PINHOLE PHOTOGRAPHY

The paper also uses a negative process. It is coated with silver nitrate which darkens
proportionally to the amount of exposure the specific area of the paper receives. This is
called the latent image, which you will see when you develop the paper. The brighest area
in the scene is more dense (darker) on the negative than than areas which receive some
light (midtones) or very little (shadows). To get a positive print, place the paper negative
emulsion to emulsion side of another sheet of photo paper and expose with an enlarger.

If you use positive film (slide film) and process normally, you will get a positive image. The
negative effect is not inherent to the camera, but in the materials used to make the latent
image.

DETERMINING EXPOSURE TIMES FOR PINHOLE

CAMERAS

Determining the correct exposure time for a pinhole camera is truly a hard nut to crack.
The situation is complicated by small apertures (high f numbers) and long exposure
times, and in their calculation, the reciprocity law failure (Schwarzschild effect) must
also be taken into consideration. Before I describe how to calculate correct exposure
times, I would like to point out one important fact. Taking photographs with a pinhole
camera is always something of an experiment and requires a bit of playing around.
Achieving perfect results is not always the most important aim and certain
insufficiencies in the exposure do not therefore lead to a fatal mistake. Many "pinhole"
photographers successfully simply use estimated exposure times and leave the light
meter at home in the drawer. Also, many commonly used films have high exposure
latitude and therefore are, to a certain extent, less sensitive to incorrect exposure
times.

However, if we want to minimise the risk of poor-quality photographs, it would be

helpful to be able to calculate exposure times as simply as possible so that one has
more time to concentrate on the photograph itself and also so the whole process does
not become a mathematical nightmare. One option is to prepare a simple table for each
pinhole camera whereby the time measured by a light meter can be quickly converted
to the required time for the given pinhole camera and film stock. You can use
the PinholeDesigner program to help you with the following calculation.

f number
In order to calculate an exposure time, it is important to know the f number of
the pinhole camera. Compared with normal cameras, it does not change (the hole is
the same size) and the calculation is simple: the distance from the light-sensitive
material divided by the diameter of the hole. For example, the formula for a pinhole
camera with a focal length of 100 mm and a pinhole 0.4 mm in diameter is:
100/0.4 = 250, hence the f number is 250.

However, the problem is that the high f numbers common on pinhole cameras are not
available on the majority of light meters. The only way round this is to set the light
meter to a different aperture, usually f 22, and then convert the measured exposure
time for the aperture of the specific pinhole camera. This is done by dividing
the f number of the pinhole camera by the f number set on the light meter; this number
is squared and the result is used to multiply the measured exposure time. For example,
if the measured exposure time for f 22 is 1/60 second, the calculation for our pinhole
camera with an f number of 250 is: (250/22)2 = 129. The measured time is increased
129 times, therefore the exposure time for the pinhole camera will be 2 seconds
(rounded).

Reciprocity law failure (Schwarzschild effect)

Originally it was accepted that the photochemical change is caused only by the amount
of absorbed radiant energy which is proportional to the sum of the amount of light and
the length of time the material was exposed to this light. The relation between
the photochemical reaction and the amount of absorbed energy is therefore directly
proportional. However, research by several scientists, including K. Schwarzschild,
showed that this reciprocal rule does not apply when light intensity is low. In reality,
low light levels over a longer period have less effect than strong light levels over
a shorter period, even though the sum of light intensity and exposure time is the same.

What does this mean in practice? For long exposure times, usually for exposures longer
than several seconds, it is necessary to extend the measured time. The additional time
is different for each type of light-sensitive material and for each measured time.
The majority of film stock manufacturers indicate in their technical specifications by
how much the exposure times should be extended; if not, then the only way to achieve
correct exposures is experience.

Tips for correct exposures

Choose a material with high exposure latitude, this increases the probability of
obtaining a useful negative despite certain mistakes during exposure. In general,
conventional light-sensitive layers (which do not use T-grain emulsions) have a higher
exposure latitude, such as Ilford FP4 Plus, and also the majority of commonly used
colour negative films.
It is very difficult to set the correct exposure time for interiors where the lighting
conditions are generally not so good. In most cases, the times are very protracted,
often more than one hour. Usually, the only possible method to obtain a correct
exposure is trial and error.
When it comes to setting exposure times, the use of photographic paper instead of
negative material would require a separate chapter. The light sensitivity specified by
manufacturers is measured in a completely different way than for film, and is unfit for
our purposes. The sensitivity of the photographic paper should be tested. The light
meter should be set to somewhere between 2 and 10 ISO.
Obviously, during exposure the pinhole camera must not be moved, otherwise
the picture will be blurred. If the pinhole camera is light and cannot be fixed to a tripod,
it should be weighed down.

As I mentioned previously, a good idea for simplifying exposures is to create a table for
each pinhole camera and each type of film stock. The table for our example pinhole
camera might look like this:

Example of an exposure table for a pinhole camera with f number 250

time including
exposure time time converted for
Schwarzschild effect
measured for f 22 pinhole aperture f 250
for Ilford FP4 Plus
1/500 1/4 1/4
1/250 1/2 1/2
1/125 1s 2s
1/60 2s 5s
1/30 4s 11 s
1/15 9s 25 s
1/8 16 s 1m
1/4 32 s 3m
1/2 1m 9m
1s 2m 33 m

To take a photograph, just measure the scene to be photographed with the light meter
set to f 22 and then, in the row for the measured time, look up the time for the given
pinhole camera and film stock.

Exposure Guide
Glad you could make it back! Here’s the exposure guide I promised. It’s not the last word on
exposure by a long shot, but it’ll get most people going right off the bat with reasonable
exposures.
There are other ways to gage exposure, I like this one. But then again I’ve always liked
flying by the seat of my pants…

The ‘Seat-O-the-Pants’ Guide to pinhole

exposures
First a little bit about the size of your pinhole relative to the size of your camera. I usually go
with the rule of thumb that says that is your camera has a focal length of 6″ then your
pinhole should be .5mm in diameter. This is a rough measure, but it gets you into the right
area. The table below explains the other rules of thumb that you might want to try.

When you make the pinhole use a ‘drilling’ motion to get the pin through the tin or brass
sheet. This avoids making a big, messy, rough hole…(not that every pinhole has to be
perfect) but until you get the hang of making cameras it might be a good idea to make
things as “normal” (what ever that is) as possible.

I use aluminum baking sheets from the grocery store for my pinhole material. It’s cheaper
and just as good as brass…up to you really.

ATTENTION!…ok, now that I’ve got your attention…

Larry Fratkin has created a really useful tool for calculating the focal length and pinhole
diameter of your camera…try it! And once you try it let Larry know what you think of it!

Diameter Relative
Camera Length Needle Size of hole f/stop

8″ 8 .023″ f/350

6.5″ 9 .020″ f/300

 5″ 10 .018″ f/280

4″ 12 .016 f/250

2.5″ 13 .013 f/190

or you could use this formula…

dia/focal length

or…

the optimum pinhole = the sq.root of 0.0016

multiplied by the pinhole to film distance…

(or you can wing it…)

Making exposures?…Start here

Photo ASA ASA

Weather Conditions f/stop paper 125 400

Bright or hazy sun. 250 17 seconds 1 second 1/4 second

A scene with light sand 300 29 seconds 1.6 seconds 1/3 seconds
or on snow. 350 44 seconds 2.5 seconds 1/2 second

Bright or bright-hazy sun. 250 49 seconds 2.8 second 1 second

The shadows are distinct (sharp) 300 1.3 minutes 4.6 seconds 1.25 seconds
Your typical nice, sunny type day. 350 2.1 minutes 7.1 seconds 1.5 seconds
 Weak or hazy sun. 250 2 minutes 6.7 seconds 1.3 seconds
The shadows aren’t distinct (soft) 300 3.3 minutes 11 seconds 2.2 seconds
An OK type day. 350 5.1 minutes 17 seconds 3.4 seconds

Cloudy. But bright! 250 5.4 minutes 18 seconds 3.6 seconds

No shadows 300 9 minutes 31 seconds 6 seconds
No sun. No rain. 350 14 minutes 47 seconds 9.2 seconds

Open Shade or heavily overcast

No shadows 250 14 minutes 47 seconds 9.2 seconds
Either a grey day or 300 23 minutes 1.3 minutes 15 seconds
in the shadow of a tall building 350 36 minutes 2.0 minutes 24 seconds

Dawn or Dusk
Dark out here… 250 38 minutes 2.1 minutes 25 seconds
Like it says. Early morning 300 1 hour 3.5 minutes 42 seconds
or early evening 350 1.6 hours 5.4 minutes 1 minute

Ok. Keep in mind that all these times are just starting points. As you make more exposures
and get better at making guesses that work you’ll make your own exposure chart.

When you make an exposure that is just way too dark as a print then double the exposure
you gave the neg. If your print is just too light then halve the exposure. It might sound like
the long way around but by splitting the differences each time you can arrive at a pretty
good exposure in a your first few attempts.

Another great idea is to keep a notebook of all your exposures, the weather conditions, the
film or paper etc.

THE COMPREHENSIVE TECH GUIDE TO

PINHOLE PHOTOGRAPHY
The process of designing and building a camera may seem daunting, but with a little patience and the
help of this guide and some further reading, you’ll be able to do it. You can use this information to figure
out what you want to build, gather some simple materials and tools, and build it!
I want it to be clear that building a pinhole camera relies on your abilities, available materials, and your
desired outcome. As a result, this guide is less of a step-by-step and more of a lesson on how pinhole
cameras work, the physics and math involved, and some practical knowledge I gained while researching
and building my own cameras.

PINHOLE BASICS

A pinhole camera is the simplest possible camera. Light rays reflect off of objects in all directions, and the
lens on a camera re-aligns the rays so that they meet at the same spot on the film when the lens is
correctly focused. Instead of a complex arrangement of glass lenses the pinhole camera uses a tiny hole
to block almost all of the light rays except for the ones which are already aligned correctly. A mechanically
timed shutter is replaced with anything that can cover the pinhole when the camera is not taking a shot.

Designing a pinhole camera is a fairly simple and straightforward process. The first thing that needs to be
done is to make or buy a pinhole. If you want to make your own pinhole at home, a good material to use
is the metal from the side of a pop can. The thinner the better, as long as it is light-proof. Use a pin and a
hammer to gently poke a hole through. Use an eraser or something soft to support the aluminum so it
stays flat when being pressed on. Use some 600 grit sandpaper to sand away the protruding metal on the
opposite side. If you have a microscope or a flatbed scanner you can inspect the pinhole roundness and
quality. Special carbide micro drills can be purchased but a high speed drill press is required to use them.
Pinholes can also be purchased from eBay or a few other specialty sites on the internet. Google will find
an up-to-date list of locations.

Once the pinhole diameter is determined (or already known) then the focal length of the camera can be
calculated. The formula is; focal length = (pinhole diameter / 0.03679) 2. The focal length is the distance
that the pinhole should be from the film.

Example using 0.3mm pinhole:

 focal length = (0.3mm / 0.03679)2

 focal length = (8.17438)2
 focal length = 66.49mm
The next value that needs to be calculated is the view angle of the pinhole. This is the angle which is the
maximum angle that a ray of light can make it through the pinhole. The controlling factors of this value are
the diameter of the hole and the thickness of the material.
The view angle is solved using right-angle trigonometry. The simplified formula is:

view angle = tan-1( (d/2)/(t/2) ) x 2

Example:

 view angle = tan-1 ( (0.3/2)/(0.0762/2)) x 2

 = tan-1 (3.937) * 2
 = 75.74 * 2
 = 151.5o
This view angle is information is crucial to determining if the pinhole, at its focal distance, will cover the
film appropriately. Too little coverage and the result will be a circular image with black corners and edges.
The diagonal of the film frame needs to fit inside the diameter of the coverage. The formula to determine
the image diameter is:

image diameter (mm) = 2 x focal length x tan ((View angle)/2)

Example:

 image diameter (mm) = 2 x 66.49 x tan (151.5/2)

 = 132.98 x tan (75.75)
  = 132.98 x 3.937
 = 523.61 mm

In this example for calculating image diameter, the diameter has come out very large, meaning that
combined with a curved film plane, it will allow for a 6cm tall by 17cm wide image to be taken on 120 film.
This will produce a very panoramic and extremely wide view.

CAMERA BUILDING

(Click for bigger view)

Once the math of the camera design is complete, the physical design and building can begin. The film
and pinhole are placed in parallel to each other, the distance between them should be equal to the focal
length. Utilizing a curved film plane allows the entire length of film to be exactly the correct and consistent
distance from the pinhole, to ensure an even exposure.

The camera can be made from a pre-existing box or one can be made from scratch. It can be made of
any material that can be light-proofed. A metal rod with one end filed flat and a guitar knob can be used
as a film advance handle. Two are required, one to loosen the supply spool and one to tighten the take-
up spool.
A shutter mechanism can be as simple as a piece of tape stuck over the pinhole, to a pivoting piece of
wood, to a spring-actuated sliding shutter with shutter release cable thread. I built one which could be
actuated by shutter release cable, and is held shut by a spring.
There needs to be a hole in the back of the camera to read the film frame numbers off of. The inside of
the camera needs to be painted black to absorb any stray light.
EXPOSURE

The next value that can now be determined is the equivalent f-stop. The f-stop value is a relationship
between the diameter of the pinhole and the distance to the film. This number is valuable for calculating
the exposure time required when taking a picture. The formula is:

f-stop = focal length / pinhole diameter

Example:

 f-stop = focal length / pinhole diameter

 f-stop = 66.49mm / 0.3mm
 f-stop = 221

Obviously, no other camera or meter is going to allow f221 as an option, so we need to make some
calculations to find out how to do an equivalent exposure time from something that we can measure.

f-stop values have certain cornerstone values, and the difference between these values is that the
amount of light allowed through is halved each time. Essentially, the area of the circle formed by the
aperture is halved each time, and thus the light. These values are as follows; 1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16,
22, 32, 44, 64, 88, 128, 176, 256, 352. Anything past f22 is going to be unavailable on a light meter, so
here’s how we are going to determine a multiplication factor for the pinhole;

Pinhole exposure is not an exact science, so precise math is not required. This is the kind of thing you’ll
have to calculate out in the field, so doing it in your head semi-accurately is acceptable. No need to bring
a calculator. So, if the pinhole is f221, lets round to f256 to make life easier. If we count backwards to f16,
there is a difference of 8 values. This means the amount of light through an f16 aperture is 28 times more
than f256. This just so happens to be 256. This means that when we take a digital camera or light meter,
set the ASA/ISO to the speed of the film in the camera, set the aperture to f16 and get a shutter speed,
we multiply it by 256. For example, if we measure a value of 1 second, we will need to expose for 256
seconds to get enough light.

RECIPROCITY FAILURE

If all that calculating seemed straightforward, unfortunately its more complex than that. When exposed for
a short period of time, film’s response to light is linear. Expose the film for twice as long, and the film will
react twice as much to the light. However if you begin exposing for more than a few seconds, the film
stops responding linearly. It actually takes a lot more light than you would expect. This is called reciprocity
failure and it happens with all film. The solution is to use a chart to estimate the extra time needed. There
is one attached above and can be printed out and brought with you when shooting until you have enough
experience to make estimates without it’s help. Your film’s datasheet will have a section on its reciprocity
characteristics and can be found online.

Using the example of a 256 second exposure, the reciprocity factor is approximately 4x for that length of
exposure, so 256 seconds turns into 1024 seconds. 4 minutes to 17 minutes, what a huge difference! Of
course, this is all just for “ideal” exposure. A few minutes less, or more, won’t hurt anything. In fact, I
exposed my first test roll only 1/8th as long as I was supposed to and it came out looking pretty good.

Obviously with shutter speeds this long a tripod will always need to be used, and the camera should not
be touched during the duration of the exposure.
The finished camera:

After developing, here are the results (click for larger view):
FURTHER READING

We got your attention, didn’t we? There is a great Instructable going into depth (yes, even more than
here) on some of the aspects. It was also written by Matt, so expect great explanations, high-end math
and Laser cutting.

If you are seeking to build a camera without all the math behind it, check out our Pinhole
photography section, lots of goodies there, like 23 pinhole cameras you can build at home. If it is a
challenge that you are seeking, go after The Battlefield or the La Guillotine – very complex but also very
rewarding.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Matt Bechberger is a photographer and a maker from Canada. You can follow his Flickr stream here, and
his awesome Instructables here.

The Pinhole Camera

In this laboratory exercise we will make a simple camera. This project will illustrate
both the properties of light and the basics of photographic processing. To complete the
experiment you should have a good quality (not blurry, not too dark or too light)
photograph. You may need to repeat some of the steps until you have a good picture.

Read and follow all instructions carefully especially those on page 3. If you do not
follow the instructions you will have problems later on and will have to go back and
correct your mistake. This will waste your valuable time.

Part 1: Making the Camera

Making the pinhole camera may not take very much time, but it is important to work
with care so that the camera will function properly in later use.

1. Have the instructor or TA check to see that your box is suitable for use as a
pinhole camera. Obtain a signature on the last page.
2. Start with a box or other suitable container which is relatively sturdy and easily
sealed. Decide where you are going to put the pinhole, where you are going to
 put the film, and how you will load the film into the camera. The film will be
about 4 inches x 5 inches in size. There is a piece of paper in your tool kit
which shows the size of the film. The film must be located opposite from the
pinhole. If your box is smaller than 4 x 5 inches, the film can be cut to a smaller
size. If your box is larger than about 8 inches on a side, you may need to
construct an inner cardboard wall to hold the film. If this is the case, consult the
instructor or a TA.

3. Make an opening 1/2 inch x 1/2 inch to hold the pinhole. This should not be
larger than 1/2 inch x 1/2 inch or you will not be able to do the next step.
Measure with a ruler. If working with a metal container such as a coffee can
punch a hole 1/8 inch in diameter or larger using a hammer and a nail.

4. Obtain a piece of yellow brass sheet. Be careful the edges are sharp.
5. Make a pinhole in the brass sheet with the needle. Hold the brass against the
metal base in the tool kit. Push the needle through the brass and pull it out. The
idea is to make a nice round hole that is exactly the size of the needle. Do not
tear the brass. If you have problems with this step ask for help.
6. Using the black tape, attach the brass sheet with the pinhole to your camera. Be
sure the brass sheet is well-sealed on all sides. Also make sure the pinhole is
visible from inside the box. The pinhole must be visible from the film location.

7. Carefully seal as much of the box as possible using aluminum foil. First seal
over the corners and obvious cracks and openings using duct tape. Of
course leave a method to load the film. Put the foil everywhere possible on the
outside and seal around the pinhole. It might be useful to imagine that you are
gift wrapping a present. Do not put any foil on the inside. It is absolutely
essential to have a well-sealed box without any light leaks. The most likely
source of problems is light leaking into the box. See the instructor for
guidance if you have any questions.
8. Fashion a shutter over the pinhole using a piece of aluminum foil. Cut a piece
of foil 6 inches x 3 inches. Fold this in half so it is 3 x 3 inches. Attach this as a
flap over your pinhole. Tape securely at the top of the flap above the pinhole.
At the bottom of the flap put one small piece of tape which is just sufficient to
hold the flap down. Put a piece of plastic packing tape over the foil below the
pinhole. This will help to keep the foil from being ripped by the tape holding
the shutter closed. Remember you will need to be able to open and close the
shutter to take your picture.

9. If your camera is made of some kind of shiny metal (like a coffee can), line the
inside with black construction paper. This keeps internal reflections from
exposing the film.
10. Calculate the "f-stop" of your camera. This will be used in determining the
exposure time. Measure the distance from the pinhole to the location of the
film. It is easiest to do this in centimeters (cm). In a camera the "f-stop" is the
 ratio of the lens focal length to the lens diameter. For the pinhole camera this
will be the distance from the pinhole to the film location. In this case the "lens"
is the pinhole. The diameter of the pinhole is .06 cm. Record your calculations
below.

Distance from pinhole to film:_____________ cm

f-stop = Distance = ______________ = _____________

Pinhole diameter 0.06 cm

11. Use the exposure table to determine the exposure time to for your f-stop. If
your f-stop is not listed, use the closest value. If you are not sure how to use the
table, proceed to the next step and ask the instructor or TA for assistance.

Exposure Time:_____________________

12. Make a piece of aluminum foil to serve as a final cover over your box. This
sheet should cover the entire top of the box. It should also fold down about 1
inch over the four edges (but not interfere with the shutter). Obtain a rubber
band to hold this aluminum cover sheet in place.

13. Your camera is now almost ready to go. Have the instructor or TA check the
camera. Things that will be checked:
o Brass sheet sealed on all edges.
o Pinhole visible from inside the box
o Box light tight.
 o Film location accessible.
o Shutter to block pinhole functions properly.
o Aluminum cover ready.

Checked by: __SIGN ON LAST PAGE

14. When done, proceed to the film loading room to load the film into your camera.
The film loading room and the darkroom are located in the basement of
Vanderwerf in room 6 or room 17. IF THE DARKROOM DOOR IS CLOSED
DO NOT OPEN THE DOOR TO THE DARKROOM. KNOCK AND WAIT
FOR IT TO BE OPENED FROM THE INSIDE.

Part 2: Taking a Picture

1. In the Darkroom, the TA will help you load a sheet of photographic paper
(film) into your camera. The shiny side of the paper should face your pinhole.
Make sure your pinhole is covered once the film is loaded.
2. Obtain a weight to use in keeping your camera steady. It is essential to
make sure the camera is held firmly in place by a weight, otherwise your
picture will be blurry. Go outside to take a picture. In selecting a subject, it
must be something that does not move as the exposure time will be several
seconds. Buildings usually make good subjects. Also, try to find something that
is well illuminated rather than in shadows. If it is sunny, position the camera so
the back is to the sun, so the sun illuminates the subject. Subjects with a range
of tones from dark to light photograph best. Something that is very dark or very
light may not show much detail when photographed.
3. Find a place to set up your camera. The only way to aim the camera is to
simply point it at the subject. The pinhole tends to produce a wide-angle image.
Pointing the camera slightly upwards, or positioning it on a wall or bench will
help to avoid getting too much of the ground in your picture.
4. Secure your camera so that is does not wobble or move while you are making
an exposure. You cannot hold the camera while taking a picture since your
body will move too much. Use the weight to secure your camera.
 5. Remove whatever is covering the pinhole and make an exposure for the
recommended time. Note that the exposure time may be a little different for
each camera. Time the required exposure. Timing with a watch is essential.
6. When done making the exposure, carefully cover the pinhole (without shaking
the camera). Hold the shutter down to keep it from opening accidentally.
7. Return to the darkroom for processing.

Part 3: Processing the Negative.

In processing your picture we will see how black and white film is developed. We are
working in black and white because it is easier to process. Color film requires strict
control of temperature during developing and is generally more difficult to process.
Black and white is also less expensive. The pinhole camera, however, could be used
to take color pictures.

1. In the darkroom, open your camera and remove the photographic paper.
2. Developing the negative involves 4 principle steps:
o The developer: develops the image.
o The stop bath: stops the developing process.
o The fixer: removes unexposed silver particles from the film.
o Wash: removes chemicals and residues from the photograph.
3. Proceed to develop your negative:
o Put the paper in the developing solution. Leave it in for 1 minute. Hold
the paper with the tongs and move it in the solution.
o Move to the stop bath for about 30 seconds.
o Put in the Fixer solution for 1 minute.
4. After fixing, the light can be turned on in the darkroom. The processing is
almost completed, only the final wash remains.
5. Wash it for 3 minutes.
6. Examine your negative. Do you recognize what you were trying to photograph?
Is the exposure time about right? If the exposure was correct the negative will
have a range of tones from black to white. Here are some of the things to look
for:
o Totally black negative: light leaking in, camera is not well sealed.
o Very dark negative: over exposed, use shorter exposure time.
o Very short exposure but still all black: light leaking in, cover with foil.
o Very light negative: under exposed, use longer exposure time.
o Blurry: Camera moved during exposure.
 CONTINUE TAKING PICTURES UNTIL YOU HAVE A GOOD
NEGATIVE. The negative should not be blurry and it should not be too dark.

7. Hang the washed negative up to dry. Drying should only take a few minutes.
The negative can also be dried by blotting it with a towel.

Part 4: Making a Print.

When you have a good negative, the next step is to make a print (a positive) from the
negative. We will use the simplest method for doing this called contact printing. In
contact printing, the print is made exactly the same size as the negative. As the
negatives are fairly large, this is not a problem in our situation.

1. Make sure your negative is dry.

2. Return to the darkroom.
3. Show the negative to the TA or instructor and obtain a recommendation as to
exposure time for the print.
4. We will use the controlled light source with a timer. Obtain another sheet of
photographic paper and place the negative face down on the film side of the
new sheet. Put the glass over the two sheets to hold flat.
5. Set the timer for the recommended time and make the exposure.
6. Process the exposed photographic paper the same way that you processed the
negative, using the developer, stop bath, and fixer.
7. Hopefully you now have an interesting picture.

Photography with a Pinhole Camera

Robert Alber
Back to Basics
Taking pictures with a pinhole camera is one of the simplest forms of the
photographic process. But wonderfully, making and using a pinhole camera provides
the student with an understanding and appreciation for not only photography, but
human physiology, chemistry, light physics, mathematics, art and possibly, a little
magic.

All cameras, from the most sophisticated to the pinhole, rely on the same elementary
principles, performing in similar fashion to the human eye.Like your eyes, the camera
needs light to operate. Light moves into the eye through the pupil, a hole that is made
smaller or larger by the iris.

Light gets into the camera through a hole called an aperture that is made larger or
smaller by a diaphragm. The camera can also shut out all light with a shutter, similar
to closing your eyelids, or opening them to let the light pass.

Recall what happens when you enter a movie theater on a sunny afternoon. It takes
some time for your eyes to adjust to the low light. At first you cannot see anything,
but soon you began to make out objects and within a short time you can see pretty
well, even in that darkened room.

This is much like a camera making a long exposure in low light. The diaphragm opens
as wide as it can to allow maximum illumination. For your eyes, the iris opens wide.
The eye's retina, like the camera's film, is sensitive to changes in light and sends
messages to the brain about the images you see. As you leave the theater and return to
the sunlight, the opposite situation occurs. The eye's iris closes down as it's flooded
with light. In bright light the camera's diaphragm closes down, or stops down.
Unlike the camera, the eye is constantly and automatically reacting to various fight
and focusing and refocusing. The camera has to be adjusted for each situation. The
camera, however, can bring into focus objects both near and far and record them on
film at the same time. Your eye cannot.

While modern cameras and the human eye use sophisticated systems to focus images,
including color correction and lenses to improve clarity and magnification, much
simpler techniques can and do work.

Consequently, the pinhole camera can produce surprising results using just a light-
tight box to capture the image transmitted to film through a simple hole (aperture)
made with a pin or, for a better level of performance, a sewing needle .

Constructing the camera

The camera body can be made from any container that is practical to handle and can
be fixed so that it will not allow stray light (all but light entering through the
aperture) to enter. Common pinhole camera bodies range from small rectangular
jewelry boxes and the old metal band aid tins to shoe boxes and one-pound coffee
cans. The curved shapes of the coffee can or oatmeal carton will produce a
more surrealistic or panoramic image.

Keep in mind that a sturdy container usually has better light keeping properties, is
easier to work with and will last longer. The best overall size is in the neighborhood
of six inches square. The shape of the box can present some real creative possibilities
and the box depth, from removable cover to back, relates to the angle of view of the
transmitted image. In other words: a container that is very shallow will yield a wide
angle view; and a container with depth will yield a telephoto image.

For purpose of explanation, let's assume that a sturdy, cardboard box about six inches
square and four inches deep is used for the camera body. The bottom of the box will
be used to hold the film (more on that later) and the box top or lid will become
the light-transport system (aperture, shutter). Some would choose to line the box
with black paper or paint it black to cut down on the possibility of stray light, but it
the lid is properly prepared, or if the lid is equally as large as the box itself, that won't
be necessary.

To convert the lid to an aperture you will need to first cut out a hole in the center of
the lid about one-inch square. Cover the hole with as heavy a grade of aluminum
foil as you can find and tape it down with black plastic electrician's tape. Then using
a small sewing needle, carefully punch a hole in the center of the foil with the needle,
taking care not to move the needle from side-to-side. An easy, but deliberate, straight-
in-straight-out, motion will work nicely.

The foil will provide a much more accurate aperture unlike one made by punching the
needle directly through the lid. Also, it gives you the opportunity to repeat the process
if need be with the minimum of trouble. It may also be easier to punch the hole in the
foil prior to taping it on the camera. Greater accuracy can be obtained by using a
cushion underneath, like a phone book or piece of cardboard.

A more sophisticated aperture can be made by using thin, brass shims which can be
found at a good automotive supply or hardware store. The difference of making an
aperture in cardboard, aluminum foil or brass shims can be noticed in the clarity and
sharpness of the final photograph. Modern cameras use computer designed lenses,
ranging from hand ground glass to machine ground plastic. But the aperture itself can
function as a lens.

The pinhole (in this case, needle hole) transmits rays of light so that they strike the
film in tight clusters. The result is an acceptably clear photo. Results are improved
with better materials, but also with smaller apertures. Size makes a difference because
the smaller aperture transmits only a few rays from each point reflected from the
scene. The finer the rays of light, the tighter the cluster hitting the film and the better
the representation of the image viewed In other words, pin-point accuracy.Larger
apertures will transmit a much softer and less focused image. Experimenting with the
foil apertures of various sizes will provide a dramatic illustration.

Shadow catching
With camera in hand it is time to load the film and get to making photographs. While
real photographic film can be used, it is easier and a more visible learning experience
to use photo paper as film. Let's review the basic structure and differences with a
little, very little, chemistry.

Photographic film is made in layers.The base is clear plastic coated with light
sensitive material held in place by an emulsion layer. The light sensitive material is
actually tiny particles of silverthat when exposed to light, chemically react and etch a
reflection of the image viewed. Not all film reacts the same. Some, with larger silver
particles, is more fight sensitive and color film is different than black and white, either
having more layers to capture various hues or using dyes. All film, and photographic
papers, have an emulsion layer. This is actually a gelatin that holds the silver in place.
The emulsion is fastened with adhesive to the plastic film base and then coated with a
scratch resistant material.

Two additional pieces of photo trivia will aid in the understanding of the photographic
process related to the transmission of light and film:

1. The image viewed by the camera is recorded upside down on the film. Our eye
functions identically, but the brain reverses the image. Modern cameras have
a system of mirrorsthat reverse the image as you look directly through the
lens.
2. The scene is recorded on the film as a negative image. In other words, whites
are black, blacks are white, etc. That means then, that the white parts of the
negative image are actually unexposed silver particles and the black parts are
fully exposed.

Film, unless packaged in a light-tight container, must be handled in total darkness

both when loading the camera and processing. For this reason, it is easier to use
photographic paper, which can be used under low level photo lights, in the pinhole
camera. Photo paper is also a lot less light sensitive and therefore less likely to react
to stray light. Later, you can choose to experiment with real film as your experience
increases. Photo paper can be purchased in a wide variety of sizes with the most
common being 5 x 7 and 8 x 10. Paper is coated with a plastic resin (RC) and will
process quickly and dry flat. The paper will probably need to be cut to fit the inside
of your pinhole camera. The cutting and loading will have to be done under safelight,
a dark red, or yellow photo light. Once cut to size it can be placed in the camera so
that the emulsion, slick side, faces the pinhole (aperture). Before you turn on the
fight and leave the darkroom you will need to place your finger gently over the
pinhole to prevent stray light from exposing the film.

Incidentally, your finger now becomes the pinhole camera's shutter.

Because photo paper reacts slower to light than film and because the sewing needle
creates a tiny aperture, exposure times for the photograph will be lengthy. This will
call for a bit of experimentation, however. Not all cameras, aperture and lighting
conditions will be the same.

Suggested exposure times

 outside, bright sun: one minute
outside, cloudy: five minutes
inside, sunny window: eight minutes
inside, sunny room: 14 minutes
inside, dim light: 30 to 40 minutes

Keep in mind that the longer the exposure the darker the resulting negative which
will make for a light, or washed out print. Think of baking. The longer something is in
the oven the darker it will become. Just a little experience with the pinhole camera
will greatly improve your pictures. Remember that if a negative is overexposed (too
dark) and you had exposed it for six minutes, a three minute exposure will reduce
the exposure by 50 percent. This is all too logical, but often beginning photographers
will only reduce the exposure by a few seconds, producing a negative almost
identical to the problem they are trying to solve.

Returning to the darkroom with your exposed negative you will unload the camera --
again under safelight conditions -- and process the print in a series of chemical baths.
Each chemical should be pre-mixed and placed in plastic trays commonly used for the
purpose. All of the following materials are readily available at any decent camera
supply store.

The first processing solution is the paper developer. Dektol, a Kodak product is
common. Developer can be mixed 1:2 (one cup Dektol, two cups water) and it will
turn brown when exhausted. Under the safelight, gently slide the photo paper negative
into the solution and rock the tray carefully. It is a good idea to use photo tongs (not
metal tongs) to handle the print. Some people may react to the developer using their
hands and there is also less chance of chemical contamination from tray to tray. Each
tray, other than the water baths, should have separate tongs. The negative image will
begin to appear after a few seconds in the developer. After about two minutes,
development has been achieved and the negative, if properly exposed, will not
change. If the negative has been severely overexposed it will turn completely black.

From the developer, the negative is placed in a water bath that removes the Dektol
and arrests development. The negative is then placed in the fixing agent. Kodak fix,
or fixer, is a chemical that removes all the unexposed silver particles and hardens the
paper surface. After a few seconds in the fixer, room lights may be turned on. Total
time in the fixer need not exceed four minutes. The negative is then placed in the
last water bath for about four minutes.

(Once the room lights are on you will notice, for sure, if you have exposure problems
and need to try again. You will also notice how sharp the image is and exactly what a
negative image looks like. It will take some experience to judge the quality of a
negative. If you have had success so far, then the most difficult parts are now behind.
All that's left is reversing the negative to a positive print.)

If this is your first darkroom experience then you will want to see a "real" print as
soon as possible. Fortunately, with pinhole photography you won't have to wait long.
You can even process a print before the negative dries. In fact, often it is easier that
way. What you need is another piece of photo paper the same size as your negative or
slightly larger.

Remember to turn off the white light and handle the paper only under a photo light! If
your darkroom has an enlarger -- machine for printing prints from negatives -- you
can use its light source for the printing process. Turn on the enlarger --keep photo
paper packaged-- and adjust the size and shape of the light it projects so that it is
several times larger than your intended print. Place a photo easel under the light, or
mark the top edge of the light beam with tape, and turn the enlarger off.

Now, with all the lights off, except the photo light, remove a sheet of fresh photo
paper and place it emulsion side up in the easel, or where the light will strike, marked
by the tape. Place your negative, wet or dry, upside down and directly on top of the
photo paper. If the negative is wet, roll out any bubbles with your hand or
a roller made for that purpose. If the negative is dry you will probably have to
sandwich it and the photo paper under a clean and rather heavy piece of glass. You are
now ready to make a second exposure. This time exposing the paper to the enlarger's
light that will pass right through the negative and reverse the image on the photo
paper by creating another silver particle reaction.

Now, run the newly exposed piece of photo paper through the same chemical process
and, there you have it, a wet, but finished black and white positive print. Blot off the
excess water, or use a photo squeegee and set it out to dry. The resin coated paper will
dry soon and dry flat. If you are in a big hurry for a final dry print, use a hair dryer,
taking care not to crackle the resin coating with heat too high. Some photographers
have been known to use a microwave to dry resin coated prints.

If you do not have an enlarger, or access to one, you can still make a positive print.
Just turn on the room light. This will take some experimentation as the light won't be
as concentrated as under the enlarger's lamp, but will work.

Additional Help
There are a number of books on pinhole photography. Some bookstores and larger
camera supply houses usually have something on the subject. Also, books on the
history of photography usually mention the camera obscure, which operated in
similar fashion.

Books in the ASU library

Renner, Eric. Pinhole Photography, TR268 .R46 1995

Oakes, John Warren. Minimal Aperture Photo, TR268 .024 1986

Smith, Lauren. Visionary Pinhole, TR268 .S65 1985

Smith, Lauren. Pinhole Vision I, TR268 .S64x 1981

Smith, Lauren. Pinhole vision II, TR268 .S642x 1981

Eastman Kodak. How to make..., TR268 .E38x 1976

Pinhole Camera Exposure Charts

To calculate the exposure time for pinhole camera, we first of all need to know
the f number of the pinhole camera. Unlike normal cameras, this value does not change
because the hole remains the same size which therefore simplifies the final calculation.

Pinhole f Number

This is the distance from the film divided by the diameter of the pinhole. Let’s assume
that our pinhole camera has a focal length of 25 mm and the diameter of the pinhole is
0.18 mm . Using the information above, 25/0.18 = 138, so our aperture f number is 138

Pinhole Exposure Calculation

The high f numbers found on pinhole cameras in the majority of cases are not available
on light meters. In order to get round this problem, we set the light meter to a different
aperture, usually f 22, and then convert the measured exposure time for the aperture of
the pinhole camera.
We do this by dividing the f number of the pinhole camera by the f number set on
the light meter. We then square this number and use it to multiply the measured
exposure time.

For example, if the light meter which is set to f/22 gives us a reading of 1/30 second,
the calculation for our pinhole camera with an f number of 138 would be (138/22)2 =
39.3. The indicated time by the light meter has to be increased 39.3 times, resulting in
an exposure time of 1.3 seconds.

Pinhole Photography

Standards

 Use Pinhole cameras to create paper negatives and positives

 Demonstrate proficiency in photo terminology and equipment
 Students will show responsible care of equipment
 Students will identify and analyze processes and problems encountered in
photography
 Students will follow the safety guidelines

Objectives

 Learn the three basic parts of the camera

 Build and use a pinhole camera with the three basic parts
 Learn about the relationship of lighting and exposure time
 Learn how a pinhole camera works
 Keep journal sheets of pinhole negatives
 Learn how to use the chemistry in the darkroom to process negatives
 Learn how to make a test strip
 Learn what characteristics make a good positive and negative
 Learn how to use the enlargers to create positives in the darkroom
 Learn how to mount photo correctly
 Follow safety guidelines

Assignments

All assignments and self-evaluation rubrics must be included in the comprehensive binder.
  Take notes during class demonstration- part of a camera
 Build a pinhole camera
 Hand in three successful pinhole negatives
 Hand in a pair; positive and negative, correctly mounted
 Take notes on what makes a good positive and negative
 Complete worksheets on darkroom chemistry and safety
 Complete a journal entry

Pinhole Prints - Negative & Positive

Pinhole photography is lenseless photography. A tiny hole replaces the lens. Light passes
through the hole and a latent image is formed in the camera on photographic paper.

Pinhole Parts

Body:
Aperature:
Film:
Shutter:

Exposures are long, ranging from half a second to several hours. Therefore, the pinhole
images are softer-less-sharp than pictures made with a lens.

Making a Negative:

1. Load pinhole camera under darkroom conditions.

2. Open up pinhole camera.
3. Attach a sheet of photographic paper on the inside wall opposite the pinhole in the
pinhole camera. Emulsion side of the paper should face pinhole. (Shiny side up)
4. Close pinhole camera. Cover pinhole. Camera is ready for a picture.
5. Determine subject. Set pinhole camera in stationary position facing subject. (Double
check that actual pinhole is facing subject). School pinhole cameras have a wide
angle pinhole, therefore camera should be placed closer to the subject.
6. Remove pinhole closure. Make exposure. Length of time is dependent upon lighting
conditions and varies greatly from one camera to the next. (It is helpful to keep
track of lighting conditions, time, and distance.
7. Classroom exposure - 7-10 minutes - away from window / 3-5 minutes - near
window
Outdoor exposure - 15-20 seconds - bright sun / 20-30 seconds - partly cloudy / 30-
45 seconds - hazy/overcast
8. In darkroom, remove exposed print paper from the pinhole camera. Don't forget to
take the tape off.
9. Process exposed paper according to directions posted on chart in darkroom.

How Do I Make a Positive Image??

1. Place contact paper easel on base of enlarger.

2. Switch on enlarger. Switch is on the timer.
3. Adjust elevator control crank so that the light extends a couple of inches beyond the
easel.
4. Sharply focus the edges of light.
 5. Set enlarger to F-8 (2 clicks back from the darkest)
6. Switch off the enlarger.
7. Place a sheet of print paper emulsion side up (shiny side up) between glass and print
easel.
8. Place paper negative, emulsion side down on top of the unexposed print paper.
(Shiny side to shiny side. Image should always be on top).
9. Place glass on top of "sandwiched" paper to negative.
10. Switch on enlarger.
11. Expose for 10-15 seconds.
12. Switch off enlarger.
13. Remove paper negative and print paper from easel.
14. Process exposed print paper according to directions on chart in darkroom wall.
15. Keep enlarger area free of chemicals to avoid spots on positives.
16. The resulting print is referred to as a pinhole positive print.

Pinhole Cameras
As you are reading this months issue of Photography Magazine, you see an advertisement
for a camera for only $2.99 plus shipping and handling. Shocked by the price you decide to
call and see if the ad is really for a camera. After waiting on hold for several minutes, the
salesperson answers the phone and assures you that for $2.99 you will get a real camera.
Still stumped by the price, you decide to ask the salesperson what the camera is like. The
description the salesperson gives you is the following: a light tight body with a light tight lid,
a lens, and a manual shutter. The next question you ask is what materials it is made of. The
answer is cardboard with a copper lens. Shocked that anyone would pay $2.99 for
cardboard and copper you quickly thank the salesperson and hang up the phone.

Being the inventive person you are, you decide to make your own camera using the same
supplies. After searching your basement you find the following materials: cardboard, copper
pieces, a needle, glue, black paper, tape, and an exacto blade; and set off to create your
own camera.

Remembering that the only requirements that the salesperson mentioned were the
following: light, tight body, light tight lid, shutter, and lens. As you begin the project you
realize that not only are you saving money, but you believe that your camera will be
constructed and decorated uniquely.

Pinhole Camera Grading Rubric

Total points - 40

Excellent O.K. No Way

Light tight camera body 10 0
Light tight lid 10 0
Effective shutter 10 5 3-0
Craftsmanship/ Construction 5 3 2-0
Decoration 5 3 2-0
Followed safety guidelines Yes No
 Pinhole Camera Worksheet
Write a brief explanation for each term on these sheets, refer to class demonstration, class
notes, or your text book for answers. Be prepared to answer the questions on a quiz.

1. Camera Obscura-

2. Pinhole Camera-

3. Exposure time (generally speaking)

A) Bright sun-
B) Cloudy/overcast-
C) Indoor using window light-
D) Indoor away from the window-

4. Camera shake-

5. Exposure with bright sun and shade together-

6. Exposure and size of the camera-

7. Moving objects taken with a pinhole-

8. Exposure directly into the sun-

9. "Light leaks" / how do you know if you have them and how to fix them-

10. What does the developer do?

11. What does the stopbath do?

12. What happens in the fixer?

13. Why do we wash prints?

14. What are safe lights?

15. What are fixer spots?

16. Why agitate chemicals when printing?

17. What should you be concerned with in chemicals and skin contact?

18. What do you need to be aware of in chemicals dripping into each other? and how to
avoid...?

19. What causes prints to stick together? Prevention?

20. Describe the difference between an overexposed and an underexposed pinhole
negative?