiangiogenic compared with aspirin. However, LMWH was asso-
properties, such as thalidomide or lenalidomide, ciated with a significantly decreased risk for grades
have been associated with high VTE rates in pa- 3 and 4 thromboembolic events compared with
tients with multiple myeloma in the absence of pro- warfarin (absolute difference +5% for warfarin vs.
phylaxis, although the reported rates of VTE vary LMWH; P = .024). Moreover, among the subgroup
widely across studies.41,56,57,60,227,228 It appears that sev- of patients aged 65 years or older undergoing combi-
eral factors contribute to thrombosis associated with nation therapy with bortezomib, melphalan, predni-
thalidomide or its derivatives,228 and VTE rates are sone, and thalidomide, LMWH significantly reduced
especially high when thalidomide or lenalidomide is the risk for the composite end point compared with
combined with high-dose dexamethasone (≥ 480 mg/ warfarin (absolute difference +11.3 for warfarin vs.
month), or doxorubicin or multiagent chemotherapy LMWH; P = .006).231 This study was conducted in
regimens.41,56,59–61 Package inserts for thalidomide and patients with myeloma who were at “standard risk”
lenalidomide include black-box warnings regard- for thromboembolism and had no clinical indication
ing the VTE risks associated with these agents.229,230 for anticoagulation or antiplatelet therapy.
For patients with multiple myeloma, the panel rec- In light of published data from the phase III ran-
ommends a prophylaxis strategy based on a risk as- domized trial, the panel recommends prophylactic
sessment model published by Palumbo et al.41 VTE aspirin or LMWH in patients with multiple myelo-
prophylaxis with either LMWH (e.g., enoxaparin 40 ma receiving thalidomide (excluding high-risk com-
mg/d) or dose-adjusted warfarin (INR 2–3) is recom- binations) who have no other risk factors for VTE.
mended for patients with multiple myeloma who are With respect to other ambulatory cancer outpa-
receiving lenalidomide- or thalidomide-based com- tients, these NCCN Guidelines include the option
of prophylaxis in individuals considered to be at risk intermittent pneumatic calf compression, no differ-

of VTE based on an assessment of VTE risk factors ence was seen between the modalities.235 A retro-
(see page 729). Recent data from a randomized, pla- spective evaluation of high-risk colorectal surgery
cebo-controlled, double-blind trial of patients with patients who had received mechanical prophylaxis
advanced cancer undergoing treatment with che- without anticoagulant therapy indicated that IPC
motherapy (PROTECHT trial) showed a statisti- devices were effective in preventing postoperative
cally significant decrease in thromboembolic events VTE.236 However, results from a retrospective study
(composite end point of venous and arterial) in the of 839 patients over a 2-year period who had under-
group receiving prophylactic LMWH (i.e., nadropa- gone abdominal surgery for gynecologic cancers and
rin) compared with those receiving placebo.232 Fur- received pneumatic compression and early ambula-
thermore, in the randomized CONKO-004 trial, the tion for VTE prophylaxis found that the incidence
symptomatic VTE rate in patients with pancreatic of PE in cancer patients (4.1%) exceeded by 14-fold
cancer undergoing chemotherapy was significantly the incidence of PE in patients with benign disease
reduced at 3 and 12 months when enoxaparin was (0.3%).224 Therefore, IPC devices should only be
administered as VTE prophylaxis (1 mg/kg daily for 3 used alone for VTE prophylaxis in patients in whom
months followed by 40 mg/d for 3 months) compared anticoagulant prophylaxis is contraindicated.
with no LMWH.233 Graduated compression stockings have been
Khorana et al.24 derived a VTE risk score for shown to significantly reduce VTE compared with
ambulatory medical oncology patients undergoing no prophylaxis, and provide even greater protection
outpatient chemotherapy that was recently inde- when combined with other preventive therapies.237
pendently validated.45 Patients designated as being However, many of these studies were conducted
at high risk for VTE based on these models could more than a decade ago and used fibrinogen up-
be considered for outpatient VTE prophylaxis on an take scans as a primary outcome measure—a now-
individual basis. However, thromboprophylaxis in antiquated diagnostic method. In addition, very few
most cancer outpatients undergoing chemotherapy of the patients were noted to have malignancies.
is controversial, and its broader application using Furthermore, a recent randomized controlled trial in
either the Khorana or the Vienna risk assessment patients undergoing hip surgery found that graduated
model should await the results of randomized con- compression stockings did not provide significant ad-
trolled trials evaluating the efficacy of risk-adjusted ditive protection against VTE in patients receiving
thromboprophylaxis based on these models.234 fondaparinux, 2.5 mg daily for 5 to 9 days, suggesting
Mechanical Prophylaxis that graduated compression stockings may not have
IPC devices and graduated compression stockings are significant clinical benefits in patients able to re-
mechanical prophylaxis options that are principally ceive more potent forms of VTE prophylaxis.238 Sim-
used in patients with contraindications to pharma- ilarly, recent results from the CLOTS1 trial, which
cologic prophylaxis or in conjunction with pharma- randomly assigned patients within 1 week of stroke
cologic agents in patients at very high risk for VTE. to routine care with or without graduated compres-
Mechanical prophylaxis should not be used in pa- sion stockings, found that graduated compression
tients with arterial insufficiency or open wounds, or stockings did not reduce the incidence of DVT in
on an extremity with an acute DVT. Whenever me- these patients and was associated with a 4-fold in-
chanical prophylaxis is used, steps should be taken crease in the frequency of skin ulcers and necrosis.239
to ensure its proper use and continuous application. However, the patient group studied in the CLOTS1
IPC devices have been less well studied than trial differs considerably from that described in these
anticoagulation therapy in VTE prevention.172 Most NCCN Guidelines. Furthermore, the long delay in
of the data on the effectiveness of mechanical pro- the institution of prophylaxis and the use of non-
phylaxis are from surgical populations. For example, customized stockings suggests that results may have
in a study comparing the VTE rate in gynecologic been more positive in this study if evidence-based
oncology surgery patients receiving either low-dose application of graduated compression stockings had
heparin 3 times daily (starting with the day before been used. Therefore, further investigation of these
surgery and continuing for ≥ 7 days after surgery) or findings is warranted.
Until data become available, graduated com- documented multiple PE and chronic thromboem-
pression stockings should not be relied on as the sole bolic pulmonary hypertension (see page 735). The
method of VTE prophylaxis in cancer patients. decision whether to place a permanent or retrievable
IVC filter should be based on the anticipated dura-
tion of need. When a retrievable filter is placed, pa-
VTE Treatment tients must be followed up closely by their physicians
After VTE is diagnosed, the panel recommends be- so that the device can be removed in a timely fashion
ginning immediate treatment (at least 5–7 days) with when it is no longer needed.
either weight-based UFH (intravenous), LMWH, Improvements in technology and an increased
or, in some cases, fondaparinux in cancer patients number of available thrombolytic agents have in-
without contraindications to anticoagulation (see creased the use of thrombolytic therapy for DVT. In
page 731). Because chronic therapy with LMWH is the past, thrombolytic agents were delivered system-
associated with superior outcomes in cancer patients ically through an intravenous catheter, which likely
with VTE, its use in the acute phase of treatment may reduced the efficacy of the therapy and increased
be preferable unless contraindications to this exist. If the likelihood of bleeding complications. Never-
warfarin is to be used for chronic therapy, a short- theless, thrombolysis was associated with increased
term, transition phase of at least 5 days should oc- rates of complete clot lysis and a trend toward fewer
cur, during which the acute parenteral anticoagulant postthrombotic complications compared with an-
(e.g., UFH, LMWH, or fondaparinux) is overlapped ticoagulation alone.241 In recent years, catheter-
with warfarin until an INR of 2 or more is achieved. directed delivery of thrombolytic agents directly
Cancer patients with a DVT should be treated into the substance of the clot has allowed more lo-
with either an LMWH or warfarin for a minimum of calized targeting of thrombolytic agents and the use
3 to 6 months, whereas patients with PE should be of catheter-based thrombectomy devices to acceler-
treated for at least 6 to 12 months.173,240 LMWH as ate clot removal. Catheter-directed thrombolysis
monotherapy (without warfarin) is recommended for (CDT) with or without mechanical thrombectomy
the first 6 months of chronic treatment of proximal is associated with significantly higher rates of com-
DVT or PE, and for prevention of recurrent VTE in plete clot lysis than conventional anticoagulation.242
patients with advanced or metastatic cancer who do Currently, 2 large randomized controlled trials are
not have contraindications to anticoagulation (cat- testing the hypothesis that catheter-directed phar-
egory 1). However, issues such as patient preference macomechanical thrombolysis is associated with im-
and cost should also be considered in this decision. proved postthrombotic outcomes. Early results from
Anticoagulation for an indefinite duration should be an open-label randomized controlled trial comparing
considered in patients with active cancer or persis- CDT added to anticoagulation versus anticoagula-
tent risk factors. Because the chronic treatment of tion alone in patients with acute iliofemoral DVT
VTE with LMWHs has not been evaluated in clini- (N = 103) reported a higher rate of iliofemoral pa-
cal trials of cancer patients for durations longer than tency at 6 months with the addition of CDT (64%
6 months, decisions to continue LMWH beyond this vs. 36% with anticoagulation alone).243 Further re-
time frame or to switch to warfarin therapy for pa- sults from long-term follow-up are awaited from this
tients requiring longer durations of anticoagulation study. Retrospective patient series have shown that
therapy should be based on clinical judgment. cancer patients can benefit from catheter-directed
IVC filter placement should be strongly consid- pharmacomechanical thrombolysis.244 The panel be-
ered for patients with acute proximal lower-extremity lieves that CDT and thrombectomy should be con-
DVT or PE who have contraindications to anticoag- sidered a therapeutic option for select patients with
ulation.240 An IVC filter should also be considered in large symptomatic extremity DVT, particularly in
patients with PE while on adequate anticoagulation the absence of a response to conventional anticoag-
for DVT or PE; those who are nonadherent with pre- ulation.240 Thrombolytic agents and thrombectomy
scribed anticoagulation; those with baseline cardiac devices should be selected based on local expertise
or pulmonary dysfunction severe enough to make any and experience. Broader use of CDT awaits the out-
new or recurrent PE life-threatening; and those with come of currently active clinical trials.
Treatment of patients with an incidental VTE LMWH or UFH in 146 cancer patients with VTE.160
after radiographic detection should be the same as The primary end point of this study was a combined
for those with symptomatic VTE. outcome event, including major bleeding and recur-
Immediate VTE Treatment
rent VTE within 3 months. In the groups receiving
Results from a meta-analysis of randomized con- chronic enoxaparin and warfarin, 10.5% and 21.1%
trolled clinical trials comparing LMWH and UFH in of patients, respectively, experienced either major
the immediate treatment of VTE (e.g., initial treat- bleeding or recurrent VTE (P = .09); fatal bleed-
ment for a minimum of 5–10 days) showed no statis- ing occurred in 0% and 8% of patients, respectively
(P = .03). In another study, no significant differences
tically significant difference in the efficacy of these
in bleeding or recurrent VTE were observed when
agents for preventing recurrent VTE.245 A random-
patients with active cancer and acute VTE were ran-
ized open-label trial of fondaparinux versus UFH ad-
domized to either 6 months of enoxaparin (either
ministered to hemodynamically stable patients with
1.5 mg/kg or 1 mg/kg every 24 hours) or immediate
PE for at least 5 days indicated that both agents were
enoxaparin therapy followed by warfarin to complete
equally effective in preventing recurrent VTE.246 In
6 months of therapy (ONCENOX trial).248
both treatment arms, warfarin therapy was started
The randomized multicenter LITE study evaluat-
within 72 hours of treatment initiation, and ini-
ing the use of chronic (84 days) tinzaparin versus im-
tial therapy with either fondaparinux or UFH was
mediate (5 days) UFH followed by chronic (84 days)
stopped when an INR greater than 2 was attained.
warfarin therapy in high-risk patients with proximal
Furthermore, the incidence of adverse events as-
vein VTE reported no significant differences in VTE
sociated with both therapies was similar. However,
recurrence rates between the treatments, overall.249
only approximately 16% of patients enrolled in this
However, bleeding complications were significantly
study had either a history of cancer or active can-
higher for the overall group undergoing warfarin
cer.246 In a recent meta-analysis of trials comparing
therapy (20% vs. 13% with tinzaparin; P = .01). A
outcomes with anticoagulants (UFH, LMWH, and
subset analysis of the 200 cancer patients enrolled in
fondaparinux) as initial treatment of VTE in cancer
the LITE trial showed a significantly increased rate
patients, LMWH was associated with a significant
of VTE in the group undergoing warfarin therapy at
reduction in mortality rate at 3-month follow-up
12 months (16% vs. 7%; P = .044), whereas bleed-
compared with UFH (relative risk, 0.71; 95% CI,
ing rates between the groups were not significantly
0.52–0.98).247 However, no significant difference
different.158
was found in VTE recurrence between LMWH and
Finally, the CLOT trial compared the efficacy
UFH. Moreover, no statistically significant differ-
and safety of immediate dalteparin (200 units/kg
ences were found between heparin and fondaparinux
daily for 5–7 days) followed by chronic (6 months)
in terms of mortality, VTE recurrence, or bleeding
therapy with an oral coumarin derivative versus
events.247 Current evidence does not support identi-
chronic dalteparin therapy (200 units/kg daily for
fying one of these agents as the most efficacious and/
1 month followed by 150 units/kg for months 2–6)
or safest choice for patients with cancer, although
in patients with cancer (most of whom had meta-
fully reversible UFH may be preferable in unstable,
static disease) after diagnosis of acute proximal DVT
hospitalized patients with a higher risk of bleeding194
or PE, or both.159 The Kaplan-Meier estimate for
(see page 730).
recurrence of VTE over the 6-month study period
Chronic VTE Treatment showed significantly decreased risks with daltepa-
Several studies comparing the efficacy and safety of rin compared with oral anticoagulants (HR, 0.48;
LMWH and oral vitamin K antagonists (e.g., war- P = .002). This study showed 9% and 17% probabili-
farin) in the chronic treatment of VTE in patients ties of recurrent VTE at 6 months in cancer patients
with cancer have been performed. In one random- receiving dalteparin or oral anticoagulants, respec-
ized open-label trial (CANTHANOX), the use of tively. No significant difference in bleeding rates was
chronic (3 months) enoxaparin (1.5 mg/kg every seen between the groups.159 The results of this study
24 hours) versus chronic warfarin (INR 2–3) was support the use of LMWHs as chronic anticoagula-
evaluated after immediate treatment with either tion therapy in patients with metastatic disease who
are diagnosed with acute VTE. Some limitations of LMWHs are needed before their use as antineoplastic
the CLOT study include the lack of patients with agents can be recommended.
below-the-knee or catheter-related thrombosis; a Treatment of CVAD-Related DVT
study duration of only 6 months; that the apparent
The central tenet guiding the treatment of CVAD-
efficacy difference was observed for development of
related DVT is based on whether the device is re-
recurrent DVT only (but not for PE, although the
quired for continued treatment of the patient. Device
study was not designed to assess differences in out-
removal is recommended in cases of CVAD-related
comes according to type of VTE); and uncertainty
DVT when the device is no longer required or when
regarding whether these results can be extrapolated
contraindications to anticoagulation exist. If device
to LMWHs other than dalteparin. Combining the
removal is planned, some experts have recommended
results of all of these studies, a Cochrane review of
a short period of anticoagulation (e.g., 5–7 days), if
anticoagulation for the chronic treatment of VTE in
feasible, to reduce the chances of clot embolization
patients with cancer found no significant differences
on device removal. An assessment of the likelihood
in bleeding, thrombocytopenia, or survival outcomes
and consequences of clot embolization based on the
with use of LMWHs compared with oral vitamin K
size and position of the device-associated thrombus
antagonists.250 However, the incidence of VTE was
should be conducted before removal. Anticoagula-
significantly lower for patients receiving LMWH
(HR, 0.47; 95% CI, 0.32–0.71). tion therapy is recommended while the catheter is in
Increased survival rates have been reported for place (in the absence of contraindications) and for at
subgroups of cancer patients undergoing chronic least 3 months or as long as the catheter remains in
treatment with LMWH versus other VTE therapies place, whichever is longer. If the catheter is required
or placebo.251,252 For example, although no survival but DVT symptoms persist or the clot progresses de-
differences were seen among groups of patients with spite anticoagulation, the panel recommends catheter
advanced cancer without VTE receiving either removal. Patients with CVAD-related DVT and con-
dalteparin or placebo in the FAMOUS study, results traindications to anticoagulation therapy should be
from a subgroup analysis of patients with better prog- followed up for changes in these contraindications as
noses (more indolent disease and survival beyond 17 clinically indicated; anticoagulation therapy is recom-
months postrandomization) suggested that 2- and mended after contraindications are no longer present.
3-year survival rates were higher for patients receiv- No randomized, controlled trials have been re-
ing dalteparin than those receiving placebo.194 A ported evaluating the effects of particular therapeu-
post hoc analysis of patients from the CLOT study tic strategies on outcomes of CVAD-associated VTE.
also showed no differences in 1-year survival be- A prospective study of 444 cancer patients with
tween groups of patients with metastatic disease re- CVAD showed a 4.3% incidence of symptomatic
ceiving either long-term dalteparin or oral coumarin catheter-related thrombosis.67 Of 19 patients with
derivatives, whereas 1-year survival rates were high- catheter-related thrombosis, 9 were treated with an-
er in the subgroup of patients without metastases ticoagulation therapy only, 8 underwent anticoagu-
receiving dalteparin compared with patients in the lation therapy and catheter removal, 1 was treated
same subgroup receiving an oral vitamin K antago- with catheter removal only, and 1 had no treatment.
nist.252 Results of other randomized studies have also The duration of anticoagulation therapy was not
showed improvement in median progression-free specified, but evaluation of the 15 patients alive at
and/or overall survival of cancer patients receiving 24 weeks after diagnosis of catheter-related throm-
LMWHs.253,254 bosis showed that only 2 had residual symptoms.
In addition, a Cochrane review assessing the an- A more recent pilot study of cancer patients with
tineoplastic properties of anticoagulants found that catheter-related, symptomatic UEDVT showed that
heparins seem to improve survival in cancer patients anticoagulation with dalteparin followed by warfarin
with limited-stage disease, and that further research is (INR 2–3) was not associated with episodes of recur-
warranted to identify the most effective regimens and rent VTE and/or line removal as a consequence of
most responsive cancer patient populations.255 Addi- thrombosis/infusion failure; major bleeding occurred
tional evaluations of the putative antitumor effects of in 3 patients (4%).256
Treatment of SVT vs. 20%; P = .05).259 A pilot study evaluating the ef-
Anticoagulation therapy (e.g., intravenous UFH or fects of once-daily administration of an LMWH, an
a LMWH for at least 4 weeks) is recommended for NSAID, or a placebo for 8 to 12 days on the clini-
patients with a nonperipheral catheter–related SVT cal course of SVT showed no significant differences
in proximity to the deep venous system (category 2B; between treatment and placebo groups with respect
see page 718). Because migratory superficial throm- to progression to DVT.260 However, all active treat-
bophlebitis is a characteristic presentation of Trous- ments reduced the combined rate of DVT and SVT
seau’s syndrome, a heightened awareness of this can- compared with placebo, although no significant dif-
cer-associated hypercoagulable state is warranted, ferences were observed between active treatment
because indefinite therapy with UFH or LMWH is groups.260 This finding possibly indicates that longer
essential for its treatment. treatment durations may be required.
Catheter removal is recommended for a pe- Treatment of SPVT
ripheral catheter–related SVT. Anti-inflammatory The management of patients with SPVT encom-
medications, warm compresses, and elevation of the passes the use of anticoagulation therapy with or
affected limb should be used as clinically indicated. without invasive procedures (e.g., CDT, transjugular
These strategies are also recommended for the ini- intrahepatic portosystemic shunting [TIPS], surgi-
tial treatment of SVT that is not associated with a cal shunting, surgical resection of bowel) and other
peripheral catheter. Aspirin and nonsteroidal anti- medical management (e.g., use of β-blockers), de-
inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) should be avoided pending on the extent and location of the thrombus,
in patients with platelet counts less than 20,000 presence of acute symptoms of intestinal infarction,
to 50,000/mcL or with severe platelet dysfunction. and signs of portal cavernoma or portal hypertension
Anti-inflammatory agents are recommended for the (see page 728). In the absence of contraindications,
symptomatic treatment of certain types of SVT only, anticoagulation with UFH or LMWH (preferred)
not for DVT prophylaxis. Only a limited number of should be initiated, followed by oral anticoagulation
studies have evaluated the clinical significance of for at least 6 months in the case of triggered throm-
SVT, its associated progression to VTE, and the ef- botic events (e.g., postsurgical setting).98,100,106,107 The
fect of anticoagulant agents on its course.257,258 In a benefit of anticoagulation as initial and long-term
large observational study of patients (N = 844) with therapy in patients with SPVT has been reported
symptomatic SVT (≥ 5 cm), 66% had SVT of the in several studies.94,109,261,262 In a long-term follow-
greater saphenous vein, and in 20% of these patients up study of patients with SPVT (N = 95; median
the median distance between the thrombus and the follow-up of 41 months) primarily treated with an-
saphenofemoral junction was 3 cm or less.88 In this ticoagulation (LMWH, 200 IU/kg per day for 7–10
study, 25% of patients had DVT or PE at inclusion, days followed by oral anticoagulation for 6 months),
and 10% of the patients without VTE at study inclu- 45% of patients with acute SPVT (n = 21) had com-
sion (i.e., isolated SVT only) who were available at plete recanalization with anticoagulants.94 Patients
3-month follow-up subsequently developed throm- requiring resection for intestinal infarction, having
boembolic complications (e.g., PE, DVT, extension incomplete recanalization of thrombus, or having in-
of SVT) despite the use of anticoagulation therapy herited thrombophilia were given lifelong oral anti-
in approximately 90% of these individuals.88 A pos- coagulation in this study. Recurrent VTE occurred in
sible limitation of this study is that all of these pa- 18.5% of patients overall, and was significantly more
tients were evaluated in a specialist referral setting. frequent among those with concurrent myeloprolif-
In a prospective assessment of 60 consecutive pa- erative disorders at presentation than among those
tients with SVT of the greater saphenous vein, the without these disorders (70% vs. 13%; P < .0001);
combined incidence of DVT and SVT events over moreover, recurrent VTE was only observed among
a 6-month follow-up period was lower in patients patients who did not receive anticoagulation.94 Gas-
treated with twice-daily subcutaneous injections of trointestinal bleeding occurred in 15% of patients
high-dose heparin (12,500 IU for 1 week, followed and was significantly more frequent among patients
by 10,000 IU) for 4 weeks compared with patients re- with bleeding from esophageal varices at presenta-
ceiving 4 weeks of low-dose (5000 IU) heparin (3% tion compared with those without prior bleeding
(57% vs. 5%; P < .0001). None of the patients re- Acute thrombosis involving the mesenteric veins is
ceiving oral anticoagulation had bleeding events.94 associated with a high risk of intestinal infarction,
In a recent prospective multicenter study in pa- which is life-threatening and requires immediate sur-
tients with acute portal vein thrombosis (N = 95) gery to resect necrotic sections of the bowel.94,96,100,106
treated with anticoagulation (initial therapy with CDT therapy has been reported to have some suc-
heparin followed by oral anticoagulation targeting cess in acute SPVT in small retrospective stud-
INR 2–3 for 6 months or long-term in patients with ies.263–266 Thrombolytic therapy may be most suitable
permanent prothrombotic disorders or obstruction of when administered locally for patients with recent
mesenteric vein), the 1-year recanalization rate in thrombosis107,265; however, this approach should be
the portal vein was 38%.109 The 1-year recanaliza- used with caution because of risks for major bleeding
tion rates in the mesenteric and splenic veins were complications.106,107,263,266 The decision to administer
61% and 54%, respectively. Nonfatal gastrointestinal thrombolytic therapy should be based on availability
bleeding occurred in 9% of patients.109 Anticoagula- and expertise at the local institution, the location of
tion seems to lower the risk for recurrent thrombosis the thrombus, and evaluation of risks for bleeding in
in patients with SPVT without increasing the risks individual patients. In addition, the regimen should
for severe bleeding,94,109,261,262 including in patients be selected based on institutional experience, with
with underlying prothrombotic states.261 However, a decisions made in conjunction with specialists in in-
recent retrospective study in a large cohort of patients terventional radiology and vascular surgery.
with SPVT (N = 832) showed that the rate of recur- For patients with acute hepatic vein thrombo-
rent VTE was not significantly improved with oral sis with contraindications to anticoagulation, or for
anticoagulation with warfarin (10-year recurrence- patients with chronic hepatin vein thrombosis for
free survival rate of 89% vs. 77% in patients who whom medical management alone is unsuccessful,
did not receive anticoagulation; P = .38).93 Based on TIPS or surgical shunts may be considered (see page
multivariate analysis, hormone therapy was the only 728). TIPS is an interventional radiologic procedure
independent predictor of recurrence. Major bleeding that creates a portocaval shunt between the hepatic
events were reported more frequently among patients and portal veins, and may be appropriate for patients
who received anticoagulation than among those who with an occluded IVC or a portacaval pressure gra-
did not (26% vs. 19%; P < .05); moreover, based on dient less than 10 mm Hg.107,267 TIPS may also be
multivariate analysis, the presence of gastroesopha- appropriate for patients with refractory ascites and
geal varices and treatment with anticoagulation progressive hepatic dysfunction despite medical
were independent predictors of bleeding events.93 management and/or interventions for recanaliza-
In chronic SPVT, the presence of portal hyperten- tion.267,268 This procedure is less invasive than sur-
sion may increase the risk for bleeding from esopha- gical interventions, and has been successful in re-
geal varices, and splenomegaly may lead to decreased ducing portal hypertension, resolving ascites, and
platelet counts, which can further increase the risks improving hepatic function in patients with Budd-
for bleeding events in patients treated with antico- Chiari syndrome.267–272 Although shunt dysfunction
agulation.92 Thus, in the absence of randomized con- or stenosis is common during follow-up, TIPS is as-
trolled trials, the issue of long-term or lifelong antico- sociated with promising long-term outcomes, with
agulation remains somewhat controversial in patients 5-year transplant-free survival rates of 74% to 78%
with SPVT. An individual patient’s risk factors for in recent studies.267,272 Surgical portosystemic shunts
SPVT should be considered when weighing the risks may be appropriate in patients without an occluded
and benefits of long-term anticoagulation. The panel IVC, with a portacaval pressure gradient greater than
currently recommends lifelong anticoagulation in pa- 10 mm Hg, and with preservation of hepatic func-
tients with active cancer, underlying thrombophilia, tion.107,273 The impact of surgical shunts versus other
and/or idiopathic thrombosis. interventions on long-term outcomes is unknown274;
In patients with acute SPVT with clinical dete- nevertheless, 5-year survival rates range from 75% to
rioration or progression of thrombosis despite anti- 87% in patients with Budd-Chiari syndrome under-
coagulation, more invasive approaches using CDT, going successful surgical portosystemic shunts,275–277
TIPS or surgical shunting may be required.98,100,107 and this procedure may improve survival outcomes
in patients with intermediate-risk prognostic fac- alone.283 The use of variceal banding ligation and
tors as defined by Darwish Murad et al.278 Surgical propranolol has also been evaluated in the second-
shunts seem to have been largely replaced with TIPS ary prophylaxis setting in patients with noncirrhotic
recently.268 portal hypertension at risk for recurrent variceal
Patients with chronic portal or mesenteric vein bleeding. In a recent study (N = 101), the incidence
thrombosis frequently present with cavernous trans- of recurrent variceal bleeding was found to be similar
formation and/or signs of portal hypertension, the among patients treated with ligation and those re-
latter of which can lead to complications such as ceiving propranolol (24% vs. 18%; P = .625) for pre-
variceal bleeding.108 Gastroesophageal varices may vention of recurrent bleeding.284 However, a recent
be seen in 35% to 50% of patients with portal vein meta-analysis of randomized studies showed that
thrombosis at presentation,93,106 and remain a signifi- endoscopic treatment (i.e., variceal banding ligation
cant independent risk factor for major bleeding in or sclerotherapy) combined with β-blockers was sig-
patients with SPVT.93 Thus, an important goal in the nificantly more effective than endoscopic treatment
management of patients with chronic portal or mes- alone in preventing overall recurrent bleeding (OR,
enteric thrombosis is risk reduction for and preven- 2.20; 95% CI, 1.69–2.85; P < .0001) and in decreas-
tion of bleeding events.100,106 ing overall mortality (OR, 1.43; 95% CI, 1.03–1.98;
Both β-blockers and endoscopic treatments P = .03), suggesting that combined modality treat-
have been evaluated in the primary and secondary ment may be preferred as secondary prophylaxis
prophylaxis of variceal bleeding in patients at high for esophageal variceal bleeding.285 The panel rec-
risk for bleeding events. Several prospective ran- ommends initiation of β-blockers in patients with
domized studies comparing the use of variceal band- chronic portal or mesenteric thrombosis presenting
ing ligation versus propranolol for primary prophy- with gastroesophageal varices with or without signs
laxis of variceal bleeding in patients with cirrhosis of portal hypertension. In patients with prior varice-
presenting with high-risk gastroesophageal varices al bleeding, it may be appropriate to consider varice-
showed that the treatment methods were similarly al banding ligation or sclerotherapy in conjunction
effective in preventing variceal bleeding (which oc- with β-blockers (see page 728).
curred in 12%–25% of patients treated with ligation Treatment of PE
and 24%–29% receiving propranolol), with a simi- Once PE is diagnosed, the panel recommends that
lar overall mortality rate.279–281 In one of the studies, patients be risk stratified to determine the advisabil-
patients treated with variceal banding ligation (N = ity of outpatient management and intensity of initial
75) had a significantly decreased incidence of esoph- follow-up and treatment.137,138 Anticoagulation ther-
ageal variceal bleeding compared with those receiv- apy is recommended for all patients with acute PE
ing propranolol (5% vs. 25%; P = .027), but at the who have no contraindications (see page 731). In pa-
expense of a higher incidence of subcardial variceal tients with a contraindication to anticoagulation, an
bleeding (8% vs. 0%; P = .027).279 In another pro- IVC filter should be strongly considered (if PE is from
spective randomized trial comparing the effective- lower-extremity, pelvic, or abdominal DVT) and the
ness of primary prophylaxis using these methods in patient should be closely followed-up to monitor for a
patients with cirrhosis (N = 60), ligation was report- change in clinical status that would allow anticoagu-
ed to be more effective than propranolol in prevent- lation to be instituted (see page 722).240
ing variceal bleeding (which occurred in 7% vs. 30% In patients with submassive PE and evidence of
of patients, respectively; P = .043).282 moderate or severe right ventricular enlargement or
A large randomized study comparing variceal dysfunction, thrombolytic therapy is a therapeutic
banding ligation with or without propranolol for consideration.124,240,286 In patients without contrain-
primary prophylaxis of variceal bleeding in patients dications to anticoagulation, immediate anticoagu-
with high-risk varices (N = 144) showed that the lation therapy should be started at PE diagnosis. Risk
combined modality did not significantly reduce should be evaluated concurrently with PE diagnosis
the risks for bleeding (actuarial probability, 7% vs. or as soon as relevant data are available. After the
11%; P = .72) or death (actuarial probability, 8% vs. cancer status is assessed in the high-risk patient with
15%; P = .37) at 20 months compared with ligation PE, the physician should consider thrombolytic ther-
apy and/or pulmonary embolectomy after weighing points and other aspects of the trial design have been
the severity of the patient’s illness and the risk for criticized.291,292 Reports from several studies evaluating
bleeding. Although IVC filters are typically reserved the use of pulmonary embolectomy in patients with
for patients with a contraindication to anticoagula- acute PE provide support for the use of this procedure
tion, these devices are occasionally placed in patients in patients with hemodynamically stable or unstable
with severely compromised cardiopulmonary status. acute PE characterized by right ventricular dysfunc-
If a filter is placed for this indication, a retrievable tion.293–295 An important consideration for these guide-
filter with a wide window of retrievability should be lines is that none of these studies evaluating the use of
placed to maximize the chances for subsequent fil- thrombolytic therapy or surgical embolectomy to treat
ter retrieval once the patient’s cardiopulmonary sta- patients with acute PE specifically address cancer pa-
tus stabilizes. These patients should be followed up tients. However, no significant difference in bleeding
closely and their filters retrieved once they are stable risk was observed in a recent retrospective consecu-
on therapeutic anticoagulation. tive case series comparing the safety of percutaneous
A meta-analysis of 9 randomized, controlled CDT for upper- or lower-extremity acute symptomatic
clinical studies of unselected patients with acute PE DVT in patients with or without cancer.244
showed that thrombolytic therapy was not superior Although the ACCP recommends against the use
to anticoagulation therapy with intravenous heparin of thrombolytic therapy or pulmonary embolectomy
for reducing mortality or PE recurrence, and was as- in most patients with PE, they recommend routine
sociated with a significantly increased risk for ma- assessment of those with acute PE for thrombolytic
jor bleeding.287 Another meta-analysis of the same therapy.173 Thrombolytic therapy is recommended in
9 clinical trials indicated that patients undergoing selected patients, such as those with massive PE who
thrombolytic therapy were less likely to experience a are hemodynamically unstable and without a high risk
composite end point of PE recurrence or death than of bleeding.173,240 Catheter or surgical embolectomy
those receiving heparin.288 However, the difference may be recommended in patients with massive PE
in PE recurrence rates alone was not statistically sig- who have contraindications to thrombolytic therapy
nificant, and overall bleeding risk was found to be or who remain unstable after thrombolysis.240
significantly elevated among patients undergoing
thrombolytic therapy.288 In an updated meta-analysis
involving 11 randomized trials comparing heparin
VTE Therapies: Response Assessment
and thrombolytic therapy in patients with acute PE, Intensive monitoring of the antithrombotic effects
no significant differences in reduction of recurrent of some anticoagulants is particularly important in
PE, death, or major bleeding were found.289 Howev- patients with cancer.182 The recommendations for
er, a significant decrease in recurrent PE or death was monitoring anticoagulant response included in these
observed with thrombolytic therapy in an evaluation NCCN Guidelines may be superseded by written
of the subset of trials that included patients with ma- SOPs specific to an institution.
jor (hemodynamically unstable) PE.289 UFH
In the randomized, placebo-controlled MAP- Heparins indirectly affect the coagulation system
PET-3 trial of hemodynamically stable patients with through potentiating antithrombin activity, thereby
submassive acute PE and pulmonary hypertension facilitating inhibition of thrombin, factor Xa, and,
or evidence of right ventricular dysfunction who re- to a lesser extent, several other activated coagula-
ceived heparin in conjunction with thrombolysis tion factors.181,296 The aPTT measures the overall
with alteplase or heparin plus placebo, the addition activity of the intrinsic and common coagulation
of thrombolysis was associated with significantly de- pathways and is particularly sensitive to agents that
creased incidence of in-hospital mortality and clinical inhibit thrombin.181,297 Therefore, UFH is most com-
deterioration requiring treatment escalation (primary monly monitored through aPTT during treatment
end point; 11% vs. 25%; P = .006). This difference of VTE, and requires the establishment of a thera-
was from a higher incidence of clinical instability in peutic aPTT range.181,198,298 Each institution should
the placebo group, because in-hospital mortality rates establish this range using regular calibration of the
were similar between the groups.290 The clinical end aPTT therapeutic range against UFH levels of 0.3
to 0.7 units/mL (as determined by factor Xa inhibi- lepirudin, argatroban, and bivalirudin, respectively
tion using a chromogenic assay) or 0.2 to 0.4 units/ (see page 726). The aPTT range of 1.5 to 2 times the
mL (as determined by protamine sulfate titration) as control for lepirudin is lower than specified by the
recommended by the College of American Patholo- manufacturer. Similar to heparin, the aPTT-based
gists (CAP) and ACCP.181,298,299 This testing should therapeutic range for lepirudin should be calibrated
be performed in the clinical laboratories at each in- against lepirudin plasma concentrations. Approxi-
stitution according to an institutional SOP, and the mately 50% of patients treated with lepirudin for
aPTT therapeutic range should be printed on the more than 5 days develop antibodies that prolong
laboratory report. In the event that this informa- the drug’s half-life.300–302 Although rare, reexposure
tion is unavailable, a fixed aPTT therapeutic range to lepirudin in patients with antibodies has been
of 2 to 2.5 times the control value (i.e., the baseline associated with anaphylactic reactions, particularly
aPTT for the patient) is recommended by the panel when this occurs within 3 months of treatment.303
to monitor UFH dosing (see page 731). Monitoring These antibodies may cross-react with bivalirudin304
is generally not performed in patients receiving pro- but not argatroban,305 and therefore argatroban
phylactic doses of subcutaneous UFH.296 should be considered in patients recently exposed to
lepirudin. Lepirudin is cleared renally, whereas arg-
LMWHs and Fondaparinux
atroban is metabolized in the liver,306,307 and there-
LMWHs act through potentiating the inhibitory fore significant dose reductions of these agents are
activity of antithrombin against factor Xa and to a necessary in patients with impaired renal and liver
lesser extent, thrombin.181 Fondaparinux is a syn- function, respectively. Lepirudin and argatroban
thetic indirect factor Xa inhibitor that also functions should be avoided in patients with severely impaired
through potentiation of antithrombin activity.150 renal and hepatic function, respectively. Bivalirudin,
Measurement of factor Xa inhibition, not the aPTT, which is predominantly cleared by plasma hydrolysis
is necessary to monitor the anticoagulant effect of (80%),308,309 is preferred in patients with impaired re-
LMWH or fondaparinux, because thrombin inhibi- nal and hepatic function.
tion associated with LMWH or fondaparinux is weak
or absent, respectively.150,181 However, only limited Warfarin
data are available on the use of factor Xa inhibition Warfarin inhibits production of functional forms of
to monitor and adjust LMWH or fondaparinux ther- vitamin K–dependent anticoagulation factors, such
apy, and patients receiving these are generally not as factors II, VII, IX, and X, and the endogenous an-
monitored because of the more predictable dose–re- ticoagulant proteins, proteins C and S, by the liv-
sponse associated with these agents.181,194 In general, er.202 Warfarin dose requirements are highly variable
the panel recommends limiting the use of LMWHs and influenced by a large number of factors, includ-
and fondaparinux in patients with renal insufficiency ing individual genetic factors (polymorphisms of the
vitamin K epoxide reductase and CYP2C9 genes),
and those at extremes of body weight (as described
vitamin K intake, use of medications that influence
previously), rather than close monitoring. Panel
warfarin and vitamin K metabolism, and liver func-
opinions diverged on the usefulness of measuring
tion. Therefore, close monitoring of the INR (ratio
factor Xa inhibition in certain cases, such as in pa-
of PT to the mean normal PT normalized for PT
tients with very high body weight (> 150 kg) receiv-
reagent sensitivity to warfarin-induced reductions
ing LMWH for an extended period.
in vitamin K–dependent coagulation factors) is re-
DTIs quired to determine the therapeutic warfarin dose for
Lepirudin, argatroban, and bivalirudin are DTIs that individual patients.296 The panel recommends a tar-
do not require antithrombin for anticoagulant ac- get INR of 2.5 (range, 2–3) for VTE treatment; this
tivity. Therefore, the anticoagulant effect of these range is consistent with ACCP recommendations.173
agents can be measured using the aPTT, although Initially, the INR should be checked at least twice
results can be affected by the specific DTI and the weekly during the transition phase from concurrent
aPTT assay reagents used.296 Target aPTT ranges of therapy with a parenteral anticoagulant (i.e., UFH,
1.5 to 2 times control, 1.5 to 3 times control, and 1.5 LMWH, or fondaparinux) to warfarin monotherapy.
to 2.5 times control are recommended when using Once stable INRs are achieved, the frequency of
monitoring can be gradually decreased in a step-wise dependent clotting factors (factors II, VII, IX, and
fashion from once weekly to once monthly. Dose X) and proteins S and C, administering a 3-factor
changes; addition of new medications, particularly PCC containing therapeutic quantities of factors II,
those with the potential to interact with warfarin; IX, and X can facilitate the reversal of its anticoagu-
or changes in clinical status should prompt more lation effect. However, evidence shows that 3-factor
frequent monitoring.310 A recent, multicenter, ran- PCC should be supplemented with FFP to optimize
domized clinical trial showed that computer-assisted warfarin reversal.313,318 FFP alone can be given in
dosing of warfarin was superior to dosing directed by place of PCC plus FFP if PCC is not available, but a
experienced providers,311 and therefore this dosing disadvantage of this approach is the time delay asso-
method should be considered in the management ciated with the preparation, delivery, and infusion of
of patients on chronic warfarin therapy. Care should FFP.313,319 rhFVIIa, a synthetic analogue of native fac-
be used when transitioning from a DTI to warfa- tor VIIa, can also be used to rapidly reverse warfarin
rin in the management of HIT, because all DTIs in place of either FFP or PCC.310,320,321 A small risk of
prolong the INR to a varying degree (the strength anaphylaxis (∼ 3 per 10,000) is associated with the
of this effect is: argatroban > bivalirudin > lepiru- intravenous administration of vitamin K1, especial-
din),196,296,309,312 and the duration of this effect is ex- ly when it is administered more rapidly than 1 mg/
tended in argatroban-treated patients with hepatic min,313,322 and PCC and rhFVIIa have been associ-
dysfunction307 (see page 726). ated with a low risk of thromboembolic events.323,324
Reversal of Anticoagulant Activity
Specific agents to reverse many of the newer an-
The anticoagulant effects of UFH are fully revers- ticoagulants do not exist. Hence, limited evidence is
ible with protamine sulfate, and LMWHs are par- available to guide the management of patients treat-
tially reversed by protamine sulfate (~60%).313 This ed with these drugs who are in need of anticoagu-
agent must be used with caution because it can lant reversal. For example, no agents are available
cause severe hypotension or anaphylactoid reac- to reverse the anticoagulant activity of inhibitors of
tions, particularly if infused more rapidly than 5 mg/ factor Xa (e.g., fondaparinux and the anti–factor Xa
activity of LMWH) or thrombin (e.g., DTIs). Never-
min.148,149,151,152,181,313–315 Patients with fish allergies,
theless, intravenous rhFVIIa, which rapidly induces
those with previous exposure to protamine (e.g.,
thrombin generation, can be administered to help
neutral protamine Hagedorn insulin), and vasecto-
reduce the anticoagulant effects of LMWHs, DTIs,
mized or infertile men are at increased risk for aller-
and fondaparinux.313,321,325,326 Other possible strate-
gic reactions314 (see pages 732–734).
gies include use of FFP or cryoprecipitate; desmo-
The management of patients with a suprathera-
pressin acetate (DDAVP), which stimulates release
peutic INR is a common clinical challenge. In many
of factor VIII and von Willebrand factor; antifibri-
cases, the effects of warfarin therapy in patients
nolytic agents which block plasmin activity (i.e., the
with elevated INRs who are not bleeding can be re-
enzyme which breaks down fibrin clots); or mechani-
versed through withholding the warfarin dose and,
cal strategies such as hemofiltration and hemodiafil-
depending on the INR, administering oral vitamin
tration, which can remove small-molecule antico-
K1.202,310,316 However, those with serious or life-threat-
agulants.313,327 However, DDAVP is effective only for
ening bleeding or those needing rapid preparation
3 or 4 doses, after which tachyphylaxis develops328,329
for urgent/emergent invasive procedures associated
(see pages 732–734). Although rare, DDAVP has
with bleeding risk require intravenous vitamin K1
also been associated with hyponatremia.328
and prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC) with
or without fresh frozen plasma (FFP), FFP alone if
no PCC is available, or recombinant human factor Related Issues in VTE
VIIa (rhFVIIa) to reverse the effects of warfarin.310 Prophylaxis and Treatment
Administration of intravenous vitamin K1 alone is
insufficient in a critical situation such as this because Failure of Anticoagulation Therapy
it requires 4 to 6 hours for it to begin taking effect on Anticoagulation failure is defined as extension of
warfarin reversal.317 Because warfarin acts through DVT or PE, or new DVT or PE, while on recom-
inhibiting production of functional vitamin K– mended anticoagulation therapy (see page 736).330
Although anticoagulation therapy failure has many or aPTT value. Causes include cancer-related hy-
potential causes, an initial determination of whether percoagulability such as Trousseau’s syndrome; HIT;
the INR or aPTT is within the therapeutic range is cancer-related anatomic causes, such as vascular
important for patients with recurrent VTE who are compression; and acquired and/or familial throm-
receiving warfarin or UFH, respectively. When INR bophilia.330,336 Diagnostic testing to identify the
or aPTT values are subtherapeutic, one obvious op- presence of syndromes described earlier is critical
tion is to increase the anticoagulant dose to a thera- to the management of VTE in these patients.330 In
peutic level. particular, clinical suspicion of HIT should be high
Although anticoagulation therapy can fail when recurrent VTE is observed in a cancer patient
in patients receiving warfarin, UFH, LMWH, or receiving heparin-based therapy or who received
fondaparinux if the prescribed anticoagulant dose is this therapy in the recent past. Options for patients
inadequate, other factors to consider include patient with VTE recurrence while receiving UFH charac-
adherence to self-administered medications, such as terized by a therapeutic aPTT level include a switch
oral vitamin K antagonists or subcutaneously admin- to LMWH or fondaparinux, or an increase in the
istered anticoagulants, and the dosing frequency for dose of UFH. Likewise, patients with recurrent VTE
patients receiving LMWH.330 For example, an in- and a therapeutic INR while on warfarin therapy
creased risk of VTE recurrence was reported in one can be switched to heparin (LMWH preferred) or
study of patients with cancer receiving once-daily fondaparinux. A switch to heparin-based therapy is
enoxaparin in the acute therapy setting.331 Thus, a an option after fondaparinux fails to prevent VTE
twice-daily dosing schedule is an option for patients recurrence and vice versa.
exhibiting recurrent VTE while receiving once-daily Placement of an IVC filter is an option for treat-
therapy with a LMWH. A dose increase can also be ing patients with PE or progression of central DVT
considered for patients exhibiting recurrent VTE despite therapeutic anticoagulation with UFH,
while receiving anticoagulant therapies for which LMWH, or fondaparinux, although filters should be
anticoagulant effects are not typically monitored in avoided in the setting of HIT or migratory throm-
the laboratory (e.g., LMWH, fondaparinux).332 bophlebitis because of the systemic nature of these
INR or aPTT values may be subtherapeutic coagulopathies.90,91
when inadequate anticoagulant dosing is not the di- Diagnosis and Management of HIT
rect cause of recurrent VTE. For example, warfarin Specific guideline recommendations regarding HIT
resistance (i.e., inability to reach a therapeutic INR are available from the ACCP.196 HIT is caused by a
on warfarin doses typically used to treat VTE) can relatively common immunologic reaction to hepa-
be caused by genetic variability associated with the rin-based products. In one pharmacy-based surveil-
enzymatic metabolism of warfarin, or the concomi- lance study, 0.2% of patients receiving heparin ther-
tant administration of medications that interact apy developed HIT, although the incidence of HIT
with warfarin.333,334 An option for patients undergo- was 1.2% in patients exposed to heparin for more
ing warfarin therapy and exhibiting a subtherapeutic than 4 days.337 In another study, 2.7% of patients
INR is a switch to a LMWH (preferred), UFH, or treated with UFH developed HIT.338 HIT is triggered
fondaparinux. A switch to LMWH in the setting of when administration of heparin displaces platelet
a subtherapeutic INR with warfarin therapy is sup- factor 4 (PF4; released by activated platelets) into
ported by the results of one study that reported a the circulation, which then binds heparin and forms
low VTE recurrence rate for patients treated with an immunogenic PF4/heparin complex leading to
LMWH after failure of warfarin therapy.335 Likewise, the development of antibodies. These antibodies
heparin resistance (i.e., inability to reach therapeu- increase platelet clearance and can activate plate-
tic aPTT on heparin doses typically used to treat lets, resulting in release of procoagulant micropar-
VTE), though rare, can occur as a result of pharma- ticles and increased thrombin generation.196,339 The
cokinetic or biophysical/physiologic limitations of end result is a consumptive thrombocytopenia and
heparin therapy.336 profound prothrombotic state that triggers symp-
Anticoagulation failure of warfarin or UFH tomatic thromboembolism in as many as 75% of pa-
can also occur in the setting of a therapeutic INR tients.196,339 Clinical evidence of HIT includes devel-
opment of thrombocytopenia, formation of necrotic The diagnosis of HIT is complicated by the high
lesions at injection sites, arterial thromboembolic frequency of heparin use in hospitals; the presence
complications, and/or development of VTE.340,341 of HIT antibodies, which do not activate platelets;
HIT typically occurs 5 to 10 days after initial ex- possible delays in obtaining serologic test results;
posure to heparin-based products or in rapid-onset and multiple causes of thrombocytopenia in patients
HIT, or within 1 day after administration of heparin receiving heparin-based products. In addition, in-
in patients previously exposed to these agents with- creased bleeding risks are associated with substitu-
in 100 days.196 Less common is delayed-onset HIT, tion of a DTI for heparin. Therefore, a high level of
which can occur days or weeks after heparin therapy clinical suspicion must be present before a patient is
has been discontinued.339 treated for HIT.350
Some evidence indicates that cancer patients The 4T’s score is a simple, validated tool designed
are at increased risk of developing HIT and HIT- to assess the probability of HIT based on specific
related VTE,342,343 although this has not been firm- characteristics of 4 clinical parameters: thrombocy-
ly established. HIT has been associated with the topenia; timing of the onset of platelet fall; presence
use of both LMWHs and UFH. Increased rates of of thrombosis or other clinical sequelae; and evi-
HIT were observed in patients receiving heparin- dence of other potential causes of thrombocytope-
based therapy who were previously exposed to this nia (see page 725).351–353 Each of these 4 parameters
therapy.344 Results of some studies indicate that the is weighted (i.e., using a score of 0–2) according to
frequency of HIT with LMWH and UFH is simi- how likely it reflects a HIT diagnosis; a total score
lar,344,345 whereas other studies suggest a lower inci- of 0 to 8 is possible. Total scores are grouped into 3
dence of HIT in patients receiving LMWH relative categories, which classify the patient as being at low-
to those receiving UFH.338,346–348 Greinacher et al.349 (0–3), medium- (4–5), or high-risk (6–8) of HIT.353
have suggested that factors such as anticoagulant As described for HIT antibody testing, evidence sug-
dose (i.e., lower with prophylactic doses, higher gests that the negative predictive value of this as-
with treatment doses) and whether the patient sessment tool is considerably higher than its positive
is treated in the medical (lower-risk) or surgical predictive value; hence, this tool is more likely to be
(higher-risk) setting may account for these con- useful in identifying patients at low risk of HIT.352,354
flicting results, because a lower relative incidence In patients receiving anticoagulation therapy
of HIT with LMWH was primarily observed for sur- with UFH or LMWH, the panel recommends plate-
gical patients receiving prophylactic doses of anti- let monitoring at baseline and then every 2 to 3 days
coagulant therapy. for at least the first 14 days, and then every 2 weeks
A diagnosis of HIT is based on both clinical and thereafter, or more frequently as clinically indicated.
serologic evidence.196 Hence, the presence of clini- If HIT is suspected, patients should be evaluated us-
cal sequelae of HIT (e.g., thrombocytopenia [a drop ing the 4T’s score. Recommendations for patients
in platelet count > 50%], thrombosis) and anti-PF4/ classified as being at low risk for HIT include the fol-
heparin antibodies (i.e., HIT antibodies) are needed lowing: consider alternative causes of thrombocyto-
for a diagnosis. Furthermore, because most HIT anti- penia; weigh the risks/benefits of continued therapy
bodies do not activate platelets, a negative test result with heparin versus a DTI or fondaparinux; consider
is more useful for excluding the diagnosis than a pos- maintaining anticoagulation with heparin; monitor
itive test result is for confirming it. In other words, their clinical status; and consider HIT antibody test-
as mentioned by Greinacher,350 “all HIT is caused by ing in select patients based on clinical judgement.
platelet activating antibodies, but not all PF4/hepa- Patients classified as being at moderate/high risk of
rin antibodies cause HIT.” The specificity of platelet HIT based on the 4T’s score should initially be man-
activation assays (i.e., functional assays), such as the aged as having HIT. HIT antibody testing should
serotonin release assay (SRA), is higher than anti- be ordered, although immediate discontinuation of
gen assays, such as the PF4/heparin enzyme-linked heparin-based products and administration of an al-
immunosorbent assay, which detect the presence of ternative anticoagulant, typically a DTI, is recom-
HIT antibodies but do not assess their ability to ac- mended. For patients receiving warfarin, it should
tivate platelets.196 be discontinued and reversed with vitamin K. In
addition, a 4-extremity duplex ultrasound is recom- Two prospective clinical trials evaluated the
mended to identify subclinical DVT. activity of argatroban in patients with clinically di-
The safety of platelet transfusions in patients agnosed HIT, with or without concurrent thrombo-
with HIT remains controversial. Platelet transfu- sis.359,360 In the initial trial, argatroban significantly
sions may be considered for clinically significant reduced the combined end point of death, limb am-
bleeding or before invasive procedures in patients putation, and occurrence of new thrombotic events
with a platelet count less than 50,000/mcL. Prophy- among patients with HIT without thrombosis
lactic platelet transfusions are otherwise not recom- (n = 160) compared with historical controls (25.6%
mended because of the theoretical risk of triggering vs. 38.8%; P = .014); no significant differences in
further thrombosis. the combined end point were noted among patients
The results of HIT antibody testing further di- with HIT and thrombosis (n = 144).359 Similarly,
rect management. For example, options for patients results from the second trial of argatroban showed
with a negative HIT antibody test result include a significantly decreased incidence of the combined
reassessment of anticoagulation therapy based on the end point with argatroban compared with historical
4T’s score, and consideration of SRA testing or re- controls in patients with HIT without thrombosis
peat HIT antibody testing in the context of the pre- (n = 189; 28.0% vs. 38.8%; P = .04), but not in
test probability of HIT. Repeat testing or a negative patients with HIT and thrombosis (n = 229; 41.5%
SRA test result can rule out a HIT diagnosis in pa- vs. 56.5%; P = .07).360 In both trials, argatroban
tients with a negative HIT antibody test. The man- was shown to significantly decrease the incidence
agement of patients with a positive HIT antibody of death from thrombosis and the incidence of new
test on initial testing should be reevaluated based thrombosis compared with controls (P < .05) in
on the 4T’s score pretest probability. Patients with a both groups of patients with HIT with or without
moderate/high 4T’s score should be managed accord- concurrent thrombosis.359,360
ing to recommendations for patients with a diagnosis Both argatroban and lepirudin are approved by
of HIT, whereas SRA testing should be considered in the FDA for the immediate treatment of HIT.306,307
those with a low pretest probability, with test results Argatroban is primarily metabolized by the liver, and
directing further management. prolonged clearance of this agent has been seen in
Anticoagulants for the Treatment of HIT: DTIs: patients with hepatic insufficiency.307 Lepirudin is
DTIs available in the United States for the manage- primarily excreted by the kidneys and may accumu-
ment of HIT include argatroban, lepirudin, and bi- late in patients with renal dysfunction, depending
valirudin.196 The effectiveness of lepirudin in treat- on the extent of renal impairment.306 Therapeutic
ing HIT was shown in several prospective clinical dosing regimens of many anticoagulants used in the
trials.355–358 A pooled analysis from the 3 prospective treatment of critically ill patients with organ dys-
trials evaluating lepirudin in patients with confirmed function and HIT are often lower than those recom-
HIT (N = 403) showed that lepirudin significantly mended by the manufacturer and require frequent
reduced the combined end point of death, limb am- monitoring. A lepirudin dosing regimen that is less
putation, and occurrence of new thrombotic compli- aggressive than the standard regimen has been rec-
cations compared with historical controls (29.7% vs. ommended, and the results of other studies support
52.1%; P = .0473).358 This difference was largely at- this recommendation.196,306,361–365 In patients with
tributable to a decreased incidence of new thrombotic normal renal function, lepirudin administered at a
events with lepirudin (11.9% vs. 32.1%; P = .0008). dose of 0.08 mg/kg/h (and omitting the initial bo-
However, the incidence of major bleeding was sig- lus dose) is recommended; a further dose reduction
nificantly higher with lepirudin compared with his- to 0.04 mg/kg/h is recommended for patients with
torical controls (29.4% vs. 9.1%; P = .0148).358 The moderate renal impairment (Ccr, 30–60 mL/min).365
benefit of lepirudin compared with historical controls Similarly, the manufacturer recommended dose for
was also shown in the subset of patients with HIT argatroban may be too high, especially for the treat-
and concurrent thrombosis, although bleeding events ment of HIT in critically ill patients.362,366,367 Arg-
requiring transfusion support occurred significantly atroban administered at a reduced dose of 1 mcg/kg/
more frequently with lepirudin.357 min may be adequate to provide sufficient anticoagu-
lation.367 Dose reductions have also been suggested tients receiving warfarin, it should be discontinued
for bivalirudin,368 another DTI, when used off-label and reversed with vitamin K.196 Warfarin should not
in the treatment of HIT369 and in patients with HIT be initiated in patients with HIT until after platelet
and hepatic and/or renal insufficiency or those who count recovery because of the potential for skin ne-
are critically ill.309,370,371 Although some of the phar- crosis and/or venous gangrene, which can result from
macologic characteristics of bivalirudin are advan- warfarin-induced reductions in protein C levels in
tageous in the setting of HIT (e.g., short half-life, the setting of profound activated coagulation from
enzymatic metabolism), data regarding its use in HIT HIT.196,381 After platelet recovery (e.g., ≥ 150,000/
are limited.309 mcL or when platelets return to baseline), warfarin
The panel recommends a DTI as the preferred should be overlapped with a DTI or fondaparinux for
treatment for the immediate management of HIT. at least 5 days; the DTI or fondaparinux should be
No head-to-head trials comparing different DTIs in discontinued only after the INR has reached the in-
the treatment of HIT have been published. Clinician tended target range (INR 2–3) for 24 hours. Because
experience and comfort level with the agents used for both DTIs and warfarin reduce thrombin activity,
the immediate treatment of HIT should be consid- coadministration of a DTI and warfarin produces
ered when deciding therapy. Use of argatroban and a combined effect on the laboratory measurements
lepirudin should be avoided in patients with hepatic of both aPTT and INR. However, concurrent
failure and severe renal insufficiency, respectively. therapy, compared with warfarin monotherapy, ex-
Fondaparinux: These NCCN Guidelines also include erts no additional effect on vitamin K–dependent
the off-label use of fondaparinux as an alternative to factor X activity. Therefore, the anticoagulation
parenteral DTIs in the treatment of a current episode impact of warfarin may be underestimated in the
of HIT without thrombosis.372 Advantages to using presence of a DTI. Because argatroban has the low-
fondaparinux in this setting, in addition to subcutane- est affinity for thrombin of the 3 DTIs, higher molar
ous administration, include its lack of INR prolonga- plasma concentrations of argatroban are needed to
tion when administered concomitantly with warfa- prolong the aPTT; hence, prolongation of INR is
rin. Although the long half-life of fondaparinux is a more pronounced with argatroban compared with
disadvantage when anticoagulation reversal is neces- the other DTIs.312,382 A higher target INR should
sary, a possible benefit may include a decreased risk therefore be achieved before argatroban is discontin-
of rebound hypercoagulability.373 Furthermore, unlike ued.196,307,382 Once argatroban is discontinued, a re-
DTIs, aPTT testing is not used to monitor response peat INR and aPTT should be obtained 4 to 6 hours
to fondaparinux, thereby eliminating problems asso- later to determine whether the INR is therapeutic on
ciated with warfarin prolongation of the aPTT when warfarin monotherapy. Alternatively, chromogenic
overlapped with a DTI. Fondaparinux has been used factor X levels (which are not affected by DTIs) can
in small numbers of patients with HIT and generally be used to monitor warfarin activity during transi-
seems to be safe.374–376 There have been rare reports of tion from cotherapy with argatroban.383 The duration
an association between fondaparinux use and develop- of warfarin therapy is dependent on whether HIT is
ment of HIT, although in most cases patients had prior accompanied by thrombosis. In patients with HIT
exposure to UFH or LMWH.377–380 Investigators have and thrombosis, the duration of therapy is dictated
also suggested that use of fondaparinux in patients with by the nature of the thrombotic event (3 months for
HIT and without a contraindication to fondaparinux DVT, 6 months for PE). In patients with HIT with-
be restricted to those who have recovered from a re- out thrombosis, at least 1 month of warfarin therapy
cent episode of HIT without thrombosis and are ready is recommended339 (see page 726).
to be discharged from the hospital but not yet stable on
warfarin therapy.196,373 Fondaparinux is included in the
guidelines as a category 2B option for the immediate Withholding Anticoagulation
management of HIT (see page 726). Therapy: Elements to Consider
Warfarin: The panel recommends against giving in the Decision Not to Treat
warfarin therapy to patients with a moderate or high The feasibility of invasive or aggressive intervention
pretest probability of HIT by the 4T’s score. For pa- is not the only consideration for VTE prophylaxis
and treatment in cancer patients.384 The risks and insufficiency

probability of success of the interventions should • IVC filters: indications for placement of retriev-
also be considered. Factors to consider before imple- able versus permanent filters; triggers for filter
menting anticoagulation therapy include patient re- removal; and relative efficacy and morbidity of
fusal; lack of therapeutic advantage; lack of palliative the 2 filter types
benefits; and whether anticoagulation is associated • Thrombolytic therapy in cancer patients with
with an unreasonable burden. Likewise, careful con- PE, including those with submassive PE charac-
sideration of these issues is also very important when terized by right ventricular dysfunction/enlarge-
deciding to withhold or withdraw VTE therapy. ment, or “massive DVT”: effects on morbidity
and mortality
• Benefits and risks of extended VTE prophylaxis
Summary in ambulatory medical oncology patients (e.g.,
Recognizing the increased risk of VTE in cancer pa- patients with multiple myeloma)
tients is the first step in preventing the occurrence • Simple VTE risk assessment tools for stratifying
of VTE and promptly identifying VTE in these pa- cancer patients
tients. The panel recommends VTE thrombopro- • Long-term surveillance of cancer patients at risk
phylaxis for all hospitalized patients with cancer who for VTE
do not have contraindications to this therapy, and • Effects of introduction of NCCN Guidelines for
also emphasizes that an increased level of clinical VTE on management of cancer patients
suspicion of VTE should be maintained for cancer • Treatment of incidental thrombosis (e.g., PE,
patients. After hospital discharge, the panel recom- pelvic vein, mesenteric or portal vein) in can-
mends that cancer patients in a high-risk setting cer patients: whether all patients or only a subset
for VTE (e.g., patients who have undergone cancer should be treated
surgery, those with multiple myeloma) continue to • Treatment guidelines for cerebral venous sinus
receive VTE prophylaxis, with the duration of an- thrombosis
ticoagulation determined by the clinical situation. • Treatment guidelines for VTE in pregnant pa-
Careful evaluation of cancer patients in whom VTE tients with cancer
is suspected, and prompt treatment and follow-up for • Treatment guidelines for VTE in patients with
those diagnosed with VTE, is recommended after the primary and metastatic brain tumors
cancer status of the patient is assessed and the risks • Bridging anticoagulation guidelines for cancer
and benefits of treatment are considered. patients requiring invasive procedures
Future Directions References

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Individual Disclosures of the NCCN Venous Thromboembolic Disease Panel

Advisory Boards, Patent,
Speakers Bureau, Expert Witness, Equity, or Date
Panel Member Clinical Research Support or Consultant Royalty Other Completed
Paula L. None None None None 10/8/09
Bockenstedt, MD
Spero R. Cataland, None Amgen Inc. None None 12/10/09
MD
Carolyn Chesney, None None None None 10/11/10
MD
Charles Eby, MD STAGO USA; and Siemens None None None 10/11/10
Medical Solutions Diagnostics
John Fanikos, RPh, Eisai Inc.; and sanofi-aventis sanofi-aventis U.S. None None 3/9/10
MBA U.S.
Patrick F. Fogarty, None GlaxoSmithKline None None 7/3/09
MD
Shuwei Gao, MD Pending*
Julio Garcia-Aguilar, Pending*
MD, PhD
Samuel Z. Boehringer Ingelheim GmbH; Bristol-Myers Squibb Company; None None 7/1/09
Goldhaber, MD Bristol-Myers Squibb Company; Eisai Inc.; Merck & Co., Inc.; Pfizer
Eisai Inc.; GlaxoSmithKline; and Inc.; and sanofi-aventis U.S.
sanofi-aventis U.S.
Hani Hassoun, MD GlaxoSmithKline Ortho Biotech Products, L.P. None None 9/21/10
Paul Hendrie, MD None None None None 9/21/10
Bjorn Holmstrom, None None None None 3/25/11
MD
Kimberly A. Jones, None None None None 9/22/10
MD
Nicole Kuderer, MD, Boehringer Ingelheim GmbH; Boehringer Ingelheim GmbH; and None None 10/7/10
MS Daiichi- Sankyo Co.; and sanofi- Daiichi- Sankyo Co.
aventis U.S.
Jason T. Lee, MD None None None None 12/15/09
Michael M. None None None None 4/6/11
Millenson, MD
Anne T. Neff, MD None None None None 9/23/10
Thomas L. Ortel, Eisai Inc.; GlaxoSmithKline; and sanofi-aventis U.S. None None 12/4/09
MD, PhD sanofi-aventis U.S.
Judy L. Smith, MD None None None None 8/9/10
Michael B. Streiff, Bristol-Myers Squibb Company sanofi-aventis U.S. None None 9/27/10
MD
Gary C. Yee, None Eisai Inc. None None 12/16/09
PharmD, BCOP
Anaadriana Pending*
Zakarija, MD
*Financial disclosures were not available at press time. Visit the NCCN Web site at www.NCCN.org to view the most recent
information.
The NCCN guidelines staff have no conflicts to disclose.

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Venous Thromboembolic Disease

Downloaded from jnccn.org by guest on November 6, 2013from 00.000.000.0

JNCCN – The Journal of the National Comprehensive Cancer Network is published by

Online article http://www.jnccn.org/content/9/7/714.full

Subscriptions Information about subscribing to JNCCN – The Journal of the National

NCCN Thomas L. Ortel, MD, PhD; Judy L. Smith, MD;

Disease life-threatening condition in patients with cancer.1,2

NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Please Note

These guidelines are also available on the Internet. For the

Journal of the National Comprehensive Cancer Network Venous Thromboembolic

NCCN Venous Thromboembolic Disease Bjorn Holmstrom, MDÞ

Venous Thromboembolic Disease Version 2:2011

INPATIENT VENOUS THROMBOEMBOLISM PROPHYLAXIS

AT-RISK WORKUP INITIAL PROPHYLAXIS

Prophylactic anticoagulation therapy c

Yes • Mechanical prophylaxis (optional) e

a See VTE Risk Factors in Cancer Patients (page 729).

Venous Thromboembolic Disease Version 2:2011

VTE PROPHYLAXIS FOLLOWING DISCHARGE AND

Out-of-hospital primary VTE prophylaxis is recommended for

a See VTE Risk Factors in Cancer Patients (page 729).

DEEP OR SUPERFICIAL VEIN THROMBOSIS Venous Thromboembolic Disease Version 2:2011

DIAGNOSIS WORKUP/IMAGING a IMAGING FINDINGS ADDITIONAL

Venous Thromboembolic Disease Version 2:2011 DEEP OR SUPERFICIAL VEIN THROMBOSIS

• Anticoagulation therapy b,d

No Anticoagulation therapy b,d

• Anticoagulation therapy b,d

b See Therapeutic Anticoagulation Treatment for Venous Thromboembolism (page 731).

DEEP OR SUPERFICIAL VEIN THROMBOSIS Venous Thromboembolic Disease Version 2:2011

CATHETER-RELATED DVT: DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT

DIAGNOSIS WORKUP/IMAGING TREATMENT

• Anticoagulate b,d for as long as catheter is in place;

b See Therapeutic Anticoagulation Treatment for Venous Thromboembolism (page 731).

Venous Thromboembolic Disease Version 2:2011 PULMONARY EMBOLISM

DIAGNOSIS WORKUP a IMAGING

a D-dimer has limited efficacy in cancer patients.

PULMONARY EMBOLISM Venous Thromboembolic Disease Version 2:2011

b See Contraindications to Prophylactic or Therapeutic Anticoagulation Treatment (page 730).

Venous Thromboembolic Disease Version 2:2011 HEPARIN-INDUCED THROMBOCYTOPENIA

DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT OF HEPARIN-INDUCED THROMBOCYTOPENIA

Weigh risks/benefits of heparin vs. direct thrombin inhibitor

a See HIT Pretest Probability Score Assessment (page 725).

HEPARIN-INDUCED THROMBOCYTOPENIA Venous Thromboembolic Disease Version 2:2011

DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT OF HEPARIN-INDUCED THROMBOCYTOPENIA (cont.)

Pretest probability score

SRA negative, reassess

Venous Thromboembolic Disease Version 2:2011 HEPARIN-INDUCED THROMBOCYTOPENIA

HIT PRETEST PROBABILITY SCORE ASSESSMENT 1

Nadir 20,000-100,000/mcL Nadir 10,000-19,000/mcL Nadir < 10,000/mcL

Days 5-10 > day 10 day 1

Proven thrombosis, Progressive, recurrent, None

OTher cause of platelet fall None evident Possible Definite

Total HIT Pretest Probability Score

High Moderate Low

HEPARIN-INDUCED THROMBOCYTOPENIA Venous Thromboembolic Disease Version 2:2011

THERAPEUTIC OPTIONS FOR HEPARIN-INDUCED THROMBOCYTOPENIA

Direct Thrombin Inhibitors: Preferred 1

Lepirudin (half-life 80 minutes - normal renal function) (aPTT ratio 1.5-2) 2

Bivalirudin (half-life 25 minutes-normal renal function) (aPTT ratio 1.5-2.5) 2

Indirect Factor Xa Inhibitor 3 (category 2B)

Venous Thromboembolic Disease Version 2:2011 SPLANCHNIC VEIN THROMBOSIS

CLINICAL SUSPICION DIAGNOSTIC EVALUATION

Splanchnic vein History and physical: