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A virtual reality brainwave entrainment method for human augmentation

applications 1

G. Papagiannakis1,2, E. Argento2, E. Baka1,2, M. Maniadakis2, P. Trahanias1,2

2
Foundation for Research and Technology – Hellas (FORTH)
Institute of Computer Science
100 N. Plastira Str., 70013, Heraklion, Crete
http://www.ics.forth.gr
3
University of Crete, Computer Science Department,
Voutes Campus,70013, Heraklion, Greece

Technical Report Number 458

October 2015

Keywords: augmented cognition, brainwave entrainment, virtual reality platform, technology-

enhanced learning

Abstract
In order to investigate the brain activity under rhythmic stimulation we developed a novel architecture
for Augmented Cognition by integrating latest wearable Virtual Reality (VR) immersive Head-
Mounted-Displays with wireless, mobile neuro-biofeedback systems for Real-time, Autonomous
Cognitive State Detection, Manipulation and Augmentation. We integrated in our open-source VR
framework both latest experimental Oculus Rift HMDs (DK1 and DK2) together with the Emotiv EPOC
mobile EEG headset in an innovative, open architecture for user position, orientation and brainwave
frequency tracking. We carried out a novel experiment with five groups tracking the brain frequency
states of people while relaxing or performing certain sensorimotor tasks in an interactive, immersive 3D
environment. The primary aim of this novel research is human cognition augmentation and
improvement of task performance via a unique VR-induced entrainment methodology. In most of our
experimental groups, we witnessed the transition of the beta-wave to the alpha-wave state. The
brainwave entrainment at alpha frequency (10Hz) and relaxation via modern VR, using our open s/w
framework, allowed us to verify for the first time enhanced task performance in a fast-learning setup.
These first results empower us to plan future studies concerning clinical treatments in VR entrainment
using modern wearable devices.

1
This work was supported by the FORTH - Institute of Computer Science.

FORTH-ICS, TR-458 October 2015

A virtual reality brainwave entrainment method for
human augmentation applications

I.   INTRODUCTION
From entertainment to industrial design and from education to psychiatry, virtual reality is becoming a powerful
new tool for ludic, working, training and treating experiences. Enhancing virtual reality has been identified as a
Grand Engineering challenge for the 21st century [1]. One of the cornerstone concepts in such an enhancing
endeavor is the advancement of “Presence” in virtual environments. The common view that Presence was the
“feeling of being there” [2] in the virtual environment rather than where the participant’s body was actually
located, has recently being grounded on the ability of “doing there”, stressing the importance of interactivity [3],
[4]. Mixed Reality refers to the suite of technologies that allow the partial (Augmented Reality) or total
augmentation (Virtual Reality) of the human senses (virtual, auditory, haptic) with synthetic, computer generated
worlds. In this work we aim to integrate modern, latest Virtual Reality (VR) s/w frameworks and h/w [5], [6]
with Brainwave Entrainment methods for augmented cognition via enhanced learning during sensorimotor task
performance.
Augmented Cognition encompasses methods and designs that harness computation and explicit knowledge
about human limitations to open bottlenecks, address biases and deficits in cognition [7]. These ‘Closed Loop’
Systems use modern neuro- Scientific Tools, and other environmental information, to sense an individual’s
cognitive state in real time to drive system adaptation and to maximize human information. This is done by
measuring cognitive state and removing the burdens of technology to achieve optimal human-computer
performance. This creates closed-loop human-computer interaction capability where the computer anticipates,
predicts and augments the performance of the user [8]. As already stated in [9] improvement of human
performance through integration of ‘convergent technologies: nano-bio-info-cogno’ now becomes feasible.
Brainwave Entrainment refers to the affection of brain areas and their response to rhythmic sensory inputs,
such as sound or light. There are a lot of studies that indicate the effects of such a procedure applied in several
groups of people, suggesting that a state of Brain Entrainment can affect behavior and cognition in different ways,
e.g the enhancement of creativity and even of the technique of contemporary dancers, and the decrease of their
anxiety state [10]. The primary aim of this novel research is to answer the following research question: is human
cognition augmentation and improvement of task performance achievable via a modern, VR-induced brainwave
entrainment methodology?
In most of our experimental groups that were carried out to answer the above question, we witnessed the
transition of the beta-wave state to the alpha-wave state. The achieved brainwave entrainment at alpha frequency
(10Hz) in modern VR, using our open s/w framework, allowed us to verify for the first time, enhanced task
performance in a fast-learning setup. These first results empower us to plan future studies concerning clinical
treatments in VR entrainment. The figure below illustrates the overview of our VR architecture [6] and an
example of a subject undergoing the described experiment, using the mobile wearable HMD and EEG tracking
headsets .
Fig. 1.  Overview of our novel, open VR platform (top) with the associated wearable h/w devices (Oculus Rift HMD and
Emotiv EEG headset) woren by a subject of ou experimens (bottom). A detailed description of the class diagram of the VR
architecture is provided in [6]

In the following Section II of this paper we describe in detail the relevant state-of-the-art. In Section III our
method for our experiments and in Section IV our results for each group of the experiment. We conclude with
the final Section V with the discussion of our results and future work.
 II.   STATE OF THE ART
Augmentation of human intellect: "Intelligence Amplification" (IA) as it was initially described in [11] is still
not within easy grasp in its entirety. However, recent advances in Virtual & augmented Reality [2], [3] , [12],
[13], Brain-wave entrainment [14], Computational Neuroscience and Neurofeedback [15], [16], Computational
creativity and psychology [17] open new avenues of disruptive research for future emerging technologies for
Augmented Cognition and IA.
In the area of Mixed Reality [20] we have developed over the last decade several frameworks for interactive
simulation of virtual characters [5],[19] featuring basic presence and interaction with virtual characters [3], [12],
[6]. Similarly, other researchers have extensively been engaged in the usage of virtual characters in Mixed Reality
environments [42] where a more complete list is provided in [21].
Brainwave Entrainment, achieved by photic or audio stimulation, has an extended historical path. In fact, the
first known clinical application belongs to the French psychologist Pierre Janet, at the turn of the 20th century, in
the late 1800s. A lot of studies followed afterwards by many important researchers such as [33], [34], [35] and
[40]. However, they have not considered the possible effects of a photic stimulation. Therefore, after the initial
demonstration of Berger in 1934 on electrical activity recorded from the human brain, Adrian and Mathews [36]
showed that the Berger rhythm, which means alpha rhythm, could be further amplified by photic stimulation at
the same frequency. In 1942, Dempsey and Morison [37] found that Brainwave Entrainment could also be
induced by tactile stimulus and in 1959 Chaitran [38] reported entrainment effects with an auditory stimulus.
Meanwhile, in 1956, W. Gray Walter [39] published the results of his researches on the emotional and
psychological effects of a flickering light stimulation. Flickering light produced frequency-dependent sensations
of pattern, movement and colour. The development of Brain Entrainment tools increased greatly from 1973, with
Oster’s result [30] which evidenced the properties of binaural beats. Studies on the effects of Brain Entrainment
on situations like pain, headaches, migraines, anxiety and stress followed in the 1980s, as well as the incorporation
of specific devices which directly allowed the achievement of an entrainment, such as David Siever’s device [32].
This kind of research expanded in the 1990s to include learning and memory, learning disabilities, attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder, behavioral problems and PMS. [31], [32].
Digital games are unique in their ability to motivate and stimulate people. Indeed, gamers often surprise
themselves and are capable of much more than expected. The concept of Serious Games (SGs) is based on tacking
advantage of these game assets to motivate students and ease their learning process [43]. Games also promote
active pedagogy by placing learners in the position of central actor, thus providing them with a sense of power
and control over their learning activities and curriculum [44]. Game mechanics also trigger emotions, such as
happiness, surprise, impatience or even frustration. These emotions have proven to increase concentration and
memorizing skills [45]. SGs have the advantage of offering virtual environments, ideal for simulating various
infrastructures and situations in which learners can practice and develop their skills [46]. Interactive Learning
Events (ILEs) is a modern term that is used to describe all different aspects of serious games, simulations and
gamification that are employed for learning purposes [46] via modern digital computing platforms.
In the following figure we illustrate the position of our proposed architecture for human augmentation based
on a novel, open VR platform that allows for brainwave entrainment at alpha frequency for enhanced learning,
with respect to other mostly relevant associated technologies and methodologies described in the state-of-the-art.
Fig. 2.  Overview of the associated human augmentation technologies and methodologies with our new approach at the centre
of the figure

Augmented  
Cognition

VR  entrainment  
learning  platform  
for  augmetned  
cognition

Brainwave   Gamified  VR  

entrainment  &   framework  and  
neurofeedback Presence

I.   OUR METHOD
A.   Group Participants of the experiment
In order to verify our premise, we conducted several experiments. Twenty people, sixteen to forty four years
old, both male and female, were fully informed about the procedure and participated in our study, which was held
a the Foundation for Research and Technology in Crete with the collaboration of the Computer Science
Department, of the University of Crete. Subjects were randomly placed in one of the five following groups: a)
Control (C), b) Basic Entrainment (B), c) Simple Learning (SL), d) Entrainment Learning (EL), e) Entrainment
Fast Learning (EFL). The duration of the experiment for each participant depended on the objectives of each
group. The first and the last task of the experiment were the same for all groups. The first one was a VR
familiarization task, based on an example demo of the Oculus Rift Head Mounted Display (HMD), so that
participants would familiarize themselves with the 3D environment, orientation and navigation metaphors. The
second task was a VR meditation application and the last one was a VR maze from which the participants had to
find their way out in the shorted possible time.

B.   Procedure followed
In order to study the influence of brainwave entrainment, combined with the active exploration of an
environment in VR, with the improvement of task performance and cognition augmentation, we organized the
five groups mentioned above.
In each group the procedure began with the familiarization task for default duration of three to four minutes,
depending also on the previous gaming experience of each participant. This familiarization task consists of the
navigation through a large virtual house, located in Tuscany. At first, the Control group (C) after having the
experience of this task they tried to solve the way-finding problem of the VR maze. The maze was divided in two
parts, separated by two sets of ring-like marker structures, which were located at the one third and at the end of
the correct route to the exit. Every time a participant met a ring, we noted the time as the purpose of the task was
not only to get out of the maze but as quickly as possible. The time factor was relevant for being able to determine
any possible improvements of task performance.
 The Basic entrainment group (B) had one more task between familiarization and the maze, the one of
entrainment, called relaxation.
The most commonly used methods of Brain Entrainment are to stimulate the brain at the desired frequency
via flashing lights, different kinds of auditory tones, or a combination of both. The most common forms of
auditory stimulation are based on isochronic, monaural or binaural beats [22]. In our experiment, we used an
isochronic beat tuned in 10 Hz, which is an evenly spaced tone that simply turns on and off. While they were
listening to this beat, the participants were transported into a virtual garden where they had almost 15 minutes to
relax and concentrate. There was no task required from them to perform, except of navigating themselves in the
garden only by changing movement direction with their head. The purpose of the task though, wasn’t only
navigation but relaxation as well, which would lead to brainwave entrainment at alpha state. After having
completed the relaxation task, the four participants of the group underwent the test of the maze, as it is the standard
last task for all groups.
The third group was the one of Simple Learning (SL). The purpose of this group was to solve the problem of
the maze after having seen the solution path towards the exit via an automated, prerecorded fly-through of the
virtual camera in the 3D environment. The participants, after the familiarization task, navigated into the maze for
five times so that they had enough time for planning the solution.
The Entrainment Learning group (EL) had to accomplish the same task as SL group except that, after
familiarization task, they had the relaxation one in order for them to achieve brain entrainment and also during
their entire challenge within the maze they were subject to the 10hz isochronic audio stimulus.
The difference between the EL group and the Entrainment Fast Learning group is the speed of the shown
solution, which practically refers to the speed of the navigation through the maze. Minutely the tasks were
familiarization, relaxation, fast learning and maze. This is a subtle difference that yield very promising results,
since the EFL group provided the shortest timings and faster performance in way-finding in the maze.
Throughout this procedure we recorded the EEG data through the mobile, Emotiv EPOC mobile EEG headset,
as mentioned before. Although EEG is at a disadvantage compared to other, more expensive methods, like MEG
of fMRI, it offers the proper temporal resolution and, due to its equipment portability, allows a range and a
freedom of movements that almost cannot be achieved with any other neuroimaging techniques [27] while can
be worn in addition to the Oculus Rift HMD. EEG measurements entail the attachment of the electrodes to
standardized locations of the scalp, so, as we used the headset mentioned above, we satisfied this condition.
However, to facilitate this attachment we used liquid lenses or even we asked from certain participants to have
their hair at a wet state, in order to improve the headset sensor conductivity. The following table describes the
task performed by each group in our experiment.

Table I. Tasks performed by each group

Task
Group
name Familiarization Relaxation Learning Fast Maze
Learning
C ✔ ✔
B ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
SL ✔ ✔
EL ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
EFL ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
 
C.   Signal processing of the tracked EEG data
After having obtained the recorded EEG data, we used EEGlab and NBT for analyzing the data and signal
processing. EEGlab , as well as NBT, is a toolbox and graphic user interface, running on top of the MATLAB
environment, developed for processing collections of single – trial and/or averaged EEG data of any number of
channels [23].
To filter the data as well as clean them from any possible artifacts, we eployed the preprocessing tools, offered
by both EEGlab and NBT [23] since sampling of the data lead to aliasing. In general, for being able to eliminate
this aliasing process, it is suggested in the bibliography that the data should be low-pass filtered at frequencies at
least one third lower than the sampling rate [24], [25]. Given that in our case the sampling rate was 128 Hz, we
used a basic FIR filter with the lower edge of the frequency at 45 Hz and the higher one at 55 Hz.
To clean the data, we removed further artifacts induced by eye blinking and abrupt head or body movements
throughout the entire process. The Emotiv headset allowed every participant to move freely in every direction
but this caused most of the times unavoidable artifacts. Given the purpose of our study, we could not eliminate
those movements at their entirety. For an efficient and a more promising cleaning, we, sometimes, had also to
reject a number of erroneous channels, marked as such by the toolkits.
In addition to all these, we run ICA for data decomposition, which helped us with the further EEG processing.
In this case, EEGlab offered us the most reliable results composed of 14 components, as the exact number of the
channels used. Subsequently, examining components activation and their maps, we removed the erroneous
components.
Through this procedure we were able to determine the frequencies that corresponded to the microvolts we
recorded wth the Emotiv headset throughout the experiment. At the end, it allowed us to plot either the spectrum
of each channel or the one of the whole signal and the activity of each channel in relation to the proportional brain
activity area.

II.   RESULTS
Throughout the procedure we came up against a few people with different level of motion sickness asociated
with the VR 3D environment. Most of the times though, these participants were those who had limited 3D gaming
experience/exposure.

A.   C group (Control)
The results obtained from the C group were within a range of frequencies from about 11Hz to 17Hz. There are
not big differences between the familiarization and maze tasks, which means that the participants almost
maintained their primary frequency throughout the procedure. If, for example, the power spectrum of a participant
presenteda peak at about 17Hz in the familiarization task, then, in the maze task, the frequency will peak at
almost 16 Hz. We noticed though that at certain ocassions, in the familiarization task, there were more than one
peak for the same spectrum, but usually concerning the same brainwave state, which in our case was Alpha or
lower Beta.
Fig. 3.  Power spectrum for familiarization task in C group. The several colored lines show the respective channels. Tha scalp
map indicates the activity of the specific frequency in different brain areas. The red color represents the maximum intense
activity. (C group – Familiarization task)

 
B.   B group (Basic entrainment)
In the Basic Entrainment group (BE) we found almost the same results concerning the familiarization task. The
power spectrum presented an average peak at about 15Hz. After having applied brainwave entrainment through
the use of the isochronic beat mentioned before, we noticed changes in the associated EEG data. The spectrum
peaked at around 11 – 12 Hz and we were able to verify this result through the spectrum plot given by EEGlab
and NBT, but also through the activity of each channel individually.
In the figure below we are able to see the power spectrum of an individual channel and, also, its activity. The
colors on top present this activity based on each color, as we mentioned before for the scalp map. The red one
witnesses the highest possible activity of the specific brain area in the indicated frequency. Next to this box of
colors there is a scale for deciphering the mean of each color. The graph below presents the power spectrum of
the specific channel and we are clearly able to see that , in this example, frequency peaks at almost 12 Hz. Finally,
the dots in the right present the position of each channel on the scalp. Every time we choose a channel to represent
, the respective dot become red and the name of the channel is marked with the blue line shown in the middle
box.

Fig. 4.  Example of an individual channel from the right hemisphere of the brain. The colors on the top represent the activity
of the specific brain area where the electrode was placed. The graph below witnesses the power spectrum and the dots in the
right show the position of each electrode on the scalp. (B group – Relaxation task)

Fig. 4 indicates the spectrum peak at around 12 Hz. We can observe that, except from the dominant frequency,
which we are every time able to identify, there is always, also a high activity at lower frequencies, which constitute
delta state.
Throughout the maze task, the participants were able to maintain the obtained frequency, and hence the alpha
state in which they were brain entrained though the 15 minutes of the relaxation task.
C.   SL group (Simple Learning)
From this group on, the participants had to deal with an extra task, this of learning, in which, they had to watch
the solution, before they had the chance to solve the exit problem of the maze by themselves. This gave them the
opportunity to plan a possible solution so that they would gain time by not making useless mistakes.
In the familiarization task, we had almost the same results as above, with an average spectrum peak at around
12 Hz. In this group, there is no relaxation task, so the procedure proceeds with the simply learning task. All the
participants, throughout this task, presented a peak at around 11.5 Hz, which is clearly an alpha state, since they
all were subject to the isochronic 10hz auditory stimulus.

Fig. 5.  Power spectrum plot for Simple Learning task in SL group using EEGlab. We witness that frequency peaks at around
11.5 Hz and we can see the activity of this frequency in the brain via the colors appeared in the scalp map.. (SL group –
Simple Learning task EEGlab)

Fig. 6.  Power spectrum plot for Simple Learning task in SL group using NBT. We can witness that frequency peaks at around 11 – 12 Hz. The different
colored lines show the respective channel (SL group – Simple Learning task NBT
D.  EL group (Entrainment Learning)
The familiarization task of EL group gave us the expected result of a peak at around 11 – 12 Hz. Therefore,
in the relaxation task, the participants managed to find themselves slightly in a lower range of frequency peaking
at about 10 Hz.

Fig. 7.  Example of a specific channel and its activity using NBT The colors on the top represent the activity of the specific
brain area where the electrode was placed. The graph below witnesses the power spectrum and the dots in the right show the
position of each electrode on the scalp.. (EL group – Relaxation task)

After this task, the participants were allowed to watch the solution of the maze problem in a kind of slow
rhythm. During this task, the peak of the frequency was almost maintained at 10 to 11 Hz.

Fig. 8.  Power spectrum plot for Learning task in EL group using NBT. We can witness the frequency peak at almost 11
Hz..The colored lines indicate the diferrent channels. (EL group – Learning task NBT)
 The same brain state with a peak of 10 to 11 Hz was observed in the maze task as well. The alpha state though,
as the dominant state, didn’t exclude the existence of other states as well.

E.   EFL group (Entrainment Fast Learning)

In the familiarization task we noticed the expected result of the frequency peaking at around 10 Hz.

Fig. 9.  Power spectrum plot for Relaxation task in EFL group using EEGlab.We witness that frequency peaks at around 10
Hz. The activity in the brain during this frequency is shown via the scalp map above the graph. (EFL group – Relaxation
task EEGlab)

Fig. 10.   Power spectrum plot for Relaxation task in EFL group using NBT. We can clearly witness the peak at almost 10
Hz. (EFL group – Relaxation task NBT)
Fig. 11.   Example of an individual channel from the right hemisphere of the brain in EFL group using NBT. The colors on
the top represent the activity of the specific brain area where the electrode was placed. The more intense the red color, the
more intense the activity. The graph below witnesses the power spectrum and the dots in the right show the position of each
electrode on the scalp. (EFL group – Relaxation task NBT)

The three last figures present a complete image of the relaxation task, using both EEGlab and NBT. It is clearly
indicated that the frequency has been maintained at 10 Hz, as it was in the previous task of familiarization.
After the relaxation task, the participants watched the solution of the maze in a faster pace, almost at double
speed of the virtual camera fly-through compared to the previous group. The power spectrum peak, in this case,
had slightly been increased in about 11 – 12 Hz. During the last task, the one of the maze, the spectrum maintain
the peak at the same level of frequency, varying a bit according to each participant. We observed a range of
frequencies from 8 to 12 Hz.

III.   DISCUSSION AND FUTURE WORK

The main purpose of brainwave entrainment is to stimulate the brain in a desired frequency via auditory tones,
flashing lights, or a combination of both. There are five categories of these brainwaves, ranging from the least
activity to the most activity: delta (0 - 4 Hz), theta (4-8 Hz), alpha (8-12 Hz), beta (12-25 Hz) and gamma (25-
100Hz). Brainwave Entrainment refers to the brain's electrical response to rhythmic sensory stimulation, such as
pulses of sound or light. When the brain is given a stimulus, through the ears, eyes or other senses, it emits an
electrical charge in response, called a Cortical Evoked Response. These electrical responses travel throughout the
brain to become what you see and hear. This activity can be measured using sensitive electrodes attached to the
scalp. The need of such a technique was created by the fact that a major amount of the useful brain frequencies
are below the hearing range of the human ear. There are several studies though, which support the claim that the
use of sound beats, is the most efficient for achieving brain entrainment. [26] However, the efficiency of such a
brain entrainment depends on the kind of the beat. The binaural one is considered to be one of the less effective
due to its modulation depth. Although listening to binaural beats produces the illusion that sounds are located
somewhere within the head [30], it is supported that, by themselves, are unlikely to produce any kind of brain
entrainment, but they do have a hypnotic and relaxing effect. Hence, we verified in our experiments that
isochronic tones constitute the most effective entrainment method as they cause a strong auditory evoked response
and moreover, most people find them enjoyable [29]. Motivated though, by the historical correlation between the
relaxation state or the state of hypnogogia and creative insights, we tried to study through our research the benefits
of an alpha wave brain entrainment in augmented cognition and improvement of task performance in a unique,
VR-induced entrainment, open s/w framework [27]. We were also influenced by the use of virtual reality
environment in education and training which brings many innovative advantages to people of all ages. Moreover,
virtual reality has already been used for therapeutically reasons [28] The combination of the 3D environment and
the use of a specific kind of beat, isochronic beat, allowed us to have some really promising results for further
research in the fields of education, learning and even therapy.
We clearly demonstrated that throughout this VR experiments the participants managed to maintain alpha
brainwave state even from the very first task, without the need of an extra brain entrainment, only via the auditory
isochronic stimulus. There is a study from 1970, which indicates that simply by watching TV, Beta waves are
replaced by alpha waves in a very short time range of less than 1 minute [41]. This phenomenon works adversely
as it leads to diminished concentration. Given the needs of our research though, we didn’t notice to have a negative
result of this immediate transition to alpha state. Contrariwise, the possibility to achieve a brain entrainment
simply with the use of a 3D environment allows us to take advantage of VR opportunities.
Given that we had already succeed to induce via VR brainwave entrainment to our subjects, the use of an
isochronic beat led the power spectrum of each signal to a lower frequency peak, which illustrates that we
achieved a deeper alpha state entrainment, with enhanced augmented cognition for the EFL group. Hence,
subjects in this group were managed to learn faster the demonstrated solution to the maze exit by achieving faster
exit times. We can thus conclude that VR-induced brainwave entrainment via modern, wearable h/w and an open
s/w architecture is a viable path towards human augmented cognition.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The research leading to these results has received funding from the EU FET Proactive grant TIMESTORM -
Mind and Time: Investigation of the Temporal Traits of Human-Machine Convergence. Special thanks to Stavros
Kateros and Stylianos Georgiou for the VR application development.

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