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BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION
&
ww MATERIALS
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En
FOR THE COURSE OF
“CIVIL ENGINEERING” gin
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ing
By
.ne
MR. SHRIKANT D. BOBADE
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Diploma in Civil Engineering,
B.E. in Civil Engineering,
M. Tech in Structural Engineering,
M. Tech in Highway & Transportation Engineering.
REFERENCE BOOKS
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ing
.ne
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CONTENTS
1. Stones 10 1
2. Bricks 10 16
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3. Cement 10 43
4. w.E
Sand 10 54
5.
6.
Mortar
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Concrete
09
10
60
70
7. Timber En 09 80
8. Miscellaneous Building gin
Materials eer 20 95
9. Types of Buildings 05 ing 120
10. Foundations 15
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132
11.
12.
Masonry
Floors
05
07
156
194
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13. Roofs 10 208
14. Damp proof & Fire proof
Construction 07 233
MODEL PAPER
REFERENCE BOOKS
INDEX
INDEX
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B D
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Bearing power of soil
Black cotton soil
Damp proofing
Dead load
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Increasing
power of soil
the bearing Piers
Pile foundations
Junctions ginPlastering
Pointed arch
Pointing eer
K Pre-cast concrete
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King-post truss Proportioning concrete
Purlin roofs .ne
L
Lightweight concrete Q
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Live load Quality control of concrete
Load bearing piles Queen-post truss
R
M Raft foundations
Method of dropping a Reinforced brickwork
weight Retaining walls
Methods of damp-proofing
Sand piles
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Scaffolding
W
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Screw piles
Wall paper
Water-cement ratio
Shoring
Single roofs asy Water proofing of flat roofs
Stairs En Wedges
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Workability
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Timber floors
Z .ne
Timber piles
Timber sheet piles
Zig-zag Bond
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Tools used in brick
masonry
Tools used in stone
masonry
Trussed roofs
Types of floorings
CHAPTER-1
STONES
1.0 Introduction:
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The knowledge of different types of material, their properties
and uses for different purposes provides and important tool in
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the hands of the builders in achieving economy in material
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cost. The material cost in a building ranges 30 to 50 percent
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cost of total cost construction. In addition to material
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economy, the correct use of material results in better
structural
appearance
strength, functional efficiency
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and esthetic
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1.1 Classification of Rocks:
I. Geological Classification:
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subject to great heat and pressure. Known as metamorphism.
Examples: Quartzite, Schist, Slate, Marble and Gneisses.
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II. Physical Classification:
En
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This classification based on general structure of rocks.
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According to this, the rocks are classified into three types
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a. Stratified Rocks: These rocks posses planes of stratification
or cleavage and such rocks can be easily split along these
planes .ne
Ex: sedimentary rocks
b. An stratified rocks: The structure may be crystalline
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granular or compact granular. Examples: Igneous rocks and
Sedimentary rocks affected by movements of the earth.
c. Foliated Rocks: These rocks have a tendency to split up in a
definite direction only. Ex: Metamorphic rocks.
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marble etc.
1.2 asy
Uses of stones:
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1. Structure: Stones are used for foundations, walls, columns,
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lintels, arches, roofs, floors, damp proof course etc.
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2.Face works. Stones are adopted to give massive appearance
ing
to the structure. Wall are of bricks and facing is done in stones
of desired shades. This is known as composite masonry.
3. Paving stones: These are used to cover floor of building of .ne
various types such as residential, commercial, industrial etc.
They are also adopted to form paving of roads, foot paths etc.
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4. Basic material: Stones are disintegrated and converted to
form a basic material for cement concrete, morum of roads,
calcareous cements, artificial stones, hallow blocks etc.
5.Misalliances: Stones are also used for (i) ballast for
railways (ii) flux in blast furnace (iii) Blocks in the
construction of bridges, piers, abutments, retaining walls,
light houses, dams etc.
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gases in rain, high wind velocity etc affect the durability.
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4. Fracture: For good building stone its fracture should be
sharp, even and clear.
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5. Hardness: The hardness greater than 17, treated as hard used
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in road works. It is between 14 to 17, medium hardness, less
14 said be poor hardness.
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1.4
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Characteristics of stones
In order to ensure suitable selection of stone of
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particular work, one must be conversant with its composition,
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characteristics, uses and place of availability.
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1.4.1 Granite
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1. Igneous rock
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2. Composed of quart, felspar and mica and minerals
.ne
3. Available in grey, green, brown and pink and red
1.4.2 Balast
1. Igneous rock
2. It is compact, hard and heavy
3.Available in red, yellow grey, blue and greenish black
colour
4. Specific gravity is 3 and compressive strength varies 1530
to 1890 kg/cm2.
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1.4.3 Sand Stone:
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1. Sedimentary rock
En
2. It is available in variety of formations fine grained, coarse
grained compact or porous gin
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3. Available in white, green, blue, black, red and yellow.
4. Specific gravity 2.65 to 2.95
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5. Compressive strength is 650kgs / cm2
6. Used for ashlar works .ne
1.4.4 Lime Stone:
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1. Sedimentary rock: It is available in a variety of forms
which differ from one another in colour Compaction, texture,
hardness and durable
a. Compact lime stone
b. Granular lime stone
c. Magnesia lime stone
d. Kanker lime stone
f. Used for paving, road metal, etc
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Stones Page 7
1.4.5 Marble
1. Metamorphic rock
2. Available in white, blue, green, yellow black and red colour
3. High compactness,
4. Suitable for decorative works, wall lining columns, pile,
table slabs, hearths, tiled floors, steps of stair case etc.
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1.4.6 Slate:
1. Metamorphic rock
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1. Non absorbent, compact fine grained and produce metallic
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ringing sound when struck
2. Available in black, dark blue, grey, reddish brown etc.
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3. Used for providing damp proof course, paving dados etc
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1.5. Selection of stones
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In contemplating the use of stone for various
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engineering works, the selection of the nature and quality of
stone is governed by the purpose in view, cost of stone, its .ne
ornamental value and durability Suitability various types of
stones for different purposes and situation is briefly discussed
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below
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generally recommended for this purpose.
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f. For railway ballast, the stone should be hard, dense, durable,
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tough and easily workable sandstone, compact lime stone,
trap and quartzite are commonly used
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g. In situation like steps, doors sills, pavings etc where there is a
regular flow of traffic, stone should be hard, dense, easily
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workable and durable. Marble, slates and sand stones are
commonly use in such places. t
h. In fire proof construction, compact sand stone should always
be prefferred.
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Advantages of artificial stones:
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2. Grooves can be kept in artificial stone while it is being cast
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which are useful for fixing various fittings.
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large blocks of stone for lintels, beams etc is avoided.
durable, and free from clay, loam, vegetables and other such
foreign matters. The presence of clay or dirt coating prevents
the adhesion of cement on the surface of aggregates and
ultimately retards the setting and hardening of cement and
reduces the strength, durability and soundness of concrete.
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not contain more than 1 to 8% of fine particles, which may be
obtained from sea, river, lake or pit may be used as fine
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aggregates but care should be taken all its impurities must be
removed
En
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(ii) Coarse Aggregates: The material whose particles are of such
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size as are retained on 4.75mm, I.S sieve are called coarse
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aggregates. The size of the coarse aggregates used depends
upon the nature of work. The maximum size may be 23mm
for mass concrete such as dams etc. and 63mm for plain .ne
concrete. Crushed hard stone and gravel is the common
materials used as coarse aggregates for structural concretes.
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Coarse aggregates usually obtained by crashing granite,
gneiss, crystalline lime stone and good variety of sandstone
etc.
Grading of Aggregates:
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and the percentage of sample retained on each of the said
sieves is determined. The total of these percentages
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divided by 100 gives the finesses modulus of sample
(iii) gin
By minimum voids method: This method is based on the
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fact, that so obtain dense concrete the quantity of cement
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should also be slightly in excess of voids more that the
fine aggregates. In this method the voids in the fine and
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coarse aggregates are separately found out with the help of
graduated cylinder and water. The percentage of voids I t
aggregate, “X” given by the equation.
V2
En * * *
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SYNOPYSIS
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c. Metamorphic rocks
3. According to physical classification the rocks are classified
into En
a. Stratified rocks gin
b. Unstratified rocks
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c. Foliated rocks
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4. According to chemical classification the rocks are
a. Silicious rocks .ne
b. Argillaceous rocks
c. Calcareous rocks
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5. A good building stone should have the following qualities
a. Crushing strength
b. Appearance
c. Durability
d. Fracture
e. Hardness
f. Percentage wear
g. Resistance to fire
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Page 14 Building Materials & Construction
h. Specific gravity
i. Texture
j. Water absorption
k. Seasoning
l. Toughness index
6. The stones are used for
a. Structural work
b. Face work
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d. Basic materials
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furnace etc
7. The artificial stones are cast stones or reconstructed stones
Ex. En
1. Cement concrete
2. Mosaic tiles gin
3. Terrazo
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8. The artificial stones are used for to convey pipes, electric
wires, fixing various fittings, cast to any shape, stones for
lintels or beams etc. .ne
9. Depending upon their size, the aggregates are classified
a. Fine aggregates
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b. Coarse aggregates
10. The grading of aggregates are done by
a. By trail
b. By fineness modulus method
c. By minimum voids method
d. By arbitrary method
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7. Name any four good qualities of stones.
8.
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Name any two uses of stones.
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ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS
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1.
2. gin
Explain the classification of stones.
Explain in detail about the geological classification of stones.
3. Explain the qualities of good building stone. eer
4. Explain the uses of stones as building materials. ing
5. Explain physical and chemical classification of stones.
.ne
6. Explain the uses of the following building materials.
a) Marble b) Granite c) Basalt d) Sandstone
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7. Explain the grading of aggregates.
* * *
CHAPTER-2
BRICKS
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2.1 Composition - Manufacture Process.
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Composition – Following are the constituents of good brick earth.
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Alumina: - It is the chief constituent of every kind of clay. A good brick
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earth should contain 20 to 30 percent of alumina. This constituent
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imparts plasticity to earth so that it can be moulded. If alumina is present
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in excess, raw bricks shrink and warp during drying and burning.
ing
Silica-A good brick earth should contain about 50 to 60 percent of silica.
Silica exists in clay either as free or combined form. As free sand, it is .ne
mechanically mixed with clay and in combined form; it exists in
chemical composition with alumina. Presence of silica prevents crackers
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shrinking and warping of raw bricks. It thus imparts uniform shape to the
bricks. Durability of bricks depends on the proper proportion of silica in
brick earth. Excess of silica destroys the cohesion between particles and
bricks become brittle.
Bricks Page 17
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shrink leads to the decay of bricks.
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The ingredients like, lime, iron pyrites, alkalies, pebbles, organic
matter should not present in good brick earth
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Manufacture of bricks:
En
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The manufacturing of brick, the following operations are involved
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1. Preparation of clay
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2. Moulding
.ne
3. Drying t
4. Burning
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e) Blending:- Clay is made loose and any ingradient to be added
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to it is spread out at top and turning it up and down in vertical
direction.
En
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f) Tempering:- Clay is brought to a proper degree of hardness,
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then water is added to clay and whole mass is kneaded or
pressed under the feet of men or cattle for large scale,
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tempering is usually done in pug mill as shown in the fig 2.1
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Bricks Page 19
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Fig 2.1 Pug Mill
Process:- Clay with water is placed in pug mill from the top. When the
vertical staff is rotated by using electric pair, steam or diesel or turned by
pair of bullocks. Clay is thoroughly mixed up by the actions of
horizontal arms and knives when clay has been sufficiently pugged, hole
at the bottom of tub, is opened cut and the pugged earth is taken out from
ramp for the next operation of moulding.
Moulding: Clay, which is prepared form pug mill, is sent for the next
operation of moulding. Following are the two ways of moulding.
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manufacturing bricks on large scale as shown in fig 2.2. Bricks prepared
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by hand moulding are of two types.
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En
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Fig 2.2 Wooden mould & Steel mould t
a) Ground moulded bricks
(a) Ground moulded bricks: ground is first made level and fine sand is
sprinkled over it. Mould is dipped in water and placed over the
ground to fill the clay. Extra clay is removed by wooden or metal
strike after the mould is filled forced mould is then lifted up and raw
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Bricks Page 21
brick is left on the ground. Mould is then dipped in water every time
lower faces of ground moulded bricks are rough and it is not possible
to place frog on such bricks.
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(1) Machine moulding: This method proves to be economical when
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bricks in huge quantity are to be manufactured at the same spot. It is
also helpful for moulding hard and string clay. These machines are
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broadly classified in two categories
gin
(a) Plastic clay machines
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(b) Dry clay machines ing
.ne
a) Plastic clay machines: This machine containing rectangular opening
of size equal to length and width of a brick. Pugged clay is placed in t
the machine and as it comes out through the opening, it is cut into
strips by wires fixed in frames, so there bricks are called wire cut
bricks.
(2) Drying: The damp bricks, if burnt, are likely to be cracked and
distored. Hence moulded bricks are dried before thay are taken for
the next operation of burning. Bricks are laid along and across the
stock in alternate layers. The drying of brick is by the following
means
ww
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(i) Artificial drying – drying by tunnels usually 1200C about 1 to 3
days
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(ii) Circulation of air- Stacks are arranged in such a way that
gin
sufficient air space is left between them free circulation of air.
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(iii)Drying yard- special yards should be prepared slightly higher
level prevent the accumulation of rain water
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(iv)Period for frying – usually about 3 to 10 days to bricks to
become dry
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(v) Screens – screens are necessary, may be provided to avoid direct
exposure to wind or sun.
Bricks Page 23
bricks on small scale. Kilns are permanent structures and they are
adopted to manufacture bricks on a large scale. A typical clamp is as
shown in fig 2.3
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En
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Fig 2.3 Clamp t
(1) A trapezoidal shape in plan with shorter is slightly in excavation and
wider end raised at an angle of 150 from ground level
(2) A brick wall with mud is constructed on the short end and a layer of
70cm to 80cm thick fuel (grass, cow dung, ground nuts, wood or
coal) laid on the floor.
(4) A second layer of fuel is then placed, and over it another layer of raw
bricks is putap. The total height of clamp in alternate layers of brick
is about 3 to 4 m
ww sides andtop and filled with earth to prevent the escape of heat
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(6) The period of burning is about one to two months and allow the same
time for coding asy
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(7) Burnt bricks are taken out from the clamp
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Advantages: eer
ing
(i) The bricks produced are tough and strong because burning and .ne
cooling are gradual
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(ii) Burning in clamps proves to be cheap and economical
Bricks Page 25
Disadvantages:
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Kilns: A kiln is a large oven, which is used to burnt bricks by
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1) Intermittent kilns
2) Continuous kilns
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En
1) Intermittent kilns: These intermittent in operation, which means that
they are loaded, fired, cooled and unloaded.
gin
a) Intermittent up-draught kilns eer
b) Intermittent down-draught kilns ing
a) Intermittent up-draught kiln: This is in the form of rectangular with .ne
thick outside walls as shown in the fig 2.4. wide doors are provided at t
each end for loading and unloading of kilns. A temporary roof may be
installed to protect from rain and it is removed after kiln is fired. Flues
are provided to carry flames or hot gases through the body of kiln.
ww
w.E
asy
En
Fig 2.4 Intermittent kiln
(i) gin
Raw bricks are laid in row of thickness equal to 2 to 3 bricks and
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height 6 to 8 bricks with 2 bricks spacing between rows
(ii) ing
Fuels are filled with brush wood which takes up a free easily
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(iii) Loading of kiln with raw bricks with top course is finished with
flat bricks and other courses are formed by placing bricks on
t
edges
(iv) Each door is built up with dry bricks and are covered with mud or
clay
(v) The kiln is then fired for a period of 48 to 60 hours draught rises
in the upward direction from bottom of kiln and brings about the
burning of bricks.
Bricks Page 27
(vi) Kiln is allowed to cool down and bricks are then token out
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flues. Working is same as up-draught kiln. But it is so arranged in this
En
kiln that hot gases are carried through vertical flues upto the level of roof
gin
and they are then released. These hot gases move down ward by the
chimney draught and in doing so, they burn the bricks.
eer
Advantages:
ing
(i) Bricks are evenly burnt
.ne
(ii) Performance of this kiln is better than that of up-draught
kiln
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(iii) This kiln is suitable for burning of structural clay tiles,
terra cota because of close control of heat.
2. Continuous kilns:
b) Hoffman’s kiln
c) Tunnel kiln
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ground openings is provided in the outer walls to act as flue holes.
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Dampers are in the form of iron plates and they are used to divide the
kilns in suitable sections and most widely used kiln in India.
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En
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Bricks Page 29
The bricks are arranged in such a way that flues are formed. Fuel
is placed in flues and it is ignited through flue holes after covering top
surface with earth and ashes to prevent the escape of heat usually two
movable iron chimneys are employed to form draught. These chimneys
are placed in advance of section being fired. Hence, hot gases leaving the
chimney warm up the bricks in next section. Each section requires about
one day to burn. The tentative arrangement for different sections may be
as follows
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Section 1 – loading
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Section 2 – empty
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Chamber 1 - loading
Bricks Page 31
Chambers 8 to 11 - cooling
Chamber 12 – unloading
The initial cost in stalling this kiln is high, the following advantages
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(ii) It is possible to regulate heat inside the chambers through fuel
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holes
(iii)
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Supply of bricks is continuous and regular
(iv) En
There is considerable saving in fuel due to pre heating of raw
straight, circular or oval in the plan. Raw bricks are placed in trolleys
.ne
which are then moved from one end too the other end of tunnel. Raw t
bricks get dried and pre-heated as they approach zone of fire. In zone of
fire, bricks are burnt to the required deque and they are then pushed
forward for cooling. When bricks are sufficiently cooled, they are
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5. Regulation It is not possible to Fire is under control
of fire control or regulate fire throughout the process of
6. Skilled asy
during the process of burning.
burning
Not necessary through- Continuous skilled super
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supervision out the process of burn- vision is necessary.
7. Structure
ing.
Temporary structure.
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Permanent structure.
8. Suitability
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Suitable when bricks are Suitable when bricks
to be manufactured on are to be manufactured on
a small scale and when a large scale and when
the demand of bricks is there is continuous ing
not continuous. demand of bricks.
9. Time of burn- It requires about 2 to Actual time for burning of .ne
ing and cool- 6 months for burning one chamber is about 24
ing. and cooling of bricks. hours and only about 12
days are required for
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cooling of bricks.
10. Wastage of There is considerable Hot flue gas is used to dry
heat. wastage of heat from and pre-heat raw bricks.
top and sides and hot Hence wastage of heat is
flue gas is not properly the least.
utilised.
Bricks Page 33
2.2 Classification:
(i) Un burnt or Sun dried bricks- UN burn or sun dried with the
help of heat received from sun after the process of moulding.
(ii) asy
Burnt Bricks: The bricks used in construction works are burnt
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bricks and they are classified into the following four categories.
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a. First Class bricks: These bricks are table moulded and of
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standard shape. The surface and edges of the bricks are
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sharp, square, smooth and straight. The comply all the
qualities of good bricks and used for superior work of
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permanent nature.
Bricks Page 35
(viii) Bricks should not break when dropped flat on hard ground
from a height of about one meter.
(ix) Bricks, when soaked in water for 24hours, should not show
ww deposits of white salts when allowed to dry in shade.
(x) w.E
No brick should have crushing strength below 55kg/cm2
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2.4 En
Special Types: Bricks are made in a wide range of shapes and to
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suit the requirements of the location where they are to be used.
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Special form of bricks may be needed due to structural
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consideration or for ornamental decoration as defined by the
architect. Specially moulded bricks avoid the cumbersome
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process of cutting and rounding the rectangular bricks to the
desired shape. Some of the special types of bricks commonly t
used are given below.
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Bricks Page 37
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d. Hallow Bricks: These bricks are made of clay and are provided
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with one or more cavities. Hallow bricks are light in weight and
En
are used to increase insulation against heat and dampness. They
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are used for the construction of load bearing walls, partition walls
or panel walls to multistoried buildings.
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e. Circular Bricks: These bricks have internal and external faces
curved to meet the requirement of the particular curve and radius
of the wall. These bricks are used for wells, towers etc .ne
f. Plinth cornice and String Course Brick: These bricks are
t
moulded in several patterns with the object of adding
architectural beauty to the structure and at the same time to
helping to throw the rack water off the face of the walls.
h. Paving Bricks: These bricks are specially made for paving the
surface of streets and highways. These bricks are usually made
from shale, fire clay on a mixture of the two. They are unaffected
by weather and ordinary traffic wear. They are loaded on the bed
of sand which in term rests on foundation of stone or concrete.
The bricks are laid by grouting with cement mortar or asphalt.
They are machine moulded and are burnt in a continuous kiln to
ensure high degree of vitrification.
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2.5 Tests for bricks :
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A brick is generally subjected to following tests to find out its
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suitability of the construction work.
ii. Absorption En
iii. gin
Crushing strength or compression strength
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iv. Hardness
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v. Presence soluble salts
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vi.
vii.
Shape and size
Soundness
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viii. Structure
Bricks Page 39
4) Presence of soluble salts: The bricks should not show any grey
or white deposits after immerted in water for 24 hours
5) Shape and size: It should be standard size and shape with sharp
ww edges
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6) Soundness: The brick should give clear ringing sound struck
each other
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En
7) Structure: The structure should be homogeneous, compact and
free from any defects
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2.6 Grading of Bricks
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As per IS10719557 and 1970 code specifications, ing
a. Bricks with compressive strength not less than 140kg/cm2 – .ne
Grade A-A class. t
b. Bricks with compressive strength not less than 105kg/cm2 – First
class bricks - Grade A.
d. Bricks with compressive strength not less than the average value
35kg/cm2 – class III bricks – Grade C.
* * *
SYNOPYSIS
ww e. Magnesia
2.
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The manufacture of bricks is carried out by the following
operations
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a. Preparation of clay
b. Moulding En
c. Drying gin
d. burning
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3. Bricks are classified as
ing
1. Un-burnt or sun dried bricks
2. Burnt bricks .ne
a. First class bricks t
b. Second class bricks
c. Third class bricks
d. Fourth class bricks
4. A good brick should
Table moulded, well burnt, uniform shape size, should
give clear ringing sound, should be hard, water absorption not more
than 20% for 24 hours.
5. The special types of bricks commonly used are
Bricks Page 41
a. Squint bricks
b. Bult nosed bricks
c. Perforated bricks
d. Hallow bricks
e. Circular bricks
f. Coping bricks
g. Paving bricks
6. As per IS1077-1957 & 1970
ww 1. Grade A – A class < 140kg/cm2
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2. Second class bricks – grade B < 70kg/cm2
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3. First class bricks – grade A < 105kg/cm2
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4. Class III bricks – grade C average 35kg/cm2
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Cement Page 43
CHAPTER -3
CEMENT
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stones is about 20 to 40 percent. Natural cement resembles very closely
eminent hydraulic lime. It is not strong as artificial cement, so it has
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limited use in practice.
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Artificial cement is obtained by burning at very high temperature
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a mixture of calcareous and argillaceous materials in correct proportion.
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Calcined product is known as clinker. A small quantity of gypsum is
added to clinker and it is then pulverized into very fine powder is known
as cement. Cement was invented by a mason Joseph Aspdin of leeds in ing
England in 1824. The common variety of artificial cement is known as .ne
normal setting cement or ordinary cement or Portland cement. t
3.1 Ingradeints – Functions
Ordinary Portland cement contains two basic ingredients,
namely argillaceous and calcareous. In argillaceous materials,
clay predominates and in calcareous materials, calcium carbonate
predominates. Good ordinary cement contains following
ingradients.
1. Lime (cao) ………. 62%
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Functions of Ingradients:
w.E
1. Lime: Lime is the important ingredient of cement and its proportion is
asy
to be maintained carefully. Lime in excess makes the cement unsound
and causes the cement to expand and disintegrate. On the other hand, if
En
lime is in deficiency the strength of the cement is decreased and it causes
cement to set quickly gin
eer
ing
2. Silica: This also an important ingredient of cement and it gives or
imparts quick setting property to imparts strength to cement.
.ne
3.Alumina: This ingredient imparts quick setting properly to cement.
t
Express alumina weakens the cement.
Cement Page 45
7. Alkalies: Most of the alkalies present in raw material are carried away
by the flue gases during heating and only small quantity will be left. If
they are in excess in cement, efflorescence is caused.
w.E
varieties of cement.
a.
asy
Acid Resistance Cement: This is consists of acid
resistance aggregates such as quartz, quartzite’s, etc,
En
additive such as sodium fluro silicate (Na2SiO6) and
gin
aqueous solution of sodium silicate. This is used for acid-
eer
resistant and heat resistant coating of installations of
ing
chemical Industry. By adding 0.5 percent of unseed oil or
2 percent of ceresil, its resistance to water is increased
.ne
b.
and known as acid water resistant cement.
Blast Furnace Cement: For this cement slag as obtained
t
from blast furnace in the manufacture of pig iron and it
contains basic elements of cement, namely alumina, lime
and silica. The properties of this cement are more or less
the same as those of ordinary cement and prove to be
economical as the slag, which is waste product, is used in
its manufacture.
c. Coloured Cement: Cement of desired colour may be
obtained by intimately mixing mineral pigments with
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asy
cement is used for the construction of water retaining
structures and also for repairing the damaged concrete
surfaces. En
e. gin
High alumina Cement: This cement is produced by
eer
grinding clinkers formed by calcining bauxite and lime.
ing
The total content should not be less than 32 percent and
the ratio by weight of alumina to lime should be between
.ne
Advantages
0.85 and 1.30.
t
1. Initial setting time is about 31/2 hours therefore, allows more time
for mixing and placing operations.
Cement Page 47
Disadvantages:
1. It is costly
2. It cannot be used in mass construction as it evolves great heat and as
it sets soon.
3. Extreme care is to taken to see that it does not come in contact with
even traces of lime or ordinary cement.
w.E
hydrophobic admixtures are acidol napthene soap, oxidized
asy
petrolatum etc when hydrophobic cement is used, the fire pores
in concrete are uniformly distributed and thus the frost resistance
En
and the water resistance of such concrete are considerably
increased. gin
eer
g. Low Heat Cement: Considerable heat is produced during the ing
setting action of cement. In order to reduce the amount of heat,
.ne
this type of cement is used. It contains lower percentage of tri
calcium aluminates C3A and higher percentage of dicalcium
t
silicate C2s. This type of cement is used for mass concrete works
because it processes less compressor strength.
Disadvantages:
ww 1. Compressive strength in early days is less.
w.E
2. It possesses less resistance to erosion and weathering action.
i.
asy
Quick Setting Cement: This cement is prepared by adding a
small percentage En
aluminum sulphate which reduce the
gin
percentage of gypsum or retarded for setting action and
eer
accelerating the setting action of cement. As this cement hardness
ing
less than 30 minutes, mixing and placing operations should be
completed. This cement is used to lay concrete under static water
.ne
or running water.
t
j. Rapid Hardening cement: This cement has same initial and
final setting times as that of ordinary cement. But it attains high
strength in early days due to
1. Burning at high temperature.
2. Increased lime content in cement composition.
3. Very fine grinding.
Advantages:
1.Construction work may be carried out speedily.
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Cement Page 49
asy
tricalcium aluminates is kept below 5 to 6 percent and it results in
the increase in resisting power against sulphate. This cement is
En
used for structure which are likely to be damaged by sever
gin
alkaline condition such as canal linings, culverts, siphons etc.
eer
l. ing
White Cement: This is a variety of ordinary cement and it is
prepared form such raw materials which are practically free from
.ne
colouring oxides of Iron, manganese or chromium. For burning
of this cement, oil fuel is used instead of coal. It is used for floor
t
finish; plaster work, ornamental works etc.
w.E
3.4.
asy
Admixtures – Uses.
These are the ingredients or substance, which are added to
En
concrete to improve its properties like strength, hardness, water
gin
resisting power, workability etc. Many admixtures like alum etc are
commonly used for this purpose. eer
ing
* * *
.ne
t
Cement Page 51
SYNOPYSIS
ww v)
vi)
Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) – 3%
Magnesia (MgO) – 2%
w.E
vii) Sulphur & Alkalies – 1% each
asy
2. The main types cements are
i) En
Acid resistance cement
ii) Blast furnace cement gin
iii) Coloured cement
eer
iv) Expanding cement
ing
v)
vi)
High alumina cement
Hydrophobic cement .ne
vii) Low heat cement t
viii) Pozzolona cement
ix) Quick setting cement
x) Rapid hardening cement
xi) Sulphate resistance cement
xii) White resistance cement
cable etc
w.E
harness, water resisting power, work ability etc.
asy
En * * *
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
Cement Page 53
ww
5.
6.
What is use of rapid hardening cement?
Explain the following
w.E
a) Quick setting cement b) white cement
7.
asy
What is the use of sulphate resisting cement?
8.
En
What is meant by blast furnace cement?
gin
ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS
eer
1. Name and explain the ingradients functions in the cement ing
2. Explain the qualities of cement .ne
3.
4.
Explain the varieties of cement
Explain the following
t
a) Rapid hardening cement
b) High alumina cement
5. Explain in detail the uses of cement
* * *
CHAPTER -4
SAND
w.E
various effects of weather. The following are the natural sources
of sand.
asy
En
a. Pit Sand: This sand is found as deposits in soil and it is obtained
gin
by forming pits to a depth of about 1m to 2m from ground level.
Pit sand consists of sharp angular grains, which are free from
eer
salts for making mortar, clean pit sand free from organic and clay
should only be used. ing
.ne
b. Rive Sand: This sand is obtained from beds of rivers. River sand
consists of fine rounded grains. Colour of river sand is almost t
white. As the river sand is usually available in clean condition, it
is widely used for all purposes.
c. Sea Sand: This sand is obtained from sea shores. Sea sand
consists of rounded grains in light brown colour. Sea sand
consists of salts which attract the moisture from the atmosphere
and causes dampness, efflorescence and disintegration of work.
Due to all such reasons, sea sand is not recommendable for
Sand Page 55
ww organic matter.
w.E
3. It should contain sharp, angular and durable grains.
asy
4. It should not contain salts, which attract the moisture from
atmosphere.
En
gin
5. It should be well graded (i.e.) should contain particles of
various sizes in suitable proportions.
eer
ing
4.3. Grading of Sand:
.ne
According to the site of grains, sand is classified as fine,
coarse and gravelly
t
Sand passing through a screen with clear opening of
1.5875mm is known as fine sand. It is generally used for masonry
works.
w.E
may be about 5 to 8 percent, depending upon the grading of sand.
asy
The finer the material, the more will be the increase in volume
for a given moisture content. This phenomenon is known as
bulking of sand. En
gin
eer
When moisture content is increased by adding more
water, sand particles pack near each other and the amount of
ing
bulking of sand is decreased. Thus the dry sand and the sand
completely flooded with water have practically the same volume. .ne
For finding the bulking of sand, a test is carried out with t
following procedure as in the fig 4.1.
Sand Page 57
ww
w.E Fig 4.1. Bulking of Sand
asy
I. A container is taken and it is filled two third with the sample of
sand to be tested. En
II. The height is measured, say 20cm.
gin
eer
III. Sand is taken out of container
ing
IV. The container is filled with water .ne
V. Sand is then slowly dropped in the container and it is thoroughly
t
stirred by means of a rod.
VI. The height of sand is measured say 16cm, then bulking of sand =
20 – 16 4
= -------------- = ------ or 25%
16 16
* * *
SYNOPYSIS
ww c. Sea sand
w.E
3. The sand should be
a. Chemically inert
asy
b. Clean and coarse
En
c. Sharp, angular and durable
d. Not contain salts
gin
e. Well graded
eer
ing
4. According to the size of grains, sand is classified as fin, coarse
and gravelly.
5. The presence of moisture in sand increases the volume of sand .ne
known as bulking of sand. t
Sand Page 59
1. What are the main types of sand according to the natural source?
2. What is meant by bulking of sand?
3. What are the important characteristics of sand?
CHAPTER 5
MORTAR
w.E
depends on quantity and quality of the matrix. The combined effect of
the two components of mortar is that the mass is able to bind the bricks
or stones firmly asy
En
5.1 Properties – Uses: gin
eer
The important properties of a good mortar mix are
ing
mobility, placeability and water retention. The mobility is used to
.ne
indicate the consistency of mortar mix, which may range from
stiff to fluid t
The mobility of mortar depends upon composition of
mortar and mortar mixes to be used for masonry work, finishing
works, etc are made sufficiently mobile.
The placeability or the ease with which the mortar mix
can be placed with minimum cost in a thin and uniform layer
over the surface depends on the mobility of mortar. The
placeablity of mortar mix should be such that a strong bond is
developed with the surface of the bed.
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Mortar Page 61
w.E
a mortar mix will.
asy
Properties of good mortar
En
1. It should be capable of developing good adhesion with the
gin
building units such as bricks, stones etc.
eer
2. It should be capable of developing the designed stresses.
ing
3. It should be capable of resisting penetration of rainwater.
4. It should be cheap.
.ne
5. It should be durable.
6. It should be easily workable.
t
7. It should not affect the durability of materials with which it
comes into contact.
Uses:
1. To bind the building units such as bricks, stones etc.
2. To carry out painting and plaster works on exposed surfaces
of masonry
3. To form an even bedding layer for building units
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ww 3. Nature of application
w.E
4. Special mortars
Mortar Page 63
w.E
lime by volume is about 1:6 to 1:8
d. Gypsum mortar:
asy
En
These mortars are prepared from gypsum binding material such
gin
as building gypsum and anhydrite binding materials.
eer
5.2.3 Nature of Application:
ing
According to the nature of application, the mortars are
classified into two categories. .ne
A. Brick laying mortars: Mortars for brick laying are intended to
t
be used for brick works and walls. Depending up on the working
conditions and type of construction, the composition of masonry
mortars with respect to the kind of binding materials is decided.
w.E
C. Packing Mortar – To pack of oil wells, special mortars
asy
possessing the properties of high homogeneity, water
resistance, predetermined setting time, ability to form solid
En
water proof plugs in cracks and voids of rocks, resistance to
gin
subsoil water pressure etc. have to be formed with cement
eer
sand, cement loam and cement sand loam mortars.
ing
D. Sound absorbing mortars: To reduce the noise level, sound
absorbing mortars with Portland cement, lime, gypsum, slag .ne
Portland cement etc as the binding materials employed in its
composition. The aggregates re selected from lightweight
t
porous material such as pumice, cinders etc.
Mortar Page 65
w.E
mechanical mixing. Mechanical mixing is preferred when mortar
asy
is required in large quantities to be used in continuous order.
a.
En
Mixing in mechanical mixer: In this case, cement and
gin
sand in desired proportion are fed in the mixer and mixed
eer
dry. Water is then added gradually and the wet mixing a
continued for at least one minute to obtain the mortar of
ing
desired consistency. It is necessary to ensure that only the
quantity of mortar which can be used within half an hour of .ne
its mixing should be prepared at a time. This is essential as
after 30 minutes the mortar begins to set.
t
b. Manual mixing: In this case, specified quantity of sand is
spread and leveled on clean dry masonry platform.
Required quantity of cement bags are emptied over the sand
layer. The ingredients are then mixed thoroughly by turning
them over the sand layer. The ingredients are then mixed
thoroughly by turning them over and over. Backward and
forward several times with the help of spade. Dry mixing is
ww
1. Consumption of mortar – the consumption of mortar
w.E
should be as early as possible
Line mortar – with in 36 hours after its
preparation
Cement mortar asy – within 30 minutes
Gaged mortar En – within 2 hours.
2.
gin
Frost action - Setting action of mortar is affected by the presence
of frost and not advisable in frosty weather.
eer
3.
ing
Soaking of building units: Building units should not be soaked
before application of mortar. If this precaution is not taken, water
of mortar will be absorbed by the building units and mortar will .ne
become weak. t
4. Sprinkling of water: The construction work carried out by
mortar should be kept dam or wet by sprinkling water for about 7
to 10 days to avoid rapid drying of mortar.
5. Workability: Mortar should not contain excess water and it
should be stiff as can be conveniently used. Joints should be well
formed and excess mortar from joints should be neatly taken off
by a trowel. Surface formed by mortar for building units to rest
should be even.
Mortar Page 67
SYNOPYSIS
w.E e. Parable
asy
3. The mortar is used for
a. to bind bricks, stones
b. to plastering En
c. to form joints gin
d. to improve the appearance eer
4. The types of mortars ing
a. Lime mortar
.ne
b. Cement mortar
c. Composed mortar
t
d. Gypsum mortar
5. According to nature of application mortars are classified’
a. Brick laying mortars
b. Finishing mortars
6. The special mortars used generally are
a. Fire resistant mortars
b. Light weight mortars
c. Packing mortars
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asy
of mortar
En
d. Apply sprinking of water for a period of 7 to 10 days
gin
e. Mortar should not contain excess water and should be
stiff as can be conviently used.
eer
ing
.ne
t
Mortar Page 69
1.Define mortar.
w.E
mortar?
CHAPTER-6
CONCRETE
asy
3. It is possible to mechanise completely its preparation and placing
processes. En
gin
4. It possesses adequate plasticity for mechanical working.
3. It hardens with age and continues for a long time after concrete
t
has attained sufficient strength
Concrete Page 71
w.E
done with ordinary Portland cement. But other special varieties
asy
of cement such as rapid hardening cement, high alumina
cement are used under certain circumstances. The cement
En
should comply with all standard specifications
gin
b) Fine Aggregates: The material, which is passed through
eer
4.7625mm B.S.test sieve, is termed as fine aggregates. Usually
ing
natural river sand is used as fine aggregates. But places where
natural sand is not available economically, finely crushed stone .ne
may be used as fine aggregates.
Function of Water
w.E
2. It acts chemically with cement to form binding paste with coarse
aggregates and reinforcement.
asy
3. It is necessary to flux the cementing material over the surface of
the aggregates. En
gin
4. It is employed to damp the concrete in order to prevent them
eer
absorbing water vitally necessary for chemical action
1:2:2 - For heavy loaded R.C.C columns and R.C.C arches of long
spans
1:2:2 - For small pre cast members of concrete like fencing poles,
telegraph poles etc. watertight construction.
Concrete Page 73
1:4:8 /
ww
6.3 Preparation of concrete mix:
w.E
There are two types of concrete mixing
eer
the quantity if concrete to be used in a work is insufficient to warrant the
necessity of machine. This is used with advantage in places where
machinery cannot be used on account of their non-availability or in ing
works near a hospital where the noise of machine is not desirable. Hand .ne
mixing is done on a clean, hard and impermeable surface. Cement and
sand are first mixed dry with the help of shovels until the mixture attains
t
a uniform colour. Aggregative are then added to this mixture and the
whole mixture is then turned by shovels until the stone pieces uniformly
spread throughout. After this, desired are quantity of water is poured into
the heap from a can fitted with a rose. The mass is then turned until a
workable mixture is obtained. It is advised to add 10% extra cement to
guard against the possibility of inadequate mixing by this method.
1. Continuous mixers
2. Batch mixers
w.E
mix of desired consistency.
asy
In batch type of concrete mixer. The desired proportion of
En
materials are fed into the hopper of a drum in which the materials
gin
get mixed by the series of blades or baffles inside the mixer.
Batch mixers are further two types 1. Tilting drum type 2.
eer
closed drump type. In the first type, components are fed in the
revolving drum in a tilted position and after sometime theing
concrete mix is discharged by tilting the drums in the opposite .ne
direction. In the latter type the drum remains rotating in one
direction and emptied by means of hopper which tilts to receive
t
the discharge.
Concrete Page 75
ww
w.E
asy
En
Fig 6.1 Batch type Concrete Mixer
w.E
(i) Hand compaction: The hand compaction may be
asy
done by rodding, tamping or hammering. Tamping is
En
usually adopted for compacting concrete for slabs or
gin
other such surfaces. Rodding is done for thin vertical
eer
members. Hammering is done for massive plain
concrete works and for compacting an almost dry
ing
concrete the surface is beaten with heavy flat bottom
rammers till the thin film of mortar start appearing on .ne
the surface. t
(ii) Mechanical compaction: Mechanical compaction is
done by the use of vibrators. Vibrators are of three
types 1. Internal 2. External 3. Surface. Internal
vibrators are commonly used in large works for flat
surface compaction. In this the vibrator is immersed
in the full depth of concrete layer. The vibrator should
be kept in one position for about 3 minutes and then
removed and placed another position. External
Concrete Page 77
En
some days in order to enable the concrete gain more strength
Purposes: gin
(i) eer
Curing protects concrete surfaces from sun and wind
(ii) ing
Presence of water is essential to cause the chemical action
which a companies the setting of concrete .ne
t
* * *
i) w.E
3. The preparation of concrete may be
By hand mixing
ii)
asy
Machine mixing
4. Machine mixing may be carried out commonly by
i) Continuous mixers
En
ii) Batch mixers
gin
5. The function of consolidation or compaction is to expel the air
eer
bubbles in the mass and make it impermeable in addition to its
securing desired depth
ing
6. Compaction may be done by
i) rodding – vertical members like columns .ne
ii)
iii)
tamping – slabs
hammering – massive plain concret works
t
7. Mechanical compaction may be done by
i) Internal vibrators
ii) External vibrations
iii) Surface vibrations
8. Curing of concrete is the process of keep the set concrete damp
for some days in order to enable the concrete gain more strength
9. By curing the concrete should get
i) Strength
ii) Durability and impermeability
iii) Resistance to abrasion
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Concrete Page 79
w.E
7. What is meant by curing?
asy
8. What is use of curing of concrete?
* * *
TIMBER
Uses of timber:
(ii) w.E
Used for flooring, ceiling, paneling and construction of
asy
partition walls
(iii) En
Used for form work for concrete, for the timbering of
gin
trenches, centring for arch work, scaffolding, transmission
poles and fencing
eer
(iv) ing
Used in wagon and coach building, marine installations and
bridges
.ne
(v) Used in making furniture of agriculture implements, sports
goods, musical instruments, well curbs, mortar bodies, carts
t
and carriages, railway sleeps, packing cases etc
Timber Page 81
w.E
b) Deciduous trees: The trees having flat broad leaves and
asy
leaves of those trees fall in autumn and new ones appear
En
in spring season. Timber for engineering purpose is
gin
mostly derived from deciduous trees. These trees yield
hard wood.
eer
Ex: ash, beach, oak, sal, teak, shishum and wallnut
ing
Comparison of softwood and hard wood
.ne
S.No. Item
1. Annual rings
Soft wood
Distinct
Hard wood
Indistinct
t
2. colour light dark
3. fire resistance poor more
4. modullary rays Indistinct distinct
5. Structure resinous and non-resinous
split easily & close grained
6. weight light heavy
7. strength strong for direct equally strong
Pull & weak for for resisting
Resisting thrust tension,compr
or shear -ession & shear
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1. Macro structure
2. Micro structure
Timber Page 83
w.E
(vii) Medullary rays: The thin radial fibres extending
asy
from pith to cambium layer are known as medullary
rays
En
II.
gin
Micro structure: The structure of wood apparent only at
eer
great magnifications is called micro structure under micro
ing
scope, it becomes evident that the wood consists of living and
lead cells of various sizes and shapes.
.ne
7.2 Defects in Timber:
asy
cellulose compounds from wood and wood assumes the
brown colour
En
(iii)
gin
Dry rot: Convert the wood into dry powder form
(iv)
eer
Heart rot: This is formed when branch has come out of a
ing
tree and the tree becomes weak and gives out hallow
sound when struck with a hammer
.ne
(v) Sap stain: The sap wood looses its colour because of feed
on cell contents of sap wood.
t
(vi) Wet rot: Caused chemical decomposition of wood of the
timber and timber converts to grayish brown powder
known as wet rot.
(vii) White rot: Attack lignin of wood and wood assumes the
appearance of white mass
Timber Page 85
(i) Beetles: Small insects form holes of size about 2mm diameter
and attack sap wood of all spacies of hard woods. Tunnels are
formed in all directions in sapwood by the larvae of these beetles
and converted into fine flour like powder. They do not disturb
outer cover and looks sound.
w.E
colour and strength
(ii)
asy
Termites: White ants are very fast in eating away the wood
from the core of the cross section. They make tunnels inside
En
in different directions and usually donot disturb the outershell
or cover gin
d) Defects due to natural forces: eer
ing
The main natural forces responsible for causing defects in timber
are abnormal growth and rapture of tissues .ne
(i) Burls: Irregular projections appear on the body of timber t
because of shock at younger age
Timber Page 87
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
ww (xii)
Fig 7.4
Upsets or ruptures: Indicate wood fibres which are
w.E injured by crushing or compression as shown in fig 7.5.
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
Fig 7.5
t
7.3 Wood based products:
Timber Page 89
asy
concrete etc. Thickness may vary from 6 to 25mm.
En
(c) Fibre boards: These are rigid boards and they are
gin
also known as pressed wood or reconstructed wood.
eer
The thickness varies from 3mm to 12mm. These are
ing
available in lengths from 3 to 4.5m and width varying
from 12 to 18m. These are used for
.ne
(i) For internal finish of rooms such as wall
panelling; suspended ceilings.
t
(ii) To construct form work for cement concrete.
asy
durability of compreg timbers is more as compared to
En
the impreg timbers.
7.4.
gin
Characteristics of good timbers:
eer
1. Appearance: A freshly cut surface of timber should exhibit
hard and of shining appearance.
ing
2. Colour: A colour should preferably be dark .ne
3. Defects: A good timber should be free from series defects
such as knots, flaws, shakes etc
t
4. Durability: A good timber should be durable and capable of
resisting the action of fungi, insects, chemicals, physical
agencies, and mechanical agencies.
Timber Page 91
asy
when struck
En
13. Strength: A good timber should be sufficiently strong for
gin
working as structural member such as joist, beam, rafter etc.
SYNOPYSIS
Timber Page 93
ii) Plywood
iii) Fibre boards
iv) Impreg timbers
v) Compreg timbers
6. A good timber should have
i) Shinning appearance
ii) Dark colour
iii) Free from defects
ww iv) Durable to action of fungi, insects, chemicals etc
v) w.E
Fire resistance
vi)
vii)
asy
Should hard
Mechanical wear
viii) Sweet smell En
ix) gin
Should give char ringing sound
x) Structure should be uniform eer
xi) Should have low water permeability ing
.ne
* * *
t
w.E
7.What is plywood?
asy
8.What is meant by seasoning?
CHAPTER 8
(i)
w.E
Ferrous metals: Ferrous metals contain iron as their main
asy
constituent
En
Ex: Cast iron, wrought iron, steel
(ii)
gin
Non-ferrous metal: Non ferrous metal does not contain
iron as their main constituent
eer
Ex: Aluminium, copper etc
ing
Important varieties of iron ores:
.ne
The following are the important commercial varieties of iron
ores, which are commonly used, in the manufacturing process
t
(1) Haematite – Red oxide of iron (Fe2O3) 65 to 70% of iron
asy
the ares hot and very dry after removal of sulphur
En
(iii)Smelting: smelting is carried out in a special type furnace
gin
known as blast furnace. The raw material consists of iron
ores, the fluxing materials like limestone and fuel like
eer
coal, charcoal is allowed to through throat portion of the
ing
furnace. By the reduction, the pig iron collects in the
hearth of furnace. The slag formed is removed and hot .ne
gases dust escapes through outlet, which is provided in
the throat portion of furnace as shown in fig 8.1.
t
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
Fig 8.1 Blast Furnace
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
asy
below 0.10 percent.
En
Properties of casi-iron: gin
(1) If placed in salt water, it becomes soft. eer
ing
(2) It can be hardened by heating and sudden cooling.
.ne
(3)
(4)
It cannot be magnetized.
ww
(14) Two pieces of C.I. cannot be connected by the process of riveting
or welding (They are to be connected by nuts and bolts).
w.E
Uses cast iron: asy
En
(1) For making cisterns, water pipes, gas pipes and sewers, manhole
covers and sanitary fittings. gin
eer
(2) For making ornamental castings like brackets, gates, lampposts
etc. ing
(3) For making parts of machinery which are not subjected to shock .ne
loads. t
(4) For manufacture of compression members.
a. Refining
b. Pudding
c. Shinging
d. Rolling
w.E
3) It is ductile, melleable and tough
asy
4) It is moderately elastic
En
5) It is unaffected by saline water
1) Bessemen process
ww
2) Cementation process
3) w.E
Crucible steel process
ww
iii) Heat treatment processes: It is possible to alter the properties of
w.E
steel by heating and cooling under controlled conditions. The
asy
following are the purposes of heat treatment
i)
En
To alter magnetic properties of steel
ii)
iii) gin
To change the structure of steel
To increase resistance to heat and corrosion
iv) To increase surface hardness eer
v) To make steel easily workable ing
vi) To vary strength and hardness .ne
The principal processes involved in the heat treatment of steel t
1) Annealing- To make steel soft
w.E
importance and these properties are obtained by carefully
adjusting its chemical composition.
i) asy
Carbon – carbon content as low as possible and
En
should not exceed 0.10 percent.
ii) gin
Silicon-presence of silicon results in considerable
eer
increase of electrical losses and hence it highly
undesirable. ing
iii) Sulphur and phosphorous: Combines content of .ne
sulphur and phosphorous exceeds 0.3 percent,
magnetic properties of steel are greatly affected.
t
iv) Manganese: If manganese content exceeds 0.3
percent, it proves to be injurious to the magnetic
properties of steel.
Uses of steel:
1. Mild steel 0.10% Motar body, sheet metal, tin
carbon plates etc
2. Medium carbon steel 0.25% Boiler plates, structural steel,
0.45% rails, tyres etc
0.60% Hammers, large stampaing
dies etc
3. High carbon steel 0.75% Sledge hammers, springs,
stamping dies etc
ww 0.95% Minor drills, smith & tools,
w.E 1.00%
Masons tools
Chisels, hammers, saws, wood,
En
1.10% Axes, cutlery, drills, knives,
eer
8.1.5 Non Metals: ing
.ne
I. Aluminium:- Aluminium is important non metal occurs in
abundance on the surface of earth in various forms such as
t
oxides, sulphates, silicates, phosphates etc. Bauxite (Al2 O3,
2H2O) is hydrated oxide of aluminium produced commercially.
w.E
5. It is very soft.
asy
6. It melts at about 6580C.
7. It possesses great toughness and tensile strength
En
8. It readily dissolves in hydrochloric acid
9. Its specific gravity is about 2.70. gin
Uses: eer
ing
1. This metal is used for making parts of aeroplane, utensils, paints,
electric wires, window frames, glazing bars, correlated sheets,
.ne
II.
structural members, focts, posts, panels, balustrades, etc.
Copper:
t
The important ores of copper are cuprite Cu2O, Copper
glance Cu2S, copper pyrites CuFeS2, Malachete CuCo3,
Cu(OH)2 and Azuritc @CuCo3, cu(OH)2.
Properties:
1. It becomes brittle just below its melting point
2. It can be worked in hot or cold condition but it cannot be
welded.
3. It has a peculiar red colour
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Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net
ww
Uses:-
w.E
1. The market forms of copper are ingots, sheets, tubes and wires.
asy
2. It is extensively used for making electric cables, alloys,
En
household utensils, electroplating, lighting conductors, dowels in
stone masonry, etc.
gin
8.2. Plastics: eer
Plastic is one the recent engineering materials, which hasing
appeared in the market all over the world. Plastic is an organic substance .ne
and it consists of natural or synthetic binder or resins with or without
moulding compounds. Plastics are the compounds of carbon with other
t
elements such as hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen.
Properties:
1. Appearance: Some Plastics are completely transparent in
appearance
2. Chemical resistance: Plastics offer great resistance to moisture,
chemicals and solvents.
w.E
8. Fire Resistance: Plastic are organic in nature and hence, all
asy
plastics are combustible.
En
9. Fixing: Plastics can be easily fixed in position they can be bolted,
gin
clamped, drilled, glued, screw threaded or simply push filled in
position.
eer
ing
10. Humidity: The properties of plastic are governed to some extent
by humidity.
.ne
11. Maintenance: It is easy to maintain plastic surfaces.
12. Melting Point: Most of the plastics have low melting point is
t
about 500C.
18. Weight: Low Specific gravity. The length weight of the plastic
reduces the transport costs and facilitates fixing.
ww
Uses of Plastics:
w.E
1. Bath and Sink units
asy
2. Cistern ball floats
3. Corrugated and plain sheets
En
4. Decorative laminate and mouldings
5. Electrical conducts gin
6. Electrical insulations eer
7. Films of water proofing, damp proofing
ing
8. Floor tiles
.ne
9. Foams for thermal insulation
10. Jiontless flooring
t
11. Lighting fixtures
12. Overhead water tanks
13. Paints and varnishes
14. Pipes to carry cold water
15. Roof lights
16. Wall tiles
17. Safety glass
18. Water resistant adhesives etc.
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8.3. Adhesives:
Advantages:
1. A wide variety of combination is joining is possible
asy
4. It is possible to prevent corrosion between different metals joined
by adhesive.
En
5. It produces adequate strength
gin
eer
6. Permeable joint can be made impermeable for water and gas by
the application of adhesives
7. The process of applying adhesives is easy, economical and ing
speedy. .ne
Disadvantages
1. It is not possible to adopt any adhesive for all substances.
t
2. The adhesive substances does not become strong immediately
after its application
3. The adhesive substances does not generally remain stable at high
temperatures.
8.4 Asbestos:
Asbestos is naturally occurring fibrous mineral substance.
It is composed of hydrous silicates of calcium and magnesium
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Properties:
1. Holes can be drilled and screws can be fitted on its surface.
2. It can be cut into pieces
ww 3. It is an excellent insulator of heat and electricity.
w.E
4. It is fire proof and acid proof
asy
5. It is flexible soft and Non-proof
6. It is smooth like glass and silk
En
7. It prossesses a good adsorption capacity
8. Its colour is brown, grey or white gin
9. Its melting point is 1200C to 15500C eer
10. Its specific gravity is 3.10 ing
11. Its quality is critically affected by the length of fibers
.ne
12. Its molecules are strong bound together only in one direction and
that is why it possesses very high tensile strength along the fibers.
t
Uses:
1. Asbestos cement products have become very popular at present
2. Asbestos felt can be prepared by coating asbestos fibers with
bitumen and it is used as damp proof layer.
3. It is used as covering material for magnetic coils
4. It is used as lining material of fuse box and switch box
5. It is used for insulating boilers, furnaces, etc.
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8.5 Glass:
Glass is a mixture of a number of metallic silicates, one of which
is usually that of an alkali metal. It is a amorphous, transparent or
translucent. It may also be considered as a solidified super cooled
solution of various metallic silicates having infinite viscosity. For the
ww
purpose if classification glass may be graped into the following three
categories. w.E
asy
1. Soda-lime glass. Na2, CaO, 6SiO2
2. Potash-lime glass. K20, CaO, 6SiO2
En
3. Potash – Lead glass. K20, PbO, 6SiO2
Properties:- gin
1. It absorbs, refracts or transmits light. eer
ing
2. It can take up high polish and may be used as substitute for every
costly gems.
.ne
3. It has no definite crystalline structure.
4. It has no sharp melting point.
t
5. It is affected by alkalies
6. It is an excellent electrical insulator
7. It is available in beautiful colours.
8. It behaves more as solid than most solids in the sense that it is
elastic
9. It is capable of being worked in many ways
10. It is extremely brittle.
11. It is not usually affected by air or water
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w.E
18. It is possible to make glass lighter than cork or softer than cotton
asy
or stronger then steel by using advancement of science.
Uses: En
gin
1.Soda lime glass: It is used in the manufacture of glass tubes,
eer
laboratory apparatus, plate glass, window glass etc.
ing
2. Potash lime glass: It is used in the manufacuter of glass
articles, which have to with stand high temperatures.
.ne
3.Potash – Lead glass: It is used in the manufacture of artificial
gems, electric bulbs, lenses, prisms etc.
t
4.Comman Glass: It is mainly used in the manufacture of
medicine bottles.
8.7 Lenoleum:
It is a mixture of oxidized unseed oil, pulverized cork,
ww wood flour, pigments and colours, all spread in a uniform layer
w.E
on canvas the surface of which may be painted in different
asy
patterns, the surface is then, afterwards water-proofed with the
help of an oil paint.
En
It is available in different gauges(i.e thickness 6.7, 6.0,
gin
4.5, 3.2, 2.0 and 1.6mm) and is easily cleaned with soap water. It
eer
is not affected by oil but slightly affected by acids. Linoleum is
ing
made in rolls as well as in tiles. Linoleum is used for floor
coverings of hospitals, canteens, residences, offices and industrial
.ne
buildings.
t
8.8 Wall paper:
Wall paper are now widely used for developing
decorative finished of interior walls and they are made
exclusively from paper or combined with other materials. They
may be unprimed, primed, embossed, metal-coated etc. They are
available in single or multicolour patterns printed on the face
surfaces. Varnished wall paper can be polished after hanging to
develop the effect of veneer panelled wall. Certain types of wall
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w.E
3. Soluble in carbon disulphide
asy
4. Black or brown in colour
The following are the forms of bitumen
1. Bitumen emulsion En
2. Blow bitumen gin
3. cut-back bitumen eer
4. plastic bitumen ing
5. straight run bitumen
.ne
b) Tar: Tar is a dark black liquid with high viscosity. According
to its source, tar is classified into following categories
t
1) Coal Tar
2) Mineral Tar
3) Wood Tar
1) Coal Tar: Usually obtained as a bye-product during the
manufacture of coal gas. Coal tar is used for making macadam
roads, preserving timber etc.
2) Mineral tar: This variety of tar is obtained by distilling
bituminous shales. It contains less volatile matter
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Uses:
1. Rooting, damp proofing felts
2. Fill eracks in masonary structures, for stopping leakages etc
ww
8.10 Thermocole:
w.E
It is used for thermal insulation and sound insulation.
asy * * *
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
SYNOPYSIS
w.E
4. The manufacture of pig iron involved following operations
(i)
(ii)
asy
Dressing
Calcination and roasting
(iii) Smelting En
gin
5. Cast iron contains 2 to 4 percentage of carbon, wrought iron the
eer
carbon content does not exceed 0.15 percent and where as in
steel, carbon percentage should be 0.15 to 1.5 percent ing
6. Aluminium is extracted from bauxite and used for making the
.ne
parts of aeroplane, utensils, paints, electric wires, window
frame, structural members etc.
t
7. Copper is a non-ferrous metal used for sheets, tubes, wires,
cables, alloys, household utensils, electroplating, lightening
conductors etc.
8. Plastics are the compounds of carbon with other elements such
as hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen used for the following.
Electrical conducts, insulators, floor tiles, thermal insulation,
corrugated and plain sheets, banth and sink units etc
asy
11. Glass is a mixture of metallic silicates used for the following
glass tubes, laboratory apparatus, window glass, artificial gems,
En
electric bulbs, prisms, medicine bottles
gin
12. Plaster of paris is used fro the following purposes
(i) Ornamental works eer
(ii) Produces hard surface, sharp contours ing
13. Linoleum is mixture of oxidized unseed oil pulverized cork,
.ne
wood flour, pigments and colour, all spread in a uniform layer
on canvas the surface of which may be painted in different
t
patterns, the surface is then, afterwards water-proofed with the
help of an oil paint.
w.E
9.What are the uses of glass?
asy
10. What are the uses of adhesives?
11. Name any four uses of asbestos.
En
12. What is the use of thermocole?
gin
13. What is the importance of plaster of paris in the building
construction industry? eer
14. Name the uses of linoleum ing
15. What are the uses of wall paper?
.ne
16. Write the uses of bitumen & tar
17. What are the uses of plasticrete?
t
ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS
1.Explain the properties and uses of steel
2.Explain the following
a. Plastics b. asbestos
3.Explain the properties and uses of cast iron
4.Explain the following
a. Plaster of paris b. Linoleum
* * *
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CHAPTER – 9
TYPES OF BUILDINGS
9.1 Classification:
According National Building code of India, 1970 the
buildings on the basis of occupancy are classified into following
groups
ww
GROUP A: Residential buildings:
w.E
All those buildings in which sleeping accommodation is provided for
residing permanently or temporary with or without looking or
asy
dinning or both facilities are termed as residential building
En
Ex: Apartments, Flats, Bungalows, Dormitories, private houses,
gin
Hotels, Hostels, Cottages, Hole day camps, clubs, hotels, Inns etc
These buildings are further subdivided into 5 groups
eer
A1 - Lodging Houses
ing
A2 -
A3 -
Family Private Dwellings
Dormitories .ne
A4 - Flats t
A5 - Hotels
GROUP B: Educational buildings:
All those buildings which are meant for education from nursery to
university are included in this group
Ex: schools, colleges, universities, training institutes etc
GROUP C: Institutional Buildings:
This group includes any building or part thereof, which is used for
the purposes such as medical, health, recovering health after illness,
w.E
open air theatres, swimming pools etc.
asy
GROUP E- Business Buildings:
This group includes any building or part or a building which is used
En
for purposes such as transaction of business, keeping of accounts and
gin
records etc; dispensaries and clinics, banks, city halls, court halls,
libraries etc. eer
GROUP F – Mercantile Buildings: ing
This group includes any building or part of a building which is used
.ne
for shops, stores, market, for safe and display of products or waves
either whole sale or retail.
t
GROUP G – Industrial Buildings:
This group includes any building or part of a building or structure in
which product of different kinds and properties are fabricated,
assembled or processed. For example, laboratories, assembly plants,
laundries, gas plants, power plants, refineries, diaries etc.
GROUP H – Storage Building:
This group includes those building structures which are primarily
used for the storage structures which are primarily used for the
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w.E
various operations. Buildings used for storage of gases under high
asy
pressure or for storage and handling of highly flammable liquids or
explosives, fireworks etc are included in this group.
En
9.2 Component parts of building gin
eer
The building basically consists of three parts namely,
1) Foundation ing
2) Plinth and
.ne
3) Super structure as shown in the fig 9.1
t
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
Fig 9.1 Component parts of building
eer
i)
ing
Foundation: It is the lowest artificially prepared part
below the surface of the surrounding ground which is
indirect contact with sub-strata and transmits all the loads .ne
to the ground (or sub-soil) t
ii) Plinth: It is the middle part of the structure, above the
surface of the surrounding ground up to the surface of the
floor immediately above the ground. Its function in the
building is same as of sub-structure in the case of the
bridge.
iii) Super structure: It is that part of the structure which is
constructed above the plinth level (i.e., ) ground level
w.E
9. Finishes for walls
asy
10.Utility fixtures
Each of these components is an essential part of a building and
En
requires due consideration in design and construction for their functional
gin
performance. The basic functional requirements of these components
discusses in the following paragraphs. eer
1. Foundations: ing
The foundation is the most critical part of any structure and most
.ne
of the failure is probably due to faulty foundations rather than any other
cause. The purpose of foundation is to transmit the anticipated loads
t
safety to the soil
Basic requirements:
1. To distribute the total load coming on the structure over a large
bearing area so as to prevent it from any movement.
2. To load the bearing surface or area at a uniform rate so as to
prevent any unequal or relative settlement.
3. To prevent the lateral movement of the structure
w.E
1) To transmit the load of the super-structure to the
asy
foundation
2) To act as a retaining wall so as to keep the filling portion
En
below the raised floor or the building
gin
3) To protect the building from damp or moisture
penetration into it eer
ing
4) It enhances the architectural appearance of the building
3. Walls and piers in super structure: The primary function of walls is
.ne
to enclose or liquid space. A load-bearing wall in the super structure
should satisfy the following requirements.
t
Strengths, stability, weather resistance, fire resistance, heat
insulation, sound insulation, privacy and security.
4. Ground basement and upper floors: The main function of a floor is
to provide support of occupants, furniture and equipment of a building
and the function of providing different floors is to devoid the building
into different levels for the purpose of creating more accommodation
within the limited space. The floor should satisfy the following
functional requirements.
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w.E
1. Weather resistance
asy
2. Sound and thermal insulation
3. Damp prevention and terminate-proofing
En
4. Fire resistance and durability
5. Privacy and security gin
6. Sills. Lintels and weather shades: eer
ing
Windowsills are provided between the bottom of window
frame and wall below, to protect the top of wall from wear and
.ne
tear. The actual frame of door or window is not strong enough to
support the weight of the wall above the strong enough to support
t
the weight of the wall above the openings and a separate
structural element has, therefore to be introduced. This is known
as lintel and is similar to a beam. Weather shades on ehhajjas are
generally combined with lintels of windows to protect from the
weather elements such as sun, rain, frost etc.
7. Roofs:
A roof is the uppermost part of the building whose main function
is to enclose the space and to protect the same from the effects of
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weather elements such as rain, sun, wind, heat, snow etc. A good
roof is just as essential as a safe foundation. The functional
requirements of the roof are as follows.
i) Strength and stability- strong and stable enough to take
up anticipated loads
ii) Weather resistance – resistance to wind, rain, sun,
snow etc
iii) Heat insulation - should provide adequate insulation
ww against heat
asy
insulation against sound from external sources.
v) Fire resistance – Should offer the adequate deque of
fire resistance. En
gin
vi) Day lighting – The provides day light in buildings
eer
with large floor area i.e., industrial buildings through
window in the roof. ing
8.Steps and Stairs: A stair is a structural consists of number of steps
.ne
leading from one floor to another. The main functions of stairs are
i. To provide means of communication between the various floors
t
for everyday use
ii. To escape from upper floors in the case of fire
To perform these functions, the stairs should satisfy the following
requirements indesign and construction.
i) Strength and stability- Strong and stable enough to carry
the anticipated loads.
w.E
such as rain, heat etc.
v)
asy
Comfort and convience: proper design and proper
location of steps in a building offer several advantages
En
such as comfort and efficiency in vertical movement,
gin
natural light and ventilation; safety in emergency etc.
eer
9.Finishes for walls: The finishes of several types such as pointing,
ing
plastering, painting, types such as pointing, plastering, painting,
distempering, decorative colour washing etc applied on the walls. The
.ne
main function of these finishes are
a. Protect structure from the sun, rain, snow etc.
t
b. Provide a true, even and smooth finished surface and also to
improve the asthetic appearance of the structure.
c. Rectify rather cover, to some extent, the poor or defective
workmanship
d. Cover up the unsound and porous materials used in the
construction
10.Utility Fixtures: These are the built in items of an unmovable nature,
which add considerably to the utility of a building and hence
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ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
1.Define substructure.
2.Define superstructure.
4.Define plinth.
w.E
ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS
asy
En
1.Explain the structural components of building.
gin
2.Explain the classification of buildings.
eer
ing
* * *
.ne
t
CHAPTER – 10
FOUNDATIONS
Every structure consists of two parts. (1) Foundation and (2) Super
structure. The lowest artificially prepared parts of the structure which are
in direct contact with the ground and which transmit the loads of the
structure to the ground are known as Foundation or Substructure. The
ww
solid ground on which the foundation rest is called the “foundation bed”
w.E
or foundation soil and it ultimately bears the load and interacts with the
foundations of buildings.
10.1 asy
Objects of foundations:
En
Foundations are provided for the following purposes
gin
1) To distribute the total load coming on the structure on large
area.
2) To support the structure eer
ing
3) To give enough stability to the structures against various
distributing forces such as wind, rain etc.
.ne
4) To prepare a level surface for concreting and masonry work.
The general inspection of site of work serves as a good for
t
determine the type of foundation, to be adopted for the proposed
work and in addition, it helps in getting the data w.r.to the
following items.
i) Behavior of ground due to variations in depth of water
table
ii) Disposal of storm water at site
iii) Nature of soil by visual examination
iv) Movement of ground due to any reason etc.
w.E
1. A square pit of required size is excavated upto 5 times the
asy
side of steel plate to be used. At the centre of pit, square hole
is dig, which is same ratio to that of breadth to depth of pit.
En
2. The bottom of the hole is made level
gin
3. The steel plate is put up in the hole and then platform is
prepared as shown in fig 10.1. eer
ing
.ne
t
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proforma.
Date and
time of asy
Load Increase in Total settlement Remarks
taking
reading En
settlement
0.5 a gin a
tonne b
eer
a+b
c a+b+c
ing
- -
.ne
settlement
a1 a+b+c+a1 t
ceases
1.0 b1 a+b+c+a1+b1
tonne c1 a+b+c+a1+b1+c1 settlement
ceases
9. The settlement of the ground will be fairly is proportion to the
load upto a certain limit, when the bearing power of soil
exceeded, the settlement will be out of the proportion.
10. The bearing capacity and safe bearing capacity of soil are
calculated by using the following
eer
3) Dial gauges or deflect meters to record the settlement instead of
level & staff for the accuracy upto 0.02mm ing
4) The zero corrections should be deducted from the observed .ne
settlement to get actual settlements zero correction is the t
settlement due to adjustment of soil particles under the action of
loading
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
Fig 10.2 Method of Dropping Weight
t
Ultimate resistance of soil
wxh
R= -------------
d
ww
10.3 Types of soils – Bearing Capacity: Ultimately the load of the
structure is coming on the soil and hence, it is of utmost importance to
w.E
know the strength and behavior of the soil. The term bearing power or
asy
bearing capacity of soil is used to indicate the maximum load per unit
area, which the soils resist safely without displacement. Dividing the
En
ultimate bearing capacity of a soil by a factor of safety, the safe bearing
gin
capacity of a soil is obtained. Max. safe bearing capacity of different
types of soils are given in table 10.1. eer
S.No. Type of Soil ing
Max. safe bearing
w.E
categorized as follows
(i)
(ii)
asy
Open foundations or shallow foundations
Deep foundations
En
I. gin
Open foundations or shallow foundations: This is most common
eer
type of foundation and can be laid using open excavation by
ing
allowing natural slopes on all sides. This type of foundation is
practicable for a depth of about 5m and is normally convenient
.ne
above the water table. The base of the structure is enlarged or
spread to provide individual support. Since the spread foundations
t
are constructed in open excavations, therefore they are termed as
open foundations. This type of foundation is provided for structure
of moderate height built on sufficiently firm dry ground. The
various types of spread footings are:
1. Wall footing
2. Isolated footing
3. Combined footing
4. Inverted arch footing
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5. Continuous footing
6. Cantilever footing
7. Grillage footing
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the width of wall. The depth of concrete bed is atleast twice the
asy
projection as shown in fig 10.3. The depth of concrete bed is
calculated by
p En
T = m
f gin
where t – depth of concrete bed
p § 1 sin I ·
2
t
H = ¨¨ ¸¸ where
w © 1 sin I ¹
ww
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asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
Fig 10.3
2. Isolated Footings: These are used to support individed
columns. They can be of stepped type or have projections in the
concrete base. In case of heavy loaded columns steel
reinforcement is provided in both directions in concrete with
15cm offsets as shown in the fig10.4.
ww
w.E
asy
En
Fig 10.4 Types of Isolated Footings
gin
eer
3. Combined Footing: A combined footing supports two or more
ing
columns in a row A Combined footing may be rectangular or
trapezoidal constructed with reinforced concrete. The location
of centre of gravity of column loads and centroid of the footing .ne
should coincide. The combined footing is as shown in fig10.5. t
ww
w.E Fig 10.5 Combined Footings
asy
4. Inverted Arch Footing: This type of construction is used on
En
soft soils to reduce the depth of foundation loads above an
gin
opening are transmitted from supporting walls through inverted
eer
arches to the soil. In this type the end columns must be stable
ing
enough to resist the outward pressure caused by arch actions.
The inverted arch footing is as shown in fig10.6.
.ne
t
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
Fig 10.7 Continuous Footing ing
.ne
6. Strap or cantilever footing: Strap footing consists of two or t
more individual footings connected by a beam called strap or
cantilever footing or pump handle foundation. This type of
foundation may be used where the distance between the
columns is so great that combined trapezoidal footing becomes
quite narrow with high bending moments strap or cantiliver
footing is as shown in fig 10.8.
ww
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asy
En
gin
Fig 10.8 Strap or cantilever footing eer
ing
7. Grillage footing : This type of footing is used to transmit
.ne
heavy loads from steel columns to foundation soils having low
bearing power. This type of foundation avoids deep excavation
t
and provides necessary area at the base to reduce the intensity
of pressure of the foundation soil is not stiff and there is a
plenty of water with spring, the sides are protected by sharing.
The grillage footing is a s shown in fig 10.9.
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asy
En
Fig 10.9 Grillage Footing
gin
8. Raft Foundation: A raft or mat is a combined footing that
eer
covers the entire area beneath a structure and supports all the
columns. When the allowable soil pressure is low or the
ing
structure loads are heavy the use of spread footings would
cover more than one half of the area and it may be prove more .ne
economical to use raft foundation. There are also used where t
the soil mass contains compressible lenses so that the
differential settlement would be difficult to control usually
when the hard soil is not available within 1.5 to 2.5m, a raft
foundation is adopted. The raft is composed of reinforced.
Concrete beam with relatively thin slab underneath fig 10.10
shows different types of raft.
ww
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asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
Fig 10.10 Different types of Raft Foundations
II Deep foundations:
These foundations carry loads from a structure through weak
compressible soil or fills onto the stronger and less compressible
soils or rocks at depth. These foundations are in general used as
basements, buoyancy rofts, eaissions, cylinders, shaft and piles.
asy
their required level.
En
d) Cylinders: They are small single cell coissions
gin
eer
e) Shaft foundations: They are constructed within deep excavation
supported by lining constructed in place subsequently filled with
concrete. ing
.ne
f) Pile foundations: Pile foundation is a construction for the
foundation supported on piles. A pile is an element of
t
construction composed of timber, concrete, or steel or a
combination of them. Pile foundation may be defined as a
column support type of a foundation, which may be cast in-situ or
Pre-cast. This type of construction is adopted when the loose soil
extends to a great depth. The load of the structure is transmitted
by the piles to hard stratum below or it is resisted by the friction
developed on the sides of pipes.
ww
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asy
En
gin
eer
Fig 10.12 Different types of screw piles ing
d) Uplift piles- when the structure subjected to uplift
.ne
pressure.
e) Butter pile – To resist large horizontal or inclined forces
t
f) Sheet pile-used as bulk heads or a impervious cutoff
(ii) Classification based on materials and composition
a) Cement concrete piles-Posses excellent compressive
strength
1) Precast
2) Cast-in-site
a) Under reamed piles
b) Bored compaction piles as shown in fig 10.13.
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ww
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asy
Fig 10.13. Pre-cast concrete Pile
En
b) Timber piles-Small bearing capacity, not suitable for
hard soil and economical gin
eer
c) Steel piles-With stand impact stresses and resist lateral
forces
ing
d) Sand piles-Not suitable for loose or wet soils or where is
.ne
a danger of scour. Easy to construct and irrespective of
water table. t
e) Composite piles- combination of two different materials
are used to form composite file and suitable where the
upper part of pile to project above the water table.
Economical and easy to construct as shown in fig 10.14.
ww
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asy
En
gin
Fig 10.14 Under-reamed Piles
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10.5Requirements of a good foundation:
ing
Following are the three basic requirements to be fulfilled by a
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foundation to be satisfactory
1) Location : The foundation should be located that it is able
t
to resist any unexpected future influence which may
adversely affect its performance. This aspect requires
careful engineering judgement.
2) Stability: The foundation structure should be stable or safe
against any possible failure
3) Settlement: The foundation structure should not settle or
deflect to such an extent so as to impair its usefulness.
w.Ethe season
asy
4. Lateral pressure due to lateral movement of earth tending
En
to over turn the structure
gin
5. Action of weathering agencies like sun, wind or rain
eer
ing
6. Lateral escape of the soil beneath the foundation of the
structure
.ne
7. Roots trees and shrubs which penetrate the foundation
t
* * *
SYNOPYSIS
1. Foundations is the lowest – artificially prepared parts of structure
which are in direct contact with ground and which transmit the loads
of the structure to the ground
2. The object of providing the foundation is
(i) To distribute the total load coming onto the structure on large
area
w.E
(iii)To give stability to the structure
(iv)To prepare a level surface for concreting and masonry work
asy
3. The bearing capacity of soil is used to indicate maximum load per
En
unit area which the soil will resist safely without displacement
gin
4. Depending upon their nature and depth, the foundations are
(i) Shallow foundation
eer
(ii) Deep foundation
ing
5. The shallow or open foundation are the following types usually about
5m and above water table .ne
(i) Wall footing t
(ii) Isolated footing
(iii) Combined footing
(iv) Inverted footing
(v) Continuous footing
(vi) Cantilever footing
(vii) Grillage footing
6. Deep foundations carry loads from a structure through weak
compressible soils or fills are classified as
(i) Basements
(ii) Buoyancy rafts
(iii) Caissons
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8. Classification based on materials and composition
(i) Cement concrete piles a. Pre-cast b. Cast-in-site
(ii) w.E
Timber piles
(iii)
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Steel piles
(iv) Sand piles
En
(v) Composite piles
gin
9. A good foundation should have the basic requirements
(i) Location eer
(ii) Stability ing
(iii) Settlement .ne
10. The causes for the failure of foundations
(i) Non uniform settlement
t
(ii) Horizontal movement of the soil
(iii) Alternate swelling and shrinkage
(iv) Lateral pressure due to lateral movement of earth
(v) Action of weathering agencies
(vi) Lateral escape of the soil beneath the foundation of
structure
(vii) Roofs of trees and shrubs
* * *
CHAPTER – 11
MASONRY
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to form a homogeneous mass in such a manner that they can with stand
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point to other loads and transmit then through the mass without fail or
disintegration.
asy
Masonry can be classified into the following categories.
1. Stone masonry En
2. Brick masonry gin
3. Hallow block concrete masonry
eer
4. Reinforced masonry
ing
5. Composite masonry
These can be further sub-divided into varies types depending upon .ne
workmanship and type of materials used. t
Definitions of terms:
ww and backing
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6. Head: It is a brick or stone, which lies with its greatest length
at right angles to the face of the work.
asy
En
7. Stretcher: It is a brick or a stone which lies with its congest
gin
side parallel to the face of the work
eer
8. Bond: The method of arranging bricks so that the individual
units are tied together
ing
9. Spalls: The chips of stones used for filling the interstics in .ne
stone masonry t
10. Quoins: The stones used for the corners of walls of structure
En
immediately below the window opening
gin
eer
18. Corbel: It is the extension of one or more course of stone or
brick from the face of a wall to serve as a support for wall
plates ing
.ne
19. Templates: Pieces of stones placed under the end of a beam
to distribute load over a greater area.
t
20. Coping: It is the course placed upon the exposed top of an
external wall to prevent the seepage of water
ww
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asy
En
gin
eer
ing
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t
w.E structures
(ii)
asy
Building walls, piers, columns, pillars, light
houses and architectural works.
(iii) En
Arches, domes, lintels and beams
(iv) gin
Roofs, flems, paving jobs
(v) eer
Railway, bullest, black boards and electrical
switch boards ing
11.1.1 Selection of stone for stone masonry:
.ne
The selection of stones for stone masonry depends upon
a. Availability
t
b. Ease of working
c. Appearance
e. Polishing characteristics
f. Economy
g. Durability
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The table 11.1 given broadly outlines the different types of stones
bridges, piers
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2. Buildings situated in industrial towns Granite and compact
w.E sandstone
3. asy
Pavements, railway ballast, doorsits and Granite slabs and
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steps
gin slate
slate
ing
5. Fire resistance works Compact sandstone
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6. Carving and ornamental works Marble and laterite t
7. Face work and architectural purposes Marble, granite closer
ww
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asy
En
gin
Fig 11.2 Tools for Stone Masonry
eer
a) Trowel : This is used to lift and spread mortar
b) Square: This is made of flat steel having each arm abouting
0.5m long
.ne
c) Plumb rule and bob: This is used to check the vertically of
walls
t
d) Spirit level: this is used to chick the horizontality of walls
e) Line and pin: This is used to maintain the alignment of the
work in progress
f) Bevel: The instrument used to set right angles
g) Pick axe: This is employed for dressing of rough stone and
split the stones in the quarry
h) Crowbar: This is used to make stones in query
i) Chisels: They are used to dress stones
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comice, coping etc
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p) Claw tool: This is employed for dressing the surface of
stones
En
q) Nicker: This is employed to draw fine chisel lines on the
stone surface gin
r) Jumper: They are used for boring holes eer
s) Wedge and feathers: They are employed for cutting the ing
stones after they have been bored with jumper.
.ne
t) Gad: A small steel wedge used for splitting of stones
u) Drag: This is employed to level a stone surface
t
v) Punch: This is employed to dress roughly the stones
w) Handsaw: This is used to cut soft stones
x) Cross-cut saw: This is used to cut hard stones
y) Frame saw: This is used to cut large blocks of stones.
11.3 Types of Stone Masonry:
Based on the arrangement of the stone in the construction and
degree of refinement in the surface finish, the stone masonry can be
classified broadly in the following two categories
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5. In order to obtain uniform distribution of load, under the ends of
asy
griders, roof trusses etc large flat stones should be used
6. The beds of the stones and plan of the course should be at right
En
angles to the slope in the case of sloping retaining wall
gin
7. Wood boxing should be filled into walls having fine dressed
eer
stone work to protect it during further construction
ing
8. The mortar to be used should be good quality and in the specified
faces.
.ne
9. The instruction work of stone masonry should be raised
uniformly.
t
10. The plumb bob should be used to check the vertically of erected
wall
11. The stone masonry section should always be designed to take
compression and not the tensile stresses
12. The masonry work should be properly cured after the completion
of work for a period of 2 to 3 weeks
13. As per as possible broken stones or small stones chips should not
used
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w.E
asy
(i) Uncoursed rubble masonry: This is the cheapest, roughest and
poorest form of stone masonry. The stones used in this type of
En
masonry very much vary in their shape and size and are directly
gin
obtained from quarry. Uncoursed rubble masonry can be divided into
the following. eer
a) Uncoursed random rubble ing
b) Uncoursed squared rubble
.ne
a) Uncoursed random rubble masonry: The weak corners and
edges are removed with mason’s hammer. Generally, bigger
t
stone blocks are employed at quoins and jambs to increase the
strength of masonry.
ww
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asy
En
Fig 11.3 Uncoursed random rubble masonry
gin
b) Uncoursed squared rubble: In this type the stone blocks are
made roughly square with hammer. Generally the facing stones
eer
are given hammer-dressed finish. Large stones are used as
ing
quoins. As far as possible the use of chips in bedding is avoided
as shown in 11.4. .ne
t
ww
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asy
En
gin
Fig 11.5 Coursed Random Rubble
eer
(iii)Coursed squared rubble: This type of masonry is made up of
hammer squared stones facing with bonded backing of uncourseding
random rubble masonry. The stones employed in each course are of
.ne
equal height. The backing and facing construction, should be carried
simultaneously. In order to avoid thick mortar joints, small chips may
t
be used as shown in the fig 11.6.
ww
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asy
En
gin
eer
ing
Fig 11.6 Coursed Squared Rubble Masonry
.ne
(iv)Built to regular course: In this type of stone masonry the uniform
height stones are used in horizontal layers not less than 13cm in
t
height. Generally, the stone beds are hammered or chisel dressed to a
depth of atleast 10cm from the face. The stones are arranged in such
a manner so that the vertical joints of two consecutive curse donot
coincide with each other as shown in fig 11.7.
ww
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asy
En
gin
Fig 11.7 Built to regular courses eer
ing
(v) Polygonal rubble masonry: In this type of masonry the stones are
roughly dressed to an irregular polygonal shape. The stones should
.ne
be so arranged as to avoid long vertical joints in face work and to
break joints as much as possible. Small stone chips should not be
t
used to support the stones on the facing as shown in fig 11.8.
w.E
(vi) Plint rubble masonry: This type of masonry is used in the areas
where the flint is available in plenty. The flint stones varying in
asy
thickness from 8 to 15cm and in length from 15 to 30cm are
En
arranged in the facing in the form of coursed or uncoursed masonry
as shown in fig 11.9. gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
ww
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asy
En
gin
Fig 11.10 Dry Rubble Masonry
eer
2. Ashlar Masonry: This type of masonry is built from accurately
ing
dressed stones with uniform and fine joints of about 3mm thickness
by arranging the stone blocks in various patterns. The backing of
.ne
ashlar masonry walls may be built of ashlar masonry or rubble
masonry. The size of stones blocks should be in proportion to wall
t
thickness. The various types of masonry can be classified under the
following categories as shown in fig 11.11 to fig 11.13 .
ww
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asy
Fig 11.11 Ashlar Fine Masonry
En
gin
eer
Fig 11.12 Ashlar chamfered Masonry ing
.ne
t
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tall chimneys, cavity walls, thresholds, culverts, steps, floors, arches etc.
The strength of brick masonry works depends upon the quality of bricks
w.E
and type of mortar used.
asy
Generally mortars are following types used for brick masonry
3. In the brickwork, the bricks should be laid on their beds with the
frogs pointing upwards
w.E
8. In order to ensure continuous bond between the old and the new,
asy
the wall should be stopped with a toothed end.
En
9. Finished brickwork should be cured for a period of 2 to 3 weeks
gin
for lime mortar and 1 to 2 weeks for cement mortar
eer
10. In order to carryout the brickwork at higher level, a single
scaffolding is used.
ing
.ne
11.6 Types of brick bonds: t
Bonding is a process of arranging bricks and mortars to tie them
together in a mass of brickwork. It should have a minimum of vertical
joints in any part of the work.
1. The brick masonry should have bricks of uniform shape and size
w.E
6. The stretcher should be used only in the facing while hearting
asy
should be done in the headers only
En
gin
Classifications of bonds: The bonds can be classified as follows:
Stretcher bond: In this type of bond all the bricks are laid with their
ww
lengths in the direction of the wall. This pattern is used only for wall
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having thickness of 9cm only as shown in fig 11.14.
asy
En
gin
eer
Fig 11.14 Stretcher Bond ing
Header bond: In this type of bond all the bricks are laid with their ends .ne
towards the face of the wall. This arrangement is suitable for one t
brickwall of curved wall and footings for better load distribution as
shown in fig 11.15.
ww
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asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
ww
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asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
ww
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asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
Fig 11.18 Double Flemish Bond
t
Single Flemish bond: This type of bond is comprised of double
Flemish bond facing and English bond backing in each course. This
type of construction partially possesses the strength of English
bond, and appearance of Flemish bond. As this type of bond
requires minimum thickness of 1 ½ bricks so it cannot be used for
ww
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asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
Fig 11.19 Single Flemish Bond
Garden wall bond: This type of bond is employed for the
construction of garden walls, compound walls, boundary walls etc.
This wall bond can be both English as well as Flemish as shown in
the fig 11.20 & 11.21.
ww
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asy
En
gin
Fig 11.20 English Garden Wall Bond
eer
ing
.ne
t
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the ¾ bat in every alternate stretcher course as shown in the fig
11.22.
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
ww
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asy
En
gin
eer
ing
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Fig 11.23 Herring Bone Bond
Zigzag bond: This type of bond very much similar to herring bone
t
bond. The only difference is that bricks are laid in zigzag way and
used for paving the brick floor as shown in fig 11.24
ww
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asy
En
gin
Fig 11.24 Zigzag Bond
eer
ing
English cross bond: This type of bond is aesthetically more sound
and posses greater strength than English bond. In this bond every
.ne
alternate stretcher course has a header placed next to the quolin
t
stretcher and rest of the details are similar to English bond as
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
Fig 11.25 English Cross Bond
eer
Brick on edge bond or soldier course: In this type of bond, the
bricks are laid on edge. The bricks are placed as headers and
ing
stretchers in alternate courses in such a manner that headers are
placed on bed and the stretchers are placed an edge forming a .ne
continuous cavity. This bond is weak in strength but economical.
Bonds in columns: Generally English bond or double Flemish bond
t
are used for column construction. In case of circular or octagonal
ww
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asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
ww
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asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
ww
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asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
(ii) For cross junctions – English bond is used as shown in fig. 11.29
ww
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asy
En
gin
Fig 11.29 Cross Junctions in english bond
eer
* * * ing
.ne
t
SYNOPYSIS
w.E
(iii)Hallow Masonry
asy
(iv)Re-forced masonry
(v) Composite Masonry
3. The En
stone masonry is useful for foundations, dams, walls,
gin
piers, columns, arches, domes, lintels, beams, roofs, floors,
eer
railway ballest, black boards and electrical switch boards
4. Stone masonry is divided ing
(i) Rubble masonry
.ne
(ii) Ashlar masonry
5. The brick masonry is a unified mass obtained by systematically
t
arrangement of laying brick and bonded together with mortar.
6. The brick mortar generally the following types
(i) Mud mortar
(ii) Cement mortar
(iii)Cement lime mortar
(iv)Lime surkhi mortar
7. Bonding is a process of arranging bricks and mortars to tie
them together in a mass of brickwork
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(ix) Raking bond
(x)
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Zig zag bond
(xi) English cross bond
(xii) Bonds in columnsEn
gin
(xiii) Brick on edge bond or soldier course
(xiv) Bonds at junction and squint junction eer
ing
.ne
t
7.
construction
asy
Explain the types of stone masonry
8. En
Explain the types of brick masonry
9. gin
What are principles adopted in brick masonry construction?
10. eer
Compare the merits and demerits of stone masonry and brick
masonry. ing
* * *
.ne
t
CHAPTER – 12
FLOORS
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rest on the ground, do not require the provision of a floor. But they are
w.E
provided with suitable type of flooring.
12.1 asy
Types of Floors:
En
Floors are classified into two categories
1. Timber Floors gin
2. Composite Floors
eer
ing
1. Timber Floors: In this floor, only timber is used as a material.
Timber floors are further divided into four types. .ne
a. Basement or Ground floor of timber t
b. Single Joist timber beam
c. Double Joist timber beam
d. Framed triple joist timber floor.
asy
improve the appearance as a whole, ceilings may be provided rest on
En
bridging joists or binders. The ceilings may consists of plaster boards or
gin
sheets of asbestors cement or some suitable material. In order to make
ceilings strong and durable, ceiling joists may be provided at right angles
to the bridging joists or the binders. eer
(i) Pugging: In order to make the timber floor sound proof,ing
pugging may be resorted. Pugging plaster is a mixture of
.ne
chopped straw and mortar. Insulating boards supporting on
fillets are provided and hallows space between the
t
floorboards and the insulating boards is filled up with the
pugging plaster.
(ii) Trimming: When openings are to be provided in wooden
floors, it is clear that bridging joists will not rest on the walls.
In such cases, the process of trimming is required. Trimming
joists support one or two trimmer joists to which trimmed
joists are fixed. The trimming joists and trimmer joists have
w.E
constructed on ground floor. Sleeper walls, which may be of
asy
one-half brick or one brick thickness, are constructed at
centre to centre distance of 1.20m to 1.80m. Wall-plates are
En
provided along the wall as well as along the sleeper walls and
gin
they reduce the spans of the building joists and serve as end
eer
supports for the bridging joists. On wall-plates rest the ends
ing
of bridging joists, which are usually provided at a centre to
centre distance of about 30 cm. Finally, floor boards are
.ne
provided to finish up the floor. The details are as shown in fig
12.2.
t
ww
b) w.E
Fig 12.2. Basement or ground floor of timber
Single Joist timber floor:
asy
These floors consist of single joist, which are placed below
En
the floorboards. The joists are usually placed at a centre to
gin
centre distance of 30cm to 45cm. The joists are supported on
eer
wall-plates at their ends. A space of about 50mm is kept for
ing
the circulation of air as shown in fig 12.3. Single joist timber
floor can be adopted for a maximum span of about 3.6m.
When the span of joist exceeds 2.4m, it becomes necessary to .ne
strengthen the joist by providing bearing bone strutting. In t
this arrangement, inclined timber pieces are firmly fixed
between the joists and the ends of these struts are nailed to the
joist. At the end, wedges are provided between the wall and
the joists.
ww
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asy
En
gin
eer
Fig 12.3 Details of single joist timber floor
c) Double joist timber floors:
ing
In this type of floors, intermediate supports known as binders,
.ne
are provided for bridging joists. Binders are generally placed
at a centre to centre distance of 1.80m to 2.40m as shown in t
fig 12.4. The ends of binders rest on wooden or stone blocks.
Double joist timber floors are stronger than the single joist
timber floors. They prevent the passage of sound in better
way and they are suitable for spans of 3.60 to 7.50m. This
type of floors has following disadvantages.
(i) The weight of floor is thrown on few points in a wall.
(ii) Depth of floor is increased by the use of binders and
accordingly height of the room is decreased.
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asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
d)
Fig 12.4
Framed or triple joist timber floor:
t
In this type of floors, intermediate supports, known as girders,
are provided for the binders. Thus, this type of floor consists
of girders, binders, bridging joists and floor boards as shown
in fig 12.5. Girders are generally placed at a centre to centre
distance of 3 metres. Binders are staggered and connected to
girders by tusk and tenon joints. Alternatively, the ends of
binders are supported on the iron stirrups, which are fixed to
ww
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asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
Fig 12.5 Details of framed timber floors
t
II Composite Floors:
Floors composed of more than one material are known as
composite floors and they found to possess the following
advantages.
(i) Resist fire and sound in better way than timber floors
(ii) Better hygienic because can be easily cleaned
(iii) Adopted for greater spans.
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are provided and span exceeds 4m, a framework consists of
asy
rolled steel beams and joists is formed. Steel beams are
placed at a distance of about 3m centre to centre and joists are
En
placed at right angles to beams. Flagstones of about 40mm
gin
thickness and of suitable width are fixed on the lower flanges
eer
and upper flanges. The joints of top layer of flagstones are
ing
finished in a better way to give a nice appearance. Filling of
selected earth or concrete is done in the space between the
.ne
two layers of the flagstones.
t
ww
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asy
En
gin
Fig 12.7 Filler Joist Floor
c) Jack arch floors:
eer
ing
In this type of floor, brick arches or cement concrete arches
are constructed and these arches rest on the lower flanges of
mild steel joists. The joists in turn rest either on wall or on .ne
beam. The joists are placed at a distance of about 80cm to t
120cm center to center. The rise of arch should be 10cm to
20cm. and the minimum depth of concrete at the crown
should be 15cm. The only disadvantage of this floor is that it
does not give plain ceiling surface as shown in the fig 12.8. (a
& b)
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
Fig 12.9 R.C.C. Floor .ne
The reinforced concrete may be cast-in-situ or pre-cast, the former t
being very common. R.C.C. floors are less costly, durable, easy to
construct and fire-proof. However, they are likely to transmit sound.
In any case R.C.C. floors are fast replacing other types of floors.
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Fig 12.10 Hallow Block and Rib floor
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* * * .ne
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SYNOPYSIS
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(i) Basement or ground floor of timber
(ii) Single joist timber beam
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(iii)Double joist timber beam
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(iv)Framed or triple joist timber beam
4. The composite floors are the following eer
(i) Double flag stone floors ing
(ii) Filler joists floors
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(iii)Jack arch floor
(iv)R.C.C. floors
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(v) Hallow block or rib floors
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2. Explain the following
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a) double flag stone floors
b) jack arch floors
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3. Explain the construction of composite floors briefly
4. Explain the following gin
a) R.C.C. floor eer
b) Hollow block and rab floors ing
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* * *
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CHAPTER – 13
ROOFS
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coverings.
(i)
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Following are the requirements of well planned roof:
It should be durable against the adverse effects of various
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agencies such as wind, rain, sun etc.
(ii) En
It should grant the desirable insulation against sound and heat.
(iii) gin
It should be structurally stable and sound, it should be capable of
taking the loads likely to come over it.
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(iv) It should be well-drained
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(v) It should have efficient water-proofing arrangement.
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13.1 Types of roofs-Methods of construction: t
The roofs classified into the following three categories;
(i) Pitched roofs
(ii) Flat roofs
(iii) Curved roofs
I. Pitched roofs: A sloping roof is known as pitched roof as
shown in the fig 13.1. The technical terms in connection with
the pitched roof are given below
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Fig 13.1 Building with pitched roof eer
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(i) Barge Boards: Wooden planks or boards which are .ne
fixed on the gable end of the roof t
(ii) Battens: Thin strips of wood which are fixed on
rafters or ceiling to support the roof ceiling.
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degrees or as a ratio of rise to span.
(ix)
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Purlins: The wooden pieces which are placed
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horizontally on principal rafters to carry the common
rafters are known as purlins.
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(x)
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Rafters: There are the pieces of timber which extend
from the caves to the ridge
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a) Common rafters: These are the intermediate
rafters, which give support to the roof coverings t
a shown in the fig 13.2.
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are embedded on top of walls to receive the common
rafters
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(i)
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Single roof: In this type of roofs, common rafters are provided to
each slope without any intermediate support. The following are
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the varieties of single roof.
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a) Lean to roof
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b) Couple roof
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c) Couple close roof ing
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d) Collar beam roof
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a) Lean to roof: It is the simplest form of a pitched roof and it is
known as pent roof or Aisle roof. In this type of roof, one wall is
carried up sufficiently higher than the other to give necessary slope
to the roof. A lean-to roof is generally used for sheds, out-houses
attached to main buildings verandah etc. This is suitable for a
maximum span of 2.40m as shown in fig 13.3.
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Fig 13.3 Lean-to roof
b) Couple roof: In this type of roof the common rafters slope
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upwards from the opposite walls and they meet on a ridge piece in
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the middle as shown in the fig 13.4. A couple roof is suitable for
spans upto about 3.6m. .ne
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c) Couple close roof: This roof is just similar to couple roof except
that the legs of the common rafters are connected by a tie beam as
shown in the fig 13.5. The tie beam prevents the tendency of rafters
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Fig 13.5 Couple close roof t
d) Collar beam roof: The tie beam is raised and placed at a higher
of 4.8m.
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(i) Double or purlin roofs: When the span exceeds 2.4m, the
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necessary size for the rafters becomes uneconomical. Hence in
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order to reduce the size of rafters, intermediate supports called
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purlins are introduced under the rafters as shown in fig 13.7. This
(ii) Trussed roofs: When the span exceeds 4.8m and when there are
no inside supporting walls or partitions for purlins, framed
structure known as trusses are on the roof, position of cross walls,
span and material of the truss. The spacing is 3m for wooden
trusses. Trusses carry the ridge piece and purlins on which the
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given below.
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a) King-post truss
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b) Queen post truss
c) Mansard truss
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d) Truncated truss
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e) Bel-fast truss
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f) Steel trusses
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g) Composite trusses t
a) King post truss: In this type of truss, the central post known
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Fig 13.8 King post truss roof
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b) Queen post truss: This truss is differ from a king-post truss
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in having two vertical members known as queen posts. The
upper ends of the queen posts are kept in position by means t
of a horizontal member known as straining beam. Additional
purlins are supported on the queen posts. A queen post truss
is suitable for roof spans varying 8 to 12 m as shown in fig
13.9.
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fig 13.9 Queen post truss .ne
c) Mansard truss: this is a combination of king post and queen
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post trusses. Lower queen post & upper king post trusses. Use
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Fig 13.11 Truncated truss
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e) Steel trusses: For spans greater 12m, it becomes economical
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to use steel trusses. For smaller spans, steel trusses consists of
angles riveted or welded together through plates known as .ne
gusset plates. As steel resists both compression and tension
stresses, the design of steel truss is simplified various types of
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steel trusses are shown in fig 13.12.
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The factors should be considered before selecting the type of roof
covering for pitched roofEn
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(i) Climate of the locality
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(ii) Nature of the building
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(iii)Initial cost and maintaince cost .ne
(iv)Resistance to fire and heat
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(v) Special features of the locality.
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1. Teak wood joists are placed on rolled steel joists with a furring
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piece between the joists and rolled steel joists. The furring is
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placed sloping and gives necessary slope to the flat roof
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2. A course of specially prepared terrace bricks of 150x75x25mm
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is laid diagonally across the joists with lime mortar
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3. After the brick course, has set, a course of brick bat concrete of
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75mm thick with 3 parts of brick bats, one part of gravel and
sand and 50 percent of lime mortar by volume is laid.
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4. The concrete is well rammed for three days and allowed to set
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5. Flat tiles are laid over the layer of concrete of thickness 50mm
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Fig 13.14 Madras Terrace Roof
2. Bengal terrace roof:
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Procedure of construction:
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1.
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Rafters are placed, with a slight inclination, at 30cm to 50cm
c/c. one end of the rafters is inserted into the main wall to a
depth of 20cm and its other end is supported on a verandah .ne
wall. t
2. Battens are placed at right angles to the rafters at a centre to
centre distance of about 15cm
3. A course of flat tiles is then laid in mortar over the battens.
4. Finally, the surface of the roof is finished in any one of the
following methods
(i) Two or more courses of flat tiles may be laid and the
surface of roof is rubbed and polished with two or
three coats of plaster
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Fig 13.16 North-light shell roof
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Curved roofs afford pleasing appearance and due to arch action, the
stresses are considerably reduced which results in thin sections for a
curved roof.
Procedure of construction
(i) Pre-cast units of cement concrete tilis of size 70 x 70cm with
a uniform minimum thickness of 20mm in the form of domes
with a rise of about 50mm are used
(ii) Pre-cast units of R.C.C. 1:2:4 beams are prepared as per
ww design usually 90mm deep and 130mm wide as per design
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usually 90mm deep and 130mm wide
(iii)
(iv)
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The beams are suitably laid across the supporting walls
The tiles are placed in position after spreading some mortar
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on the edges of beams. The minimum bearing of tiles on
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beams should be 25mm and that on walls should be 50mm to
70mm eer
(v) ing
The haunches between the humps of tiles are filled up with
cement concrete of proportion 1:2:4
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(vi) Suitable water-proofing treatment to the roof is given at the
top. The roof thus exhibits a flat surface at the top and curved
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surface at bottom.
Advantages
1. It can be constructed in short time
2. It does not require skilled supervision
3. It is cheap in construction
4. It requires less frame work
* * *
7. When the span exceeds 4.8m and when there are no inside supporting
walls or partitions for purlins, framed structure known as truss of
following types
(i) King post truss
(ii) Queen post truss
(iii) Truncated truss
(iv) Be-fast truss
(v) Steel truss
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8. A roof which is nearly flat is known as flat roof commonly used flat
roofs are
(i)
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Madras terrace roof
(ii) Bengal terrace roof En
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9. Curved roof are the just modified of pitched roofs to cover large
areas eer
Ex: shell roofs, dome roofs. ing
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* * *
CHAPTER 14
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materials used for damp-proofing (D.P.C) damp-proofing treatments in
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buildings, treatment of dampness are discussed under damp proof
chapter.
14.1 asy
Sources of dampness(causes)
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Dampness in building in generally due to one or more of the
following causes
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(i) Faulty design of structure
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(ii) Faulty construction or poor workmanship
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(iii) Use of poor materials in construction
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stones, tiles etc and hence reduction of strength
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3. It may result in softening and crumbling of plaster
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4. It may cause bleaching and flaking of the paint which results in
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the formation of coloured patches on the wall surfaces and
ceilings
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5. It may result in the corrosion of metals used in the construction of
buildings
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6. The materials used as floor coverings such as tiles are damaged
because they lose adhesion with the floor bases
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7. Timber when in contact with damp condition, gets deteriorated
due to the effect of warping, buckling and rolling of timber
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2. All the exposed walls should be of sufficient thickness to
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safeguard against rain protection (minimum 30cm)
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3. Bricks of superior quality free from defects should be used
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4. Good quality cement mortar (1:3) should be used to produce
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definite pattern and perfect bond in the building
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5. Cornices and string courses should be provided to through
rain water away from the walls
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6. All the exposed surfaces like top of walls, compound walls
etc should be covered with water proofing cement plaster
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7. Cavity walls are more reliable than solid walls in preventing
the dampness
Techniques:
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in the case of building without basement lies at plinth level or
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structures without any plinth level, it should be laid at least 15cm
above ground level. The damp proof course provided horizontally
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and vertically in floors, walls etc. In the case of basements, laying
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of D.P.C. is known as taking Fig 14.1 shows the D.P.C. treatment
above ground level. eer
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t
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magnesium sulphate in alternate applications. Soft soap and alum
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also in alternate applications, unie and unseed oil; coal tar,
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bitumen, waxes and fats; resins and gums
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Waxes and fats are not suitable in tropics as they melt with
rise in temperatures
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3. Integral damp-proofing treatments :
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The integral treatment consists of adding certain compounds to
the concrete or mortar during the process of mixing, which when
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used in construction acts as barriers to moisture penetration under
different principles
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continuous air space or cavity. The provision of continuous
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cavity in the wall per effectively prevent the transmission or
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percolation of dampness from outer walls or leaf to inner wall or
leaf. The following are the advantages of cavity wall.
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(i) As there is no contact between outer and inner walls of
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cavity wall, possibility of moisture penetration is reduced
to a minimum.
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(ii) A cavity wall prevents the transmission of heat through
wall.
The cavity wall construction and D.P.C. details for flat roofs is
as shown in fig no 14.2
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Fig 14.2 Cavity wall construction and D.P.C. details for flat roofs
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6. Pressure grouting or (cementation). The mixture of cement,
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sand and water under pressure into the cracks, voids or fissures
present in the structural component or the ground. In general, the
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foundations are given this treatment to avoid the moisture
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penetration. This technique also used for repairing structures,
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consolidating ground to improve bearing capacity, forming water
cut-offs to prevent seepage etc.
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Fire protection: t
It is defined as the protection of the occupants of the building,
contents and structure of the building and adjacent buildings from the
risks of fire and spread of fire. The objective is achieved by using fire-
resistive materials in the construction. By suitable planning of the
building internally and in relation to adjacent building internally and in
relation to adjacent building and by providing suitable means of quick
escape for the occupants. These measures are essential to minimize the
spread of fire and limit the total damage to a minimum
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Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net
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etc should be made of fire resisting materials
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3. The construction of structural elements such as walls, floors,
columns, lintels, arches etc should be made in such a way that
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they should continue to function atleast for the time, which may
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be sufficient for occupants to escape safely in times of fire.
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4. The building should be so planned or oriented that the elements
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of construction or building components can with stand fire for a
given time depending upon the size and use of building, to isolate .ne
various compartments so as to minimize the spread of fire
suitable separation is necessary to prevent fire, gases, and smoke
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from spreading rapidly through corridors, staircases left shafts
etc.
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a) Walls and columns
b) Floor and roofs
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c) Wall openings
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d) Building fire escape elements (i.e.,) stair, staircase,
corridors, entrances etc.
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a) Walls and columns: The load-bearing non-load bearing
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walls should be plastered with fire resistive mortar to improve
fire resistance. Normally 20cm thick common wall is
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sufficient from fire resistance point of view. Bricks should be
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preferred to stones if the construction is solid bearing wall. If
it happens to be a framed structure then R.C.C. frames are t
preferred to those of steel frame. Partition walls, should also
be fire resistant materials. In case of wooden partitions are
employed, they should be covered with metal lath and plaster.
Sufficient cover to R.C.C. members like beams or columns
should be to enable them to function satisfactorily, under the
fire maximum time. It has been recommended that a cover of
atleast 5cm inside the main reinforcement of structural
members, like columns, girders, trusses etc, 38mm for
ordinary beam, long span slabs, arches etc, 25mm for
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Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net
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be constructed out of fire-resistant materials and be well
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separated from the rest of the building. Doors to the
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staircase, corridors and lefts should be made of fire-
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proofing materials. Staircase should be created next to the
outerwalls and should be accessible from any floor in the
direction of flow towards the exits from the building. .ne
14.5 General measures of fire safety in building:
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In important buildings, in addition to the fire-resisting
materials and adopting fire resistant construction, the following
general measures of fire-safety have been recommended
SYNOPYSIS
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(ii) Faulty construction or poor workmanship
(iii) asy
Use of poor materials inc construction
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3. The effects of dampness are
(i) gin
Unhealthy living and working conditions for
occupants
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(ii) ing
Disintegration of bricks results decreasing in
strength
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(iii)
(iv)
Crumbling of plaster
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suitable planning
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6. The general measures of fire safety in building are
(i) En
Alaram system
(ii) gin
Fire extinguish arrangements
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8. What are the properties of ideal fire resisting material?
* * *