Extrinsic and intrinsic determinants of quality of
work life
Keywords
Quality of working life, Surveys,
Factor analysis, Health care,
Canada
Abstract
The objective of this research was
to test whether extrinsic, intrinsic
or ``prior'' traits best predict
satisfaction with quality of work life
(QWL) in health care. Extrinsic
traits are salaries and other
tangible benefits; intrinsic traits
include skill levels, autonomy and
challenge. Prior traits are those of
the individuals involved, such as
their gender or employment status.
A survey of employees was
conducted in seven different health-
care settings located in the south
central region of Ontario, Canada. A
total of 65 questions were gathered
into scales measuring such factors
as co-worker support, supervisor
support and teamwork and
communication. These were factor-
analyzed into intrinsic and extrinsic
variables, and regressed against a
satisfaction scale, with socio-
demographic variables included.
Based on the results, the following
conclusions can be drawn:
objectively identifiable traits of an
organization ± pay, benefits and
supervisor style ± play the major
role in determining QWL
satisfaction. Decision-makers with
an interest in improving QWL in a
health-care institution can focus on
these traits and pay
correspondingly less attention to
enhancing staff autonomy or
discretion.
This study was funded by a
grant from the St Joseph's
Health-care System
Leadership in Health Services
14/2 [2001] ix±xv
# MCB University Press
[ISSN 1366-0756]
David Lewis
Research Scientist, Father Sean O'Sullivan Research Centre, Hamilton, Ontario,
Canada
Kevin Brazil
St Joseph's Health-care System Research Network, Ontario, Canada
Paul Krueger
St Joseph's Health-care System Research Network, Ontario, Canada
Lynne Lohfeld
St Joseph's Health-care System Research Network, Ontario, Canada
Erin Tjam
St Joseph's Health-care System Research Network, Ontario, Canada
Background
Quality of work life
In the scientific management tradition,
satisfaction with quality of work life (QWL)
was thought to be based solely on ``extrinsic''
traits of the job: salaries and other tangible
benefits, and the safety and hygiene of the
workplace. By contrast, the human relations
approach stresses that, while extrinsic
rewards are important, ``intrinsic rewards''
are key predictors of productivity, efficiency,
absenteeism and turnover. These intrinsic
rewards include traits specific to the work
done, the ``task content'': skill levels,
autonomy and challenge. A third option,
called the ``orientations to work'' approach,
suggests that a focus on extrinsic or intrinsic
rewards is contingent on the person: some
people will place a greater emphasis on the
former than will others. Just who will prefer
what is predictable in part by these
individuals' past histories and ``occupational
cultures,'' which are indicated in turn by
their education, occupation, and
demographics (Goldthorpe et al., 1966; Krahn
and Lowe, 1998; Crompton and Harris, 1998;
Gallie, 1990; Rose, 1994).
The research on which these findings are
based, however, has commonly been directed
at workers in ``the three Ms'' ± male-
dominated, manual, manufacturing
industries ± and it is not clear whether it also
applies to health care, where there is a higher
proportion of female staff; work is
professional, semi-professional, or clerical;
and organizations provide services rather
than producing goods (Clegg and Dunkerley,
1980; Clegg and Hardy, 1996; Micklethwait,
1998). Moreover, the research can be
criticized for its ambiguity: so-called
``extrinsic'' factors like pay, for example,
carry both an instrumental weight ± they are
means-to-an-end in that they provide the
wherewithal to support leisure and home
lives ± and an expressive one, in that they
may be seen as a clue about how one is
valued by an organization.
Reference to these dynamics has been
muted in health-care organizations. QWL in
health care has been described in published
studies as referring to the strengths and
weaknesses in the total work environment
(Knox and Irving, 1997). These studies have
shown that low job satisfaction is a major
cause of turnover among health-care
providers (Yoder, 1995; Curry et al., 1985;
MacRobert et al., 1993). In addition, job
satisfaction may affect quality of service and
organizational commitment (MacRobert et
al., 1993; Beall et al., 1994; Alpander, 1990;
Joseph and Deshpande, 1997; van de Looij and
Benders, 1995). This in turn has been viewed
as exacerbating shortages of health-care
providers (Goodell and Van Ess Coeling,
1994). These considerations have produced an
increased emphasis in recent years on
studying job satisfaction among health-care
providers (Sinkkonen, 1994).
Blegen (1993) conducted a meta-analysis,
which included 48 studies looking at work
satisfaction and included more than 15,000
nurses. The results of this analysis revealed
that job satisfaction was associated strongly
with reduced work stress, organizational
commitment, communication with
supervisor, autonomy, recognition, fairness,
locus of control, years of experience,
education and professionalism. Knox and
Irving (1997) report another meta-analysis
concerning nurses and QWL, which
indicated that autonomy is significantly
associated with QWL. Thus, the QWL factors
resulting from these two meta-analyses
include: reduced work stress; organizational
commitment and belonging; positive
communication; autonomy; recognition;
predictability of work activities; fairness;
clear locus of control; organizational
decisions; education; professionalism; low
role conflict; job performance feedback;
opportunities for advancement; and
equitable pay levels.
[ ix ]
David Lewis, Kevin Brazil,
Paul Krueger, Lynne Lohfeld
and Erin Tjam
Extrinsic and intrinsic
determinants of quality of
work life
Leadership in Health Services
14/2 [2001] ix±xv
However, characteristics that describe the
overall organization are viewed as part of the
behavior and reward system of the staff
working in that setting. Organizational
features such as policies and procedures,
leadership style, operations, and general
contextual factors of the setting, while
having some bearing on the ``extrinsic-
intrinsic'' domain, have not been aimed at it
specifically; nor has there been much
interest in discovering whether ``prior
orientations'' have an effect on how staff view
the quality of their work life.
The purpose of this study was to conduct a
survey that would report on the QWL of
employees in seven health-care institutions
providing acute, chronic/rehabilitative,
long-term care, and home-care to residents in
Central-South Ontario, Canada. The results
of the survey were intended to assist decision
makers in identifying key workplace issues
in order to develop strategies to address and
improve the quality of working conditions in
each organization. Together, however, the
project can contribute to answering a more
general question: the extent to which a
scientific management, human relations, or
orientations to work approach is most
appropriate for health-care organizations.
Our objective here, then, is to test whether
extrinsic, intrinsic, or ``prior'' traits best
predict satisfaction with QWL in health care.
Method
Questionnaire
QWL questions in the 65-item survey
instrument were grouped into sections
representing eight general topic areas, as
identified through a literature review:
1 co-worker and supervisor support;
2 teamwork and communication;
3 job demands and decision authority;
4 patient/resident care;
5 characteristics of the organization;
6 compensation and benefits;
7 staff training and development; and
8 overall impressions of the organization.
Responses were then summed into a ``global
satisfaction'' scale, which constitutes the
dependent variable.
Demographic information such as gender,
date of birth, marital status, education,
length of employment with the organization,
supervisory status, weekly hours spent on
job activities, occupation status and job
classification were included at the end of the
questionnaire.
In total, there were seven scale scores
derived from the literature; to those, we
added a scale for pay and benefits, and a
global satisfaction scale, as described above.
Scale scores were generated by summing the
participant responses (i.e. 1 to 5) for all
questions that made up the scale. In the
situation where a participant failed to
answer one or more of the questions that
made up a scale score, missing values were
replaced with mean values for the facility.
Identifying indicators of extrinsic and
intrinsic orientations
Prior to data analysis, the five members of
the research team ± each blinded to the
others' work ± rated all of the variables
which made up the scales (except
satisfaction), indicating each to be indicating
either ``extrinsic'' or ``intrinsic'' elements.
Supervisor support (from section 1) and
salary and benefits (section 6) were identified
as indicators of extrinsic motivators, while
all of the remaining scales were placed on the
intrinsic side. However, we found less than
perfect agreement on the variables (see
Table I).
A situation, where guidance from prior
research is slight and in which any single
variable carries within it only a kernel
touching on the phenomenon under
investigation, is one for which exploratory
factor analysis was designed (Rummel, 1970;
Hunter and Manley, 1986, p. 54). In this case,
Table I
Degree of consensus over scale meanings
Agreement
(N = 5)
Scale Type (%)

Satisfaction with QWL was operationally Supervisor support Extrinsic 60

defined using three global questions (the Coworker support Intrinsic 80
``overall impressions'' section), all of which Teamwork communication Intrinsic 80
are widely used indicators (Mullarky et al., Role clarity Intrinsic 80
1999): Decision authority Intrinsic 80
1 Would you recommend this organization Skill discretion Intrinsic 80
Decision latitude Intrinsic 80
to someone who is seeking a job?
Organization relations Intrinsic 100
2 Do you consider your organization a
Patient care Intrinsic 80
desired place for employment? and
Training development Intrinsic 80
3 Overall, how satisfied are you with your
Pay benefits Extrinsic 100
job?
[x]
David Lewis, Kevin Brazil,
Paul Krueger, Lynne Lohfeld
and Erin Tjam
Extrinsic and intrinsic
determinants of quality of
work life
Leadership in Health Services
14/2 [2001] ix±xv
the extrinsic/intrinsic dichotomy has been
described in the research literature, so our
purpose was, first, to identify whether the
dichotomy applies to this particular
workforce; and, second, to provide indicators
for them. (Strictly speaking, factor analysis
requires interval or ratio level data; our data
are ordinal. However, because they are
scales, they approach the interval level; and
the technique is thought to be robust enough
to handle this departure (Rummel, 1970)).
Survey procedure
Administering the survey involved advance
notification of the study. Staff at each site
received a letter, attached to their payroll
stub, from the chief executive officer. This
letter described the project, requested
participation and assured confidentiality.
The letter also informed staff when the
questionnaire was available, and provided
contact information for those with questions
about the survey. The one exception was the
visiting nurse organization (Site x), where
this information was posted on voicemail by
the CEO.
In most cases, the questionnaire was then
distributed with pay stubs in mid-April; the
exception being Site 3, where staff were
informed that questionnaires were available
in the cafeteria, and could be completed
during their coffee breaks or lunch hours.
Some organizations set aside time during in-
service training (Sites 2, 4) for questionnaire
administration; and some (Sites 2, 3, 4, 6)
offered complementary coffee and muffins (or
vouchers) as a ``thank you'' to those who
completed and returned questionnaires.
All organizations provided sealed boxes
(labeled QWL Survey 2000) at convenient
locations such as lunchrooms, nursing
stations, or the like ± in their facilities.
Where applicable, blank questionnaires,
envelopes and sealed boxes were left on the
units for staff who worked evenings and
weekends, or who had been off duty during
the initial week of questionnaire completion.
During the survey period, reminder notices
were regularly published in the local
newsletter and left on voicemail.
Analysis
All close-ended responses were entered
directly from the questionnaires into SPSS
(version 10.0.5 for Windows, SPSS Inc.
Chicago, 1999). For the factor analysis, we
employed principal component analysis with
equimax rotation and Kaiser normalization.
The effect of this strategy is to simplify the
factors and variables needed, so that the
number of factors required for explanation,
and the number of variables that load highly
on a factor, are both minimized.
Regression of predictor variables on job
satisfaction
Linear regression analysis was used to
identify the impact of extrinsic and intrinsic
predictors of job satisfaction after adjusting
for the other scale, and for socio-demographic
variables in the final model. Because the lack
of association may be informative, even
variables without a statistically significant
association with job satisfaction were
included in this analysis. The goodness of fit
of the regression model was assessed using
the R-squared statistic.
Analysis was confined to the scales already
discussed, as well as to the socio-demographic
variables, which are treated as confounders.
We conducted step-wise linear regression
with forced entry of variables. Continuous
variables ± the scales, as well as some socio-
demographic variables, such as; age, years of
employment, and weekly hours worked ±
were entered ``as is''. Education level was
recoded into years of education following
established techniques.
Nominal-level data ± work site, gender,
occupational category ± were recoded as
``dummied variables'', a procedure in which
each of the categories is converted into a
dichotomy; in every instance, the modal
category is scored as zero. Thus, analysis of
the data shows the extent to which a given
category differentiates respondents from
their modal or ``typical'' counterparts in
terms of satisfaction level.
The regression analysis involved the
creation of four separate models or steps,
which permits us to draw causal inferences
from these data. In the first model, only the
extrinsic and intrinsic scales were run
against the satisfaction scale. These
represent the task content elements of QWL;
the areas ameliorable by common
management/executive initiatives. The
remaining steps examine some level of prior
orientation, so-called because they indicate
influences which are logically or temporally
prior to the task itself.
The second step adds work-related
elements which logically are prior to task
content: site, occupational class
(management, clinical non-nursing, non-
clinical non-management ± with nursing the
implied category) years of employment; and
weekly hours worked. These tap the
influence of the occupational culture or
environment, and are less amenable to
managerial control (because, for instance,
one is generally hired as a clinician or a
[ xi ]
David Lewis, Kevin Brazil, manager; or because externally-set financial suggests that there were no apparent
Paul Krueger, Lynne Lohfeld constraints affect the organization's capacity differences between these groups in terms of
and Erin Tjam
Extrinsic and intrinsic to perform its role). age and number of years in the organization.
determinants of quality of The fourth step adds demographics ± age, However, there were differences between
work life education, gender, marital status (married or respondents and all staff in terms of gender,
Leadership in Health Services equivalent, and ``other''), and whether job status and job classification. More
14/2 [2001] ix±xv
participants are main wage earners ± to the specifically, a larger percentage reported
formula. being female (90.7 percent vs. 84.7 percent)
and working full-time (65.9 percent vs. 52.9
percent) than were actually working at these
Results locations. There were also larger percentages
of clinical staff (11.2 percent vs. 4.2 percent),
Setting
support service staff (18.4 percent vs. 9.5
Table II illustrates the seven organizations
percent) and smaller percentages of service
which make up this study. Together, these
staff (11.2 percent vs. 21.0 percent), registered
employ 5,486 full-, part- and casual-time staff
practical nurses (7.5 percent vs. 14.8 percent)
in a variety of settings, ranging from an
and health-care aides (4.4 percent vs. 7.3
academic health-care center through to
percent) that responded. The remaining
community hospitals, long-term care
categories were similar in the percentage
facilities, a community health center, and a
that responded, specifically registered nurses
home-care organization.
(32.3 percent vs. 29.6 percent), technical staff
Respondent participation rate (9.3 percent vs. 9.2 percent) and management
Response rates are often used as an indicator (4.6 percent vs. 4.5 percent).
of the representativeness of a sample of
respondents (Woodward et al., 1982; Last,
Socio-demographic variables
Respondent traits are shown in Table III
1980). Of the 5,486 staff in the study group;
(gender, age, marital status, hours of work,
1,819 (33 percent) returned a completed
years of education, full-time or other status,
questionnaire, with responses ranging from
years with current employer, and
60 percent at Site 1 to 24 percent at Site 7 (see
occupational category). They suggest a well-
Table II). With this response rate there is no
educated, female-dominated labor force, most
guarantee that those who did not respond
with many years of experience and most
were similar to respondents.
In an attempt to assess the working full-time hours and having full-time
representativeness of respondents, a status. Management was not heavily
comparison was made of available socio- represented; most respondents fell in the
demographic information between nursing category.
respondents and all staff. This analysis Job satisfaction
Of the 1,819 respondents; 1,728 (95 percent)
Table II completed all three job satisfaction
Health-care organizations in this study questions. Scores on these scales ranged from
Mean
Responses satisfaction Table III
Name Organization type Staff (%) (95% C.I.) Socio-demographic traits
Site 1 Community health centre 95 57 (60) 12.1 Trait Statistic (95% C.I.)
(11.6-12.7) Female 90.7% (89.4-92.1)
Site 2 Long-term care facility 481 145 (30) 10.4 Age Mean 43.1 (42.6-43.5)
(9.8-10.9) Married or equivalent 74.9% (72.9-77.0)
Site 3 Community hospital/long-term 649 210 (32) 11.0 Educationb in years Mean 17.5 (16.7-18.2)
care facility (10.6-11.4) Weekly hours Mean 35.3 (34.8-35.8)
Site 4 Community acute care hospital 889 492 (55) 11.9 Full-time 65.9% (63.7-68.1)
(11.7-12.1) Years with current employera Mean 17.3 (16.4-18.1)
Site 5 Home care organization 205 102 (50) 11.1 Nursing 30.3% (28.3-32.6)
(10.6-11.4) Other clinical 10.6% (9.1-12.0)
Site 6 Community hospital 321 125 (39) 12.1 Support 17.3% (15.6-19.1)
(11.6-12.7) Service 10.6% (9.1-12.0)
Site 7 Academic acute care centre 2,846 688 (24)a 11.7 Management 4.3% (3.4-5.3)
(11.5-11.9) Other 26.9% (65.5-81)
Totals 5,486 1,819 (33) 11.6
(11.4-11.7) Notes: a Calculated by assigning midpoints to five-year
ranges; b calculated by assigning midpoints to
Note: a Includes respondents (n = 15) who divide time between Sites 1 and 7 educational categories

[ xii ]
David Lewis, Kevin Brazil,
Paul Krueger, Lynne Lohfeld
and Erin Tjam
Extrinsic and intrinsic
determinants of quality of
work life
Leadership in Health Services
14/2 [2001] ix±xv
a low of three to a high of 15; weighted mean variation in scale scores. Likewise, the Table
scores with 95 percent confidence intervals shows that skill discretion, decision latitude,
are presented for all sites in Table IV.
and (to a lesser extent) decision authority
Satisfaction scores for Sites 2, 3, 4 and 6 are load most strongly on the ``intrinsic''
significantly different from the overall mean component; ratings of communications, of
(using students t-test): Site 2, a long-term care the organization's relations with staff, of
facility, is substantially below the norm, supervision, and of pay and benefits load on
while Sites 3 (a community hospital and long- the ``extrinsic'' component.
term care facility) and 4 (a home care These two variables, along with site-
organization) are also below average. Site 6 (a specific data and socio-demographics, were
rehabilitation and chronic care hospital) is therefore included in the linear regression
above the norm. model. That model is presented in Table VI.
Factor analysis
Linear regression equations
The factor analytic exercise produced two
As Table VI indicates, entry of the extrinsic
principal components. The results of the
scale brings an R2 of 0.40; meaning that 40
analysis itself are presented in Table V. Note
percent of the variation in satisfaction is
that, between them, the two principal
explained by that scale. It remains the most
components explain 57.5 percent of the
important predictor through all five steps.
Intrinsic variables (Step 2) add another 0.008
Table IV
to the R2 (the order in which these two scales
Satisfaction, overall and by site
are entered has no effect (data not shown)), a
Mean trivial result. Adding site and job history
Site (95% C.I.) variables (hours worked, job classification,
Total 11.6 and years of experience) (Step 3) to the model
(11.4-11.7) is not significant; and socio-demography
Site 1 Community health centre 12.1 (education, age, gender, marital status and
(11.6-12.7) whether primary wage earner) (Step 4) is
Site 2 Long-term care facility 10.4a significant but once again trivial. In keeping
(9.8-10.9) with the results of the t-test presented in
Site 3 Chronic care hospital/long- 11.0a Table IV, the site where respondents worked
term care facility (10.6-11.4) had a significant impact, with employment at
Site 4 Community acute care 11.9a Sites 2 and (especially) 5 being sharply less
hospital (11.7-12.1) satisfied than the baseline (Site 7) and Site 6
Site 5 Home care organization 11.1 being more satisfied (although the result is
(10.6-11.7) not significant).
Site 6 Rehabilitation/chronic care 12.1a As noted, Model 4 adds little in explanatory
hospital (11.6-12.7) power, but does help clarify some of the
Site 7 Academic acute care centre 11.7 patterns. Here, gender and education play a
(11.5-11.9) small role, while the other variables included
do not. That is, men are a little less satisfied
Note: a p < 0.05
with their quality of work life than are
women, and better-educated workers more so
Table V
than others.
Rotated component matrix
With all controls added in, overall
Component explanatory power of the model, at 0.42, is
Scale Extrinsic Intrinsic strong. The extrinsic scale retains its
Percent of variance in 30.85 26.61 association with QWL satisfaction, as does
scales explained the intrinsic variable, albeit to a lesser
Supervisor support 0.70 0.17 extent. Nothing else approaches these two in
Coworker support 0.59 0.3 explanatory power.
Teamwork communication 0.77 0.35
Role clarity 0.55 0.24
Decision authority 0.37 0.59 Discussion
Skill discretion ±0.006 0.94
This project has emphasized that, while QWL
Decision latitude 0.3 0.9
is a complex issue where job satisfaction is a
Organization score 0.76 0.23
product of a global evaluation of one's job, the
Salary and benefits 0.50 ±0.08
concept can be much simplified by a focus on
Note: Extraction method: principal component analysis; the extrinsic-intrinsic dichotomy: differences
Rotation method: Equimax with Kaiser normalization; in satisfaction with ameliorable factors are
Rotation converged in three iterations strong enough to matter, even when ``prior
[ xiii ]
David Lewis, Kevin Brazil, orientations'' are factored in. They suggest employment in a long-term care facility or
Paul Krueger, Lynne Lohfeld that objectively identifiable traits of an home care organization produces declines in
and Erin Tjam organization ± pay, benefits, supervisor style,
Extrinsic and intrinsic satisfaction compared with the baseline
determinants of quality of communication and discretion ± all play a academic acute care facility. Salary and
work life role in determining QWL. benefits are typically lower in these sorts of
Leadership in Health Services More difficult to address are the site and institutions, but the differences found are
14/2 [2001] ix±xv demographic influences. These suggest independent of satisfaction with extrinsic or
variation in QWL satisfaction by the kind of intrinsic motivators, as outlined in this
employing organization. They indicate that study. By contrast, employment in
community-based treatment facilities (Sites 1
and 4) produces slightly more satisfaction;
Table VI
and the rehabilitation and chronic care
Linear regression results (dependent variable: satisfaction)
hospital (Site 6) displays higher satisfaction
Standardized than baseline.
Step Variable coefficients P Adjusted R2 R2 P In contrast to site, occupational status ±
1 Extrinsic 0.63 < 0.001 0.408 < 0.001 hours worked per week, years employed and
Intrinsic 0.08 < 0.001 whether management, support staff, and so
2 Extrinsic 0.62 < 0.001 0.41 0.046 on ± had no effect on satisfaction. Likewise,
Intrinsic 0.09 < 0.001 gender and education differences, while they
Site 1 0.03 0.807 may well be intractable sources of
Site 2 ±0.27 0.06 dissatisfaction, are significant but not very
Site 3 ±0.18 0.409 large. Even so, these are troubling because
Site 4 0.15 0.035 they suggest that the best educated and most
Site 5 ±0.29 0.163 typical (female) employee is less satisfied
Site 6 0.55 0.113
than others.
3 Extrinsic 0.63 <0.001 0.411 0.195 (Ns)
The survey should be considered as one
Intrinsic 0.09 < 0.001
Site 1 0.07 0.561 source of information about QWL. While the
Site 2 ±0.26 0.07 results present valid information from those
Site 3 ±0.22 0.322 who responded, generalizability is an issue.
Site 4 0.15 0.04 It underscores the importance of considering
Site 5 ±0.27 0.208 this survey as a first step in a process of
Site 6 0.52 0.138 replication over time and across settings.
Management 0.02 0.344
Clinical ±0.03 0.09 References and further reading
Support ±0.02 0.433 Alpander, C. (1990), ``Relationship between
Service 0.02 0.311 commitment to hospital goals and job
Other ±0.02 0.349 satisfaction: a case study of a nursing
Weekly hours 0.01 0.774 department'', Health Care Management
Years at 0.02 0.280 Review, Vol. 15, pp. 51-62.
organization Beall, C., Baumhover, L.A., Gillum, J. and Wells,
4 Extrinsic 0.63 < 0.001 0.419 < 0.001 A. (1994), ``Job satisfaction of public health
Intrinsic 0.1 < 0.001 nurses: is there a predictable decline?'',
Site 1 0.14 0.272 Journal of Health and Human Services
Site 2 ±0.35 0.02 Administration, Vol. 17 No. 2, pp. 243-60.
Site 3 ±0.24 0.280 Blegen, M. (1993), ``Nurses' job satisfaction: a
Site 4 0.14 0.042 meta-analysis of related variables'', Nurse
Site 5 ±0.37 0.1 Research, Vol. 42, pp. 36-41.
Site 6 0.67 0.056 Clegg, S.R. and Dunkerley, D. (1980),
Management 0.03 0.166 Organization, Class and Control, Routledge &
Clinical ±0.01 0.480 Kegan Paul, London.
Support ±0.03 0.085 Clegg, S.R. and Hardy, C. (1996), ``Organizations,
Service 0 0.817 organization and organizing'', in Clegg, S.R.,
Other ±0.02 0.331 Hardy, C. and Nord, W.R. (Eds), Handbook of
non-clinical Organization Studies, Sage, London.
Hours 0.02 0.295 Crompton, R. and Harris, F. (1998), ``Explaining
Years at ±0.02 0.482 women's employment patterns: `orientations
organization to work' revisited'', British Journal of
Your gender ±0.05 0.018 Sociology, Vol. 49 No. 1, pp. 118-36.
Age ±0.03 0.173 Curry, J., Wakefield, D., Price, J., Mueller, C. and
Education ±0.09 0.000 McCloskey, J. (1985), ``Determinants of
Main wage ±0.01 0.549 turnover among nursing department
earner employees'', Research Nursing Health, Vol. 8,
Married ±0.02 0.401 pp. 397-411.

[ xiv ]
David Lewis, Kevin Brazil,
Paul Krueger, Lynne Lohfeld
and Erin Tjam
Extrinsic and intrinsic
determinants of quality of
work life
Leadership in Health Services
14/2 [2001] ix±xv
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