Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
BY
PROF. A. BALASUBRAMANIAN
1
Objectives :
2
Introduction
3
Similarly, to the people of mountainous regions,
natural springs provided the sources of water
supply.
Springs are the outcome of seepage from any
groundwater system, in hilly terrains or in
limestone regions.
More than 60 percent of the global population
thrives by using only the groundwater resources.
The groundwater which was existing at shallow
depths in the open wells, has gone deep due to
over-exploitation.
4
Exploring these water sources become a
challenging task to geo-scientists.
Renewable resource
5
After every recharge, the water table raises,
denoting that the porous media has saturated with
more water. When we pump out water, the water
level goes down.
6
Heterogeneous distribution
7
Groundwater prospecting is a very thought
provoking scientific exercise in most of the
places.
There is a need to understand the methods of
groundwater exploration, as it is a practical
decision-making approach.
Exploring groundwater
8
Groundwater exploration is a typical task of a
hydrogeologist or an engineer.
9
Every individual can not go for test drilling.
During the last two centuries, more and more
techniques have been developed to explore the
groundwater.
They are classified into surface and sub-surface
methods.
Surface methods
10
These require minimum facilities like topo-sheets,
maps, reports, some field measurements and
interpretations of data in the laboratories.
The surface methods of groundwater exploration
include the following:
– Esoteric Methods
– Geomorphologic methods
– Geological & structural Methods
– Soil and Micro-Biological Methods
– Remote Sensing Techniques
– Surface Geophysical Methods
11
Subsurface methods
12
The subsurface methods are very accurate
methods as the help in direct observations of
features in the form of bore-hole lithologs as core
samples and also geophysical measurements of
formation properties.
Esoteric methods
13
People believed that the flow of groundwater can
induce some vital currents above the surface.
When a wet plant twig is moved above such
zones, it tends to rotate the twig as well. Wet
twigs of trees, husk-removed coconuts, watches
and other materials have been used as dowsing
materials.
The person handling the twig has some role of
induction and hence it is not applicable to
everybody attempting to divine water. All these
th
methods have been practiced since 17 century.
14
There is no scientific explanation available with
reference to these approaches. Probability of
success is a mere coin-tossing experiment. These
methods are called as water divining.
Water Witching
15
Although this method is lacking any scientific
justification for the method, water witches
diligently practice the art wherever people can be
persuaded of its potential value.
16
Geomorphological Methods
17
Some of them are likely to contain relatively
permeable strata.
18
Study of Land forms
19
Partly drift-filled valleys marked by a chain of
elongate closed depressions,
largely masked bedrock valleys cutting across
modern valleys that are indicated by local non-
slumping of weak shale strata in valley sides,
sand dunes assumed to overlie sandy glacio-
fluvial sediments,
nearby locations of lakes and streams are very
good indicators for groundwater prospecting.
20
Topography and Drainage
21
Such locations are also suitable for water
collection and storage for recharge.
22
If it is high, due to more streams, runoff will be
more.
Geological Methods
23
This should be supplemented, when possible, by
geologic field reconnaissance and by evaluation
of available hydrologic data on stream flow and
springs, well yields, groundwater recharge,
discharge, and levels and water quality.
In some places, the drainages may be fully
controlled by the presence of minor and major
structures like joints, faults and lineaments.
Such zones are good and potential zones for
groundwater exploration.
These are the conduits for groundwater flow.
24
Structural methods
25
Dykes are good barriers for arresting the flow of
groundwater.
Location of dykes and analyzing their dip and
strike help in selecting the groundwater potential
zones in the upstream side.
Well-inventory
Well-inventory is a method of analyzing the well-
cuttings and inner surfaces of open dug wells to
know about the subsurface geology, structures,
seepage zones, fluctuations of water levels, rate of
recovery after pumping and the geo-
environmental setting of the wells in a region.
26
This method helps to analyse the data collected
from more number of the wells of a region and
come to a conclusion about the regional
groundwater potentialities.
27
Soil and Micro-Biological Methods
Geo-botanical indicators are valuable tools in
groundwater exploration.
The anomalous growth of vegetation and
alignment of big trees on a straight line, growth of
termite mounds and location of age old, deep
rooted heritage trees can indicate the occurrence
of groundwater at shallow depths.
Presence of Halophytes, plants with a high
tolerance for soluble salts, and white efflorescence
of salt at ground surface, indicate the presence of
shallow brackish or saline groundwater.
28
Xerophytes, the well-known desert plants ,
subsisting on minimal water, suggest a
considerable depth to the water table.
All these are supplementary tools in detecting the
locations of groundwater zones.
Moist depressions and seepages
Moist depressions,
marshy environments, and seepages,
string of alkali flats or lakes (playas) along
inactive drainage systems, salt precipitates (e.g.,
salt crusts),
29
localized anomalous-looking "burn out" patches
in the soil, and
vegetation associated with salt migration and
accumulation are good indicators for groundwater
availability.
Depression springs, where land surface locally
cuts the water table or the upper surface of the
zone of saturation, Contact springs containing a
permeable water-bearing strata overlying
relatively impermeable strata-usually along the
sides of valleys that cut across the interface
between different strata are good locations.
30
The presence of artesian springs occurring on
undulating upland till plains, and artesian springs
occurring on or near the base of hillsides, valley
slopes, and local scarps are very good indicators.
Geophysical methods
31
Geophysical investigations are conducted on the
surface of the earth to explore the ground water
resources by observing some physical parameters
like density, velocity, conductivity, resistivity,
magnetic, electromagnetic & radioactive
phenomena.
Geophysical methods comprise of measurement
of signals from natural or induced phenomena of
physical properties of sub surface formation.
Geophysical methods detect the differences, or
anomalies of physical properties within the earth's
crust.
32
Density, magnetism, elasticity, and electrical
resistivity are properties that are most commonly
measured.
33
Gravity Method
34
Because the method is expensive and because
differences in water content in subsurface strata
seldom involve measurable differences in specific
gravity at the surface, the gravity method has little
application to groundwater prospecting.
35
Magnetic Method
36
Seismic Method
Seismic methods are of two kinds as seismic
refraction and reflection methods.
The seismic refraction method involves the
creation of a small shock at the earth's surface
either by the impact of a heavy instrument or by a
small explosive charge and measuring the time
required for the resulting sound, or shock, wave to
travel known distances.
37
Seismic waves follow the same laws of
propagation as light rays and may be reflected or
refracted at any interface where a velocity change
occurs. Seismic reflection methods provide
information on geologic structure thousands of
meters below the surface, whereas seismic
refraction methods-of interest in groundwater
studies-go only about 100 meters deep. The
travel time of a seismic wave depends on the
media through which it is passing through. The
velocities are greatest in solid igneous rocks and
least in unconsolidated materials.
38
Based on these indications, it is possible to
delineate the subsurface zones of fractures,
fissures, faults and lineaments.
39
In seismic method, the depth to water table can
be mapped, with an accuracy of 10 percent,
where the geologic conditions are relatively
uniform. The changes in seismic velocities are
governed by changes in the elastic properties of
the formations. The greater the contrast of these
properties, the more clearly the formations and
their boundaries can be identified.
40
Electrical resistivity method
41
Electrical resistivity surveys have been used for
many decades in hydrogeological, mining and
geotechnical investigations. More recently, it has
been used for environmental surveys. Each
electrical property is the basis for a geophysical
method.
42
From the current (I) and voltage (V) values, an
apparent resistivity (pa) value is calculated, using
pa = k V / I, where k is the geometric factor
which depends on the arrangement of the four
electrodes. The electrode arrangement in these
investigations are called as arrays. Some of the
most common electrode arrays are Wenner,
Schlumberger, pole-pole, pole-dipole and dipole-
dipole array.
43
Vertical electrical sounding
44
Resistivity meters normally give a resistance
value, R = V/I, so in practice the apparent
resistivity value is calculated by pa = k R.
45
To determine the true subsurface resistivity, an
inversion of the measured apparent resistivity
values using a computer program must be carried
out. The measured apparent resistivity values are
normally plotted on a log-log graph paper. To
interpret the data from such a survey, it is
normally assumed that the subsurface consists of
horizontal layers.
46
Profiling
47
The most severe limitation of the resistivity
sounding method is that horizontal (or lateral)
changes in the subsurface resistivity are
commonly found. In many engineering and
environmental studies, the subsurface geology is
very complex where the resistivity can change
rapidly over short distances. The resistivity
sounding method might not be sufficiently
accurate for such situations.
Resistivity surveys give a picture of the
subsurface resistivity distribution.
48
To convert the resistivity picture into a geological
picture, some knowledge of typical resistivity
values for different types of subsurface materials
and the geology of the area surveyed, is
important.
49
3. 20 – 30 Pore fluid conductivity dominates / affected by
both water quality and lithology
4. 30 – 70 Affected by both water quality and lithology
5. < 10 Delineate sediments enriched with salt water
6. <1 Clay / sand saturated with salt water
7. 15 – 600 Sand and Gravel saturated with fresh water
8. 5 Saltwater or Clay with saltwater
9. < 10 Brackish aquifer
10. 10 – 20 Moderately fresh
11. 20 – 160 Freshwater
12. 0.2 – 0.8 Clay
13. 0.6 – 5 Dry sand contaminated
14. 0.3 – 0.8 Brine bearing sand
15. 3–6 Red clay
16. < 19 Clay / clay mixed with kankar
17. 64 – 81 Weathered sandstone
18. 57 – 111 Weathered granite and other crystalline rocks
19. < 10 Saline coastal zone sand (Sedimentary)
50
20. 10 – 20 Clay with or without diffused water
21. 20 – 60 Freshwater zone
22. 200-10000 Crystalline rocks: Granite and other igneous
rocks and crystalline schist of normal physical
character, compact sand stones, quartzite,
marbles
23 100-1000 Consolidated sedimentary rocks:Slates, shale,
sand stone, limestone
24 0.5-100 Unconsolidated sedimentary rocks: Marls,
clays, sands, alluvium and surface soils
25 4-800 Oil bearing sands:
51
The resistivity of these rocks is greatly dependent
on the degree of fracturing, and the percentage of
the fractures filled with ground water.
Sedimentary rocks, which usually are more
porous and have a higher water content, normally
have lower resistivity values. Wet soils and fresh
ground water have even lower resistivity values.
Clayey soil normally has a lower resistivity value
than sandy soil. However, note the overlap in the
resistivity values of the different classes of rocks
and soils.
52
This is because the resistivity of a particular rock
or soil sample depends on a number of factors
such as the porosity, the degree of water
saturation and the concentration of dissolved salts.
53
Wenner array
54
For the Wenner array, the geometric factor is
2(22/7)a, which is smaller than the geometric
factor for other arrays. Among the common
arrays, the Wenner array has the strongest signal
strength.
55
Schlumberger array
56
The calculations are done using these two
equations:
VM = pl/27r 1/(a - b/2) - 1/(a + b/2)
VN =pl/27r 1/(a + b/2) - 1/(a - b/2)
57
If a and b are measured in meters, and oV and I in
millivolts and milliamperes respectively, pa
would be in ohm-meters (Slur).
Equation (1) may be written as:
Pa =K/I AV
where K = (a2 /b - b/4) is the geometric factor for
the Schlumberger array.
58
Dipole-dipole array
59
That means that it is good in mapping vertical
structures, such as dykes and cavities, but
relatively poor in mapping horizontal structures
such as sills or sedimentary layers.
Interpretation of data
The interpretation of each VES curve is carried
out in two steps.
First, an approximate interpretation is obtained by
the curve-matching methods, and another
interpretation is based on the results obtained
through the automatic interpretation using a
computer program.
60
Finally, the layer-wise resistivities and
thicknesses are obtained from these
interpretations. Using them spatial variation maps
depicting the low resistivity contours and good
thickness aquifer horizons can be delineated.
Electromagnetic Method
61
Coiling a current-carrying conductor around a
core material that can be easily magnetized, such
as iron, can form an electromagnet. The magnetic
field will be concentrated in the core. This
arrangement is called a solenoid. The more turns
we wrap on this core, the stronger the
electromagnet and the stronger the magnetic lines
of force become. The magnetic field that
surrounds a current-carrying conductor is made up
of concentric lines of force. The strength of these
circular lines of force gets progressively smaller
the further away from the conductor.
62
If a stronger current is made to flow through the
conductor, the magnetic lines of force become
stronger.
The strength of the magnetic field is directly
proportional to the current that flows through the
conductor. There are two methods as Passive and
Active methods. The Passive method uses the
natural ground signals (e.g., magnetotellurics),
natural sources like lightning, magnetosphere
activities, etc.
63
The Active method uses a transmitter to induce
ground current, using an artificial source.
Principles of EM Surveying
64
The eddy currents produce a secondary EM field
which is detected by the receiver. The receiver
also detects the primary field (the resultant field is
a combination of primary and secondary which
differs from the primary field in phase and
amplitude). After compensating for the primary
field (which can be computed from the relative
positions and orientations of the coils), both the
magnitude and relative phase of the secondary
field can be measured.
65
The difference in the resultant field from the
primary provides information about the geometry,
size and electrical properties of the subsurface
conductor.
The apparent conductivity measured is the
average conductivity of one or more layers in the
ground in the proximity of the instrument, to a
depth of investigation. The depth of investigation
is dependent on the coil spacing, orientation,
operating frequency of the instrument, and the
individual conductivity of each ground layer.
66
General Principles of EM Operation
67
As a result of this magnetic field, eddy currents
are induced in underground conductive materials.
The decay of the eddy currents in these materials
is directly related to their conductive properties,
and may be measured by a suitable receiver coil
on the surface.
68
It is related to the measurements at one or more
frequencies. The FDEM Transmitter produces
continuous EM field. The secondary field is
determined by nulling the primary field ( need
two coils). The TDEM-Primary field is
applied in pulses ( 20-40 ms) then switched off
and the secondary field measured ( same coil
can be transmitter and receiver, more often
large coil on ground and move small coil
around).
69
Geophysical Logging Techniques
70
The data obtained is normally used to determine
the general lithology of formations, distribution
of structures, vertical flow of fluids, and the
water-yielding capabilities of the formations. The
geophysical logging of boreholes came a long
way since 1927, when
71
Basically, there are two types of logging
techniques- first utilizing the natural source &
second utilizing stimulated controlled source.
72
These parameters are interpreted in terms of
lithology, porosity, moisture content & quality of
formation fluids. Different physical properties
like electrical conductivity, magnetic
susceptibility, radioactivity & velocity etc are
utilized.
73
b) for the water well design & construction and
c) for sea water intrusion studies of coastal
aquifers.
Logging methods
74
d) Sonic logging.
e) Fluid logging – temperature, fluid
resistivity, flow meter & tracer logging.
f) Caliper logging.
75
The SP logs are highly useful in deciphering
saline water & clay predominant zones. The
Resistivity logs are used for ground water &
mineral explorations.
Photogeology
Photogeology is the art of making aerial
photographs that are suitable for analyzing the
earth’s physiographic features, rack types,
structures, mineralized zones, water resources,
types of vegetation, zones of cultivation and
urbanization.
76
The Photographs of the earth taken from the
aircraft or satellite can provide useful information
regarding groundwater conditions. The
technology of remote sensing has developed
rapidly in recent years. Stereoscopic examination
of black-and-white aerial photographs has gained
steadily in importance.
Observable patterns, colors, and relief make it
possible to distinguish differences in geology,
soils, soil moisture vegetation, and land use.
77
Thus, photogeology can differentiate between
rock and soil types and indicate their permeability
and areal distribution-and hence areas of
groundwater recharge and discharge. Maps
classifying an area into good, fair, and poor
groundwater yields can be prepared. Aerial
photographs also reveal the fracture patterns in
rocks, which can be further related to the porosity,
permeability, and ultimately the well yields.
78
They are suitable for identifying the formations
that are potential zones for the occurrence of
groundwater.
79
In much of remote sensing, the process involves
an interaction between incident radiation and the
targets of interest. Remote sensing shows an
increasing role in the field of hydrology and
water resources development. Remote sensing
provides multi-spectral, multi-temporal and multi-
sensor data of the earth’s surface which are
suitable for mineral explorations, water resources
evaluation, environmental monitoring and
groundwater targeting.
80
Remote sensing techniques help in the
demarcation of groundwater potential zones,
identification of groundwater recharge sites and,
to analysis the future artificial recharge sites.
81
The high resolution satellite images are
interpreted (visually or digitally) to identify the
groundwater potential zones. Thematic layers are
prepared based on hydrogeomorphic units, land-
use/ land-cover/ lineaments, rock types, structures
and many other features.
82
The hydrogeological conditions are controlled by
the lithology, geomorphology, structures like
lineaments, faults and fractures.
83
Conclusion
84
The success in the groundwater targeting lies in
experience of understanding the geological
conditions, structural conditions and
hydrogeological conditions which favour the
occurrence of groundwater.
85