Int J of Sci and Math Educ

DOI 10.1007/s10763-016-9735-9

Inquiry-Based Chemistry Education in a High-Context

Culture: a Qatari Case Study

Sheila Qureshi 1 & Venkat Rao Vishnumolakala 2 &

Daniel C. Southam 2 & David F. Treagust 3

Received: 19 June 2015 / Accepted: 23 February 2016

# Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan 2016

Abstract This research took place within the context of ongoing educational reforms
to promote inquiry-based science instruction and a desire to draw evidence to inform
adoptions of western pedagogical practices in a high-context culture like Qatar. We
report on the outcomes from Process Oriented Guided Inquiry Learning (POGIL) in a
foundation chemistry course based on students’ achievement, their perceived learning
gains, and their self-efficacy. The study utilized quantitative data obtained from nor-
malized content tests and instruments to measure perceived learning gains and attitudes
and experience. Qualitative data from open-ended student questionnaires were analyzed
to cross-validate findings from the study. Positive effects of POGIL during fall (se-
mester 1) and spring (semester 2) semesters were evidenced by (a) improved mean
scores and medium to large effect sizes for content test results, perceived learning gains,
and self-efficacy levels and (b) a positive correlation between the measures of perceived

Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s10763-016-9735-9)

contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

* Venkat Rao Vishnumolakala

venkat.vishnumolakala@curtin.edu.au

Sheila Qureshi
Shq2002@qatar-med.cornell.edu
Daniel C. Southam
D.Southam@curtin.edu.au
David F. Treagust
D.Treagust@curtin.edu.au

1
Weill Cornell Medicine in Qatar (formerly Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar), Qatar
Foundation, Education City, P.O. Box 24144, Doha, Qatar
2
Department of Chemistry, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA 6845, Australia
3
Science and Mathematics Education Centre, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth,
WA 6845, Australia
 S. Qureshi et al.

learning gains and self-efficacy. Students self-reported increased self-efficacy, interest,

and better understanding of concepts using the POGIL method. Comparing fall and
spring semesters, student reluctance and negative perceptions of the POGIL approach
gradually diminished. Students were able to adapt easily to POGIL—a method of
teaching that they had not experienced before but which was compatible with the high-
context culture in which they live. In addition, this study reflects the current condition
of science learning in Qatar, where the emerging outcomes of educational reforms play
an important role in preparing local students to transition into higher education.

Keywords Arabic students . Chemistry education . Medical education . Process Oriented

Guided Inquiry Learning . Qatar

Introduction

To meet demands for societies well-versed in science, the practice of science education
evolves and reforms. This leads to changes in the philosophy of education, instructional
goals, curriculum materials and practices, instructional strategies, and teacher educa-
tion. For science education researchers, the effectiveness and relevancy of the science
curriculum and its classroom delivery provides opportunities for exploration in the
midst of such change and within its context. This exploration is especially relevant
when the changes are socially situated and when sociocultural factors are potentially
influential on the desired outcomes for science curriculum, students, and/or teachers
emerge.
In this case study, we present the impact of a pedagogic reform in a higher education
setting in Qatar. The student-centered pedagogies proposed and initiated in Qatar’s
educational reforms offer an ideal context for the current research, which focused on
research-based pedagogies that involve inquiry learning. Currently, few studies have
examined science education in the post-reform era of higher education in Qatar, so this
article is designed to address this knowledge gap. Consequently, the purpose of this
study was to explore the impact of inquiry-based learning in a foundation chemistry
course at one international higher education institution in Qatar. This work begins with
a brief overview of the educational reforms pertaining to post-secondary education in
Qatar and the fundamental dimensions of high- and low-context cultures that are
posited to be influential to this study.

Post-Secondary Education in Qatar

The higher education sector in Qatar has experienced significant reforms to establish
itself as a regional hub (Ibnouf, Dou, & Knight, 2013) and prepare its own citizens
(Stasz, Eide, & Martorell, 2008) for higher education. These reforms are designed to
be a culturally appropriate response to Qatar’s desire to harness its present and
significant economic wealth (Frank, 2006) and global orientation (Scharfenort, 2012)
to drive a future knowledge-based economy. The economic conditions in Qatar are
favorable to individuals with post-secondary qualifications; however, the United Na-
tions Education, Scientific, and Cultural Organization—UNESCO (2014)—state that
only 12 % of the tertiary age population in Qatar are admitted to tertiary education. In
Inquiry-Based Chemistry Education in a High-Context Culture

addition, the trend in the Gulf states has seen lower spending on science education and
research presenting serious challenges for higher education (Nour, 2011). Several
policy changes have occurred in Qatar over the recent history involving changes in
curriculum, the language of instruction from English to Arabic in some disciplines, and
institutional administration practices. Thus, the culture is conducive for science educa-
tion researchers to gauge the outcomes of educational reforms in light of these
potentially influential factors.
Eastern cultures, such as those found in Qatar, are typified by collectivist communities
that give rise to a high-context culture that influences ways of effective communication
within and between these communities (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010). The
communities in a high-context culture (Hall, 1976) are believed to possess the fundamen-
tal dimensions (Sanchez & Gunawardena, 1998) outlined in Fig. 1 in comparison to their
counterparts from low-context cultures. Several studies (Azaiza, Bar, & Galili, 2006;
Dkeidek, Mamlok-Naaman, & Hofstein, 2010; Schweisfurth, 2011; Smith & Ayers,
2006; Westbrook, 2014) outlined the influence of cultural variables on students’ learning
and their achievement in high- and low-context cultures. The pedagogical practices at
Qatari higher education institutions are carefully selected and practiced to facilitate
learning in accordance with the students’ cultural background and to facilitate cross-
cultural awareness (del Pozo & Fins, 2005; Fins & del Pozo, 2011).
This study focuses on the chemistry component of a foundation year as part of the
medicine program established by Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar (WCMC-Q),
described more fully elsewhere (Chouchane et al., 2011; del Pozo & Fins, 2005).
Medical education at WCMC-Q during this study occurred in three stages: (1) a 1-year
foundation program primarily designed for Qatari nationals, (2) a 2-year non-awarding
pre-medical program, and (3) a 4-year Doctor of Medicine (MD) with a unified
curriculum between the Qatari and American campuses of Cornell. According to

Fig. 1 Some fundamental dimensions of high- and low-context cultures (after Hall, 1976)
 S. Qureshi et al.

Chouchane et al. (2011) and del Pozo et al. (2012), the complete program at WCMC-Q
encourages students to develop process skills like teamwork, building partnerships, and
written and oral communication skills within and across cultural boundaries within the
professional context. The foundation program is designed as a preparation pathway for
local students for entry into the pre-medical program by improving students’ English
language skills, critical thinking, and knowledge in the basic sciences—biology,
chemistry, physics, and calculus.
The primary aim of the foundation program is to prepare Qatari students for the
demands of the intensive pre-medical program and thus to succeed in the internation-
ally equivalent MD, pre-requisite aptitude and qualification tests, and subsequent
internships (Chouchane et al., 2011). Therefore, the foundation program is designed
to overcome challenges presented by the students’ cultural background, including a
lack of English language proficiency, efficient study skills, and the ability to balance
study time with culturally demanding social and family commitments. To address these
challenges, for example, chemistry instruction has increasingly engaged students in
active learning to become independent learners. The approach towards classroom
teaching and learning at many institutions rests on traditional practices and ideological
beliefs about the nature of knowledge and the end product of learning. For over a
decade, due to the successive transformation of classroom approaches especially in
STEM courses in various institutions, many innovative classroom pedagogies have
been identified, developed, and adapted. These approaches maintain the instructional
focus on the activity of the students rather than the presentation by the instructor. In this
study, a new pedagogy—Process Orientated Guided Inquiry Learning (POGIL)—was
introduced by the instructor in the foundation chemistry course over 3 years to address
the challenges and meet the aims of the foundation program.

POGIL

POGIL is informed by social constructivist theory (Vygotsky, 1978), which outlines the
role of social interaction in cognitive development. POGIL practitioners such as
Cole et al. (2011) believe that knowledge is constructed from learners’ social interac-
tions that include sharing, comparing, and debating. Philosophically, POGIL connects
the learning process to expected outcomes and is student-centered, focused on small
group learning and the simultaneous development of content knowledge and process
skills (Spencer, 1999). The POGIL technique presents a manageable transition from
traditional transmissive lectures to more active student engagement and a methodology
to move from sole focus on content to consideration of learner self-development (Moog
& Spencer, 2009).
The POGIL workshops and published materials provide a basis to enable instructors
to confidently adapt their teaching practices (Geiger, 2010). Reporting on the insights
from POGIL implementation in allied health chemistry courses, Geiger (2010) argued
that POGIL is flexible and can be tailored to suit both smaller and larger classes. In
POGIL classes, students work in small groups with assigned roles as manager, recorder,
presenter, and reflector using highly structured activity sheets to develop conceptual
understanding (Straumanis, 2010). The activities are designed according to a learning
cycle paradigm (Karplus & Butts, 1977) and contain critical thinking questions
(CTQs) that help students develop information processing skills and disciplinary
Inquiry-Based Chemistry Education in a High-Context Culture

content knowledge. The three-phase learning cycle approach involves: (1) exploration
(students explore given models), (2) concept invention (students answer CTQs to
identify and develop concept), and (3) concept application (students answer exer-
cises/problems). The effectiveness of the learning cycle approach in western and
middle eastern science education has been documented by many researchers (Abraham,
2008; Abraham & Renner, 1986; Dogru-Atay & Tekkaya, 2008).
Several studies have investigated the impact of POGIL in improving students’
chemistry content knowledge in general and in organic chemistry courses (Farrell,
Moog, & Spencer, 1999; Hanson & Wolfskill, 2000; Hein, 2012; Murphy, Picione, &
Holme, 2010; Schroeder & Greenbowe, 2008). These chemistry educators used various
cognitive and affective constructs in an attempt to gauge the impact of POGIL in their
classes. Hein (2012) and Ruder and Hunnicutt (2009) used students’ American Chem-
ical Society (ACS) examination scores to evaluate the effectiveness of POGIL on
students’ concept retention in organic chemistry. Further, Baepler, Walker, and
Driessen (2014) reported chemistry students’ improvement in cognitive and affective
domains when lectures were minimized and replaced with small group active learning
approaches. During the first-time implementation of POGIL in their general and
organic chemistry courses, Chase, Pakhira, and Stains (2013) explored short-term
impacts of the instruction on students’ attitude and efficacy and revealed little to no
impact on most measures despite students liking the intervention. Several other studies
(Heady, 2001; Johnson, Corazzini, & Shaw, 2011; Keeney-Kennicutt, Gunersel, &
Simpson, 2008) have reported the impact of POGIL on students’ positive perceptions
of their learning gains.
There is growing research evidence that small group-centered learning leads to
improved student performance as well as quality and efficiency of the instruction
(Springer, Stanne, & Donovan, 1999). Improvement in disciplinary knowledge
may happen when students in small groups actively discuss and process informa-
tion related to the tasks. The instructor facilitates meaningful learning by moti-
vating students and provides them with opportunities to participate actively in the
learning process (Jones, 2006). Features that characterize small groups include
group membership, roles, learning needs, and goals. In Qatar, collaborative efforts
are considered superior because of the students’ common culture and language.
Research has shown that students from high-context cultures learn better when
they are immersed in learning environments that facilitate peer interaction
(Hamdan, 2014). The collectivist cultural orientation of Qataris enables them to
work easily in small groups, conversing in their preferred language and reporting
findings to the class as a group (Prowse & Goddard, 2010). This kind of learning
environment is ideally suited to POGIL because it validates group values, roles,
and decisions. Especially for non-native speakers of English, the POGIL format
can help students improve their reading and comprehension skills (Johnson, 2011).
Furthermore, the dynamics of the group are cohesively displayed in the form of
their acquisition of medically related process skills such as communication,
reading, writing, leadership, time management, and problem solving. On the
contrary, individual or solitary learning as emphasized by traditional educational
approaches seldom offer students these much needed collaborative skills in many
present-day jobs that are increasingly team-centered and demand the application of
process skills already acquired while a student.
 S. Qureshi et al.

Methodology

Research Objective and Research Questions

The research objectives for this study were generated from available literature on small
group active learning approaches like POGIL. The effective outcome of POGIL
instruction is visualized by investigating the impact of POGIL interactions on the
foundation chemistry students’ ACS test scores, perceived learning gains over the year,
and self-efficacy levels. The study further explored students’ perceptions of their
learning in POGIL classes and the association between ACS test scores, learning gains,
and self-efficacy levels.
Using a POGIL method of instruction over 3 years and comparing fall and spring
semester data, the four research questions that guided this study are:

1. Are there significant differences in chemistry students’ ACS test scores between
fall and spring semesters?
2. Are there significant differences in chemistry students’ perceived learning gains
between fall and spring semesters?
3. Are there significant differences in chemistry students’ self-efficacy between fall
and spring semesters?
4. What is the association between ACS test scores, perceived learning gains, and
self-efficacy?
5. What do students perceive about their learning using the POGIL approach?

Research Design

This case study utilized a quasi-experimental design employing mixed methods re-
search due to the lack of a comparative non-POGIL control group and the nature of the
cohort in terms of numbers and nationality (Treagust, Won, and Duit, 2014). According
to Anderson (2004), case studies are suitable for educational situations which do not
easily allow tight control or experimental manipulation. In this research, without any
controlled treatment, we investigated how a teaching-learning approach in a foundation
chemistry program was implemented and how effective it was for student conceptual
understanding, perceived learning gains, and self-efficacy levels. A small, select cohort
is admitted every year and the foundation program is only open to Qatari citizens. Thus,
the research examines the impact of POGIL instruction in a different environment than
where it is usually researched. Furthermore, the research paradigm for this study is
post-positivist, which emphasizes the use of well-defined concepts and variables,
controlled conditions, precise instrumentation, and empirical testing (Weaver &
Olson, 2006). Henceforth, post-positivist paradigm was judged appropriate on the
merits of the instruments used and subsequent analysis of the generated data.

Course

For over 3 years, foundation chemistry has been delivered in POGIL format using small
group interactions. The class size consists of up to 20 students and the course is taught
Inquiry-Based Chemistry Education in a High-Context Culture

over two semesters—fall and spring. A faculty member facilitates the course supported
by a teaching assistant. Each semester consists of 68 days of instruction, and each week
has three 1-h POGIL workshops (which may include complimentary lectures), a 50-
min chemistry skills session, and a 2-h laboratory session. Laboratory work is closely
related to material covered in POGIL workshops and some lectures. Laboratory
sessions are designed to develop manual dexterity and basic laboratory techniques. In
addition, the instructor holds additional sessions that involve writing laboratory reports,
presenting summaries of the POGIL tasks, problem-solving activities, and receiving
feedback from quizzes.

Fall (Semester 1). Foundation chemistry is an introduction to chemistry for stu-

dents who wish to enter general chemistry in pre-medical year 1. The following
topics are taught through POGIL: atomic structure; states of matter; physical
properties; elements, compounds, and mixtures; the periodic table; structure and
bonding; physical and chemical change; chemical calculations: mole concept,
significant figures, stoichiometry, and concentrations; molecular shape; intermolec-
ular forces; gas laws; balancing equations; redox reactions; acid-base reactions;
chemical reactions in solution; volumetric analysis; and thermodynamics.

Spring (Semester 2). Foundation chemistry focuses on selected topics to be cov-

ered in general chemistry in pre-medical year 1 and organic chemistry in pre-
medical year 2. The course content demands rigorous academic preparation similar
to what students experience in the pre-medical program. The topics consist of
kinetics and chemical equilibrium, which includes acid-base chemistry. An intro-
duction to organic chemistry includes the following topics: nomenclature, function-
al groups, particularly reactions, and mechanisms of alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, and
halogenoalkanes.

Participants

The cohorts comprised 57 foundation chemistry students from 2011 to 2014. Of

these, 34 were female and 22 were male students. The majority of students were
Qatari nationals who had graduated from local independent and international schools.
The number of students enrolled in the foundation program during 2011–2014 is
shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Number of students en-

Year Semester Gender
rolled in foundation chemistry
course
Fall Spring Male Female

2011–2012 17 18 6 11
2012–2013 19 19 6 13
2013–2014 20 20 10 10
Total 56 57 22 34
 S. Qureshi et al.

Instruments

The ACS California chemistry diagnostic test (2006 version) was administered at the
start of fall semester to gauge students’ cognitive levels in chemistry and later during
spring semester as a measure of their chemistry learning achieved by their participation
in the POGIL classroom. Figure 2 shows a layout of the research plan undertaken in the
study. The data on students’ perceptions of their learning were obtained from a 19-item
learning gains instrument (Seymour, Wiese, & Hunter, 2000; Vishnumolakala,
Southam, Treagust, & Mocerino, 2016) which surveyed the perceptions of the follow-
ing four constructs: resources, skills, concept learning, and active learning. The data on
students’ perceptions of their self-efficacy were obtained from a modified 18-item
Chemistry Attitudes and Experiences Questionnaire—CAEQ (Coll, Dalgety, &
Salter, 2002). The CAEQ instrument surveyed four constructs: learning chemistry
theory, applying chemistry theory, learning chemistry skills, and applying chemistry
skills. The selection of perceived learning gains and CAEQ instruments was mainly
based on their relevancy to pedagogical practices in chemistry and comparability of the
resulting data across studies.
The perceived learning gains instrument and CAEQ were administered together during
week 8 of instruction both in fall and spring semesters. The first item of the original 19-
itemed CAEQ self-efficacy scale—achieving passing grade in a chemical hazards
course—was not used in the current study because the curriculum did not have such
course. The perceived learning gains instrument, originally developed by Seymour et al.
(2000), was designed to summarize students’ perception of their learning gains, both as a
consequence of particular aspects of class pedagogy and of the teacher’s pedagogical
approach (Anderson, 2006). The items of the learning gains instrument are more closely
related to the aspects of POGIL environment inside the classroom, whereas the measures
of self-efficacy incorporate students’ ability to undertake specific scientific tasks beyond
the “POGIL class” (Coll et al., 2002). Lovelace and Brickman (2013) argued that measures
of self-efficacy in conjunction with the measures of (perceived) learning gains provide a
robust platform for research studies that are aimed at seeking students’ responses to new
pedagogical approaches. Further, Chase et al. (2013) identified the need and use of reliable
and valid instruments to study the impact of POGIL on students’ attitudes and experience.
Additionally, at the end of the year, two surveys were administered—an anonymous

Fig. 2 Temporal relationship of instruments used in the study

Inquiry-Based Chemistry Education in a High-Context Culture

survey by the instructor to capture students’ perceptions of their learning in POGIL

classes and a chemistry course evaluation from WCMC-Q. The items of the instru-
ments (learning gains questionnaire and CAEQ) and their corresponding scales are
presented in Table 2.

Table 2 Instruments used in the research and their proposed scales

Instruments

Learning gains questionnaire

Resources (7)
POGIL activities
Homework assignments
Class presentations (including lectures)
Classroom demonstrations
Finding and using resources to answer questions or solve problems
Textbook readings
Resources provided through the web
Skills (5)
Discussion in class
Acquiring data
Finding trends in data
Collecting, analyzing, and applying information to solve problems
Judging the quality of data and experimental results
Conceptual learning (4)
Applying concepts to new situations
Understanding the relevance of chemistry in real world
Factual knowledge of chemistry (terminology, classification methods, basic phenomena, etc.)
Understanding the main concepts of chemistry (fundamental principles and theories)
Active learning (3)
Confidence in your ability to do chemistry
Working effectively with others
Using the language and concepts of chemistry to communicate effectively in oral and written form
Self-efficacy (CAEQ)
Learning chemistry theory (3)
Tutoring another student in your chemistry course
Learning chemistry theory
Achieving a good grade in part 2 chemistry course
Applying chemistry theory (6)
Determining the appropriate units for a result determined using a formula
Proposing a meaningful question that can be answered experimentally
Choosing an appropriate formula to solve a chemistry problem
Applying theory learnt in a lecture for a laboratory experiment
Determining what answer is required from a written description of a chemistry problem
After reading an article about chemistry experiment, writing the summary of the main points
 S. Qureshi et al.

Table 2 (continued)

Instruments

Learning chemistry skills (3)

Reading the procedure for an experiment and conducting the experiment without supervision
Knowing how to convert the data obtained in a chemistry experiment into a result
Ensuring that data obtained from an experiment is accurate
Applying chemistry skills (6)
Designing and conducting a chemistry experiment
Explaining something that you learnt in this chemistry course to another person
Writing up the experimental procedure in a laboratory report
After watching a video clip dealing with some aspects of chemistry, writing a summary of its main points
Writing up the results section in a laboratory report
After listening to a public lecture regarding some chemistry topic explaining its main ideas to another
person

Methods

The data collected from the instruments above were scored according to the key with
each instrument to facilitate comparison with previous literature. The reliabilities for all
the scales of learning gains and self-efficacy instruments were calculated as internal
consistencies using Cronbach’s alpha that is related to the extent to which all of the
variables that make up the scales (see Table 2) measure the same construct (Muijs,
2010).
Exploring the effectiveness of physics students’ interactive engagement in a physics
course, Hake (1998) proposed a method to compare students’ performance gains in
terms of average normalized gains (g) values using pre- and post-test scores. Hake
(1998) further defined average normalized (learning) gain as the ratio of actual average
gain to the maximum possible average gain, expressed as (post-test–pre-test) / (100
− pre-test). The average normalized gains (g) were computed for ACS tests scores on
the pre- and post-measures.
The effect sizes as Cohen’s d between pre- and post-measures were calculated as the
difference between groups in terms of pooled standard deviation, s (Cohen, 1988). By
convention, the effect sizes are said to be small: d = 0.20, medium: d = 0.50, or large:
d = 0.80, with effect sizes of medium or greater being noticeable in the setting to a
casual observer. Standardized effect sizes when presented help communicate the
practical significance of the results instead of only reporting on the statistical signifi-
cance. The utilization of effect sizes over standard statistical significance testing in this
study was based on an argument that any statistically significant difference in mean
scores (between fall and spring semester measures) is not in itself a measure of the size
of the effect (Kazis, Anderson, & Meenan, 1989). Essentially, the standardized effect
sizes are concerned with the degree of difference between the groups and the strength
of relationship between variables (Grissom & Kim, 2012).
Correlation is a statistical test to determine pattern for two or more variables or two
sets of data (Creswell, 2012). Pearson correlation analysis was utilized to explore the
Inquiry-Based Chemistry Education in a High-Context Culture

association between cognitive and affective constructs. For qualitative analysis of the
data, a combination of inductive and deductive approaches such as content analysis and
thematic coding was utilized to generate patterns and categories from the data for the
purpose of responding to the fifth research question. The concurrent use of content and
thematic analysis allowed the emergence of categories that characterized POGIL
instruction, for example, learning, POGIL materials, self-efficacy, resistance, etc. In
this study, the issues of interest for analysis were students’ perception on learning
chemistry in POGIL classes.

Results and Discussion

The Cronbach’s alpha values for the entire instrument individually for learning gains
and self-efficacy were computed. As shown in Table 3, the values for all
implementations were greater than 0.70 except for data obtained for perceived learning
gains in spring 2013–2014. The high Cronbach’s alpha values suggest a strong internal
consistency for both instruments used in this study (Creswell, 2012).

POGIL Learning and ACS Test Scores

To respond to the first research question—“Are there significant differences in chem-

istry students’ perceived learning gains between fall and spring semesters? ”—the mean
ACS test score for student cohorts from 2011 to 2014 (see Table 4) and their estimated
average normalized gains (Hake, 1998) were compared. The Cohen’s effect size was
also computed to identify the impact of POGIL instruction on student achievement. As
shown in Table 4, the mean ACS test scores for fall and spring semesters were used to
compute g values. The average normalized gains for cohorts in 2011, 2012, and 2013
were 0.35, 0.30, and 0.27. Further, the g values are comparable to the gains reported by
Hake for physics courses. Additionally, the average ACS normalized percentile rank-
ings were also computed for fall and spring semesters (see Table 4). Chemistry
instructors generally use percentile rankings to make comparison of their students’
performance to the nationally normed sample (Raker & Holme, 2013). The American
Chemical Society’s composite norms for the California chemistry diagnostic test (2006
version) are available from http://chemexams.chem.iastate.edu/sites/default/files/
national-norms/cd06.htm.
Figure 3 represents the mean ACS test scores (left panel) and percentile average
ranks (right panel) for cohorts in 2011, 2012, and 2013. In comparison to the cohorts of

Table 3 Cronbach’s alpha values for perceived learning gains and self-efficacy instruments

Instruments 2011–2012 2012–2013 2013–2014

Fall Spring Fall Spring Fall Spring

(n = 17) (n = 17) (n = 18) (n = 18) (n = 20) (n = 20)

Learning gains 0.86 0.73 0.70 0.97 0.75 0.67

Self-efficacy 0.93 0.90 0.72 0.77 0.85 0.71
Table 4 Means, standard deviations, and effect sizes for ACS tests, perceived learning gains and self-efficacy measures

Instrument Measure Fall 2011 Spring Fall 2012 Spring 2013 Fall 2013 Spring 2014
(n = 17) 2012 (n = 18) (n = 18) (n = 20) (n = 20)
(n = 17)

M SD M SD Effect size (d) M SD M SD Effect size (d) M SD M SD Effect size (d)

ACS tests ACS test fall (%) 52.14 9.39 52.02 16.88 59.32 12.23
ACS test spring (%) 68.72 9.46 1.76 66.29 18.99 0.80 70.34 13.28 0.86
Percentile average rank 47 83 53 86 64 86
Learning gains Resources 4.39 0.34 4.17 0.91 0.28 3.90 0.33 4.21 0.38 0.87 4.23 0.28 4.52 0.27 1.05
Skills 4.31 0.52 4.18 0.99 0.15 4.08 0.64 4.42 0.43 0.62 4.57 0.41 4.59 0.44 0.05
Conceptual learning 4.10 0.52 4.32 0.92 0.28 4.06 0.39 4.28 0.43 0.54 4.30 0.53 4.42 0.38 0.26
Active learning 4.55 0.46 4.63 0.55 0.16 4.33 0.43 4.56 0.34 0.59 4.35 0.63 4.65 0.30 0.61
Self-efficacy Learning chemistry theory 4.16 0.61 4.22 0.45 0.11 3.96 0.59 4.20 0.47 0.45 3.76 0.60 4.28 0.57 0.89
Applying chemistry theory 4.16 0.61 4.25 0.49 0.16 4.05 0.66 4.39 0.41 0.62 4.16 0.39 4.28 0.43 0.29
Learning chemistry skills 4.20 0.59 4.45 0.52 0.45 4.30 0.55 4.38 0.50 0.15 4.34 0.39 4.43 0.58 0.25
Applying chemistry skills 4.20 0.65 4.43 0.38 0.43 4.19 0.49 4.31 0.45 0.26 4.22 0.35 4.45 0.34 0.67
S. Qureshi et al.
Inquiry-Based Chemistry Education in a High-Context Culture

Fig. 3 ACS test achievement: mean scores (%) (left panel) and percentile average rank (right panel)

2011 and 2012, the 2013 cohort had a higher mean ACS test score both in fall and
spring semesters. The percentage difference between the mean ACS test scores during
fall and spring semesters was higher for 2011 (31.79 %) and lower for 2013 cohort
(18 %). The percentile average ranking in spring semester was generally higher than the
fall semester’s ranking. When compared to the national normed average percentile of
53 for the ACS California chemistry diagnostic test (2006 version), the average
percentile rank for the spring semester was 86, which is 47.5 % higher than the national
normed average These results indicate the positive effect of POGIL on student perfor-
mance in ACS tests. Further, Cohen’s effect size values for 2011 (d = 1.76), 2012
(d = 0.80), and 2013 (d = 0.86) indicate a high practical significance.
To respond to the second research question—“Are there significant differences in
chemistry students’ perceived learning gains between fall and spring semesters?”—the
mean scores of student responses to the items on the learning gains questionnaire were
compared and their Cohen’s values were also estimated. As shown in Table 4, for the
resources (seven items), with the exception of 2011 spring cohort, the students
generally assigned a higher mean score during the spring semesters and the Cohen’s
value progressively improved from (d = 0.28) to (d = 1.05). The 2011 cohort assigned a
relatively lower score for resources during the spring semester (mean = 4.19, SD = 0.91)
compared to their fall semester (mean = 4.39, SD = 0.34). Similarly for skills (five
items) the 2012 and 2013 cohorts assigned a higher mean score during their spring
semester compared to the fall semester. For conceptual learning (four items) and active
learning (three items), all students from all cohorts assigned a higher score in the spring
semester. The Cohen’s value for active learning varied from (d = 0.16) to (d = 0.61)
across all the cohorts. This reflects the students’ progressive recognition of their
learning improvement after being in a POGIL class.
To respond to the third research question—“Are there significant differences in
chemistry students’ self-efficacy between fall and spring semesters?”—a comparison
of the mean scores of the students’ responses to the items of the self-efficacy part of
the CAEQ was made and their Cohen’s values were also estimated. The mean
scores of the scales of self-efficacy were presented in Table 4. For the learning
chemistry theory scale (three items), the mean difference between the spring and fall
 S. Qureshi et al.

semesters is positive and varied from 0.6 to 0.52. In the spring semester, the 2013
cohort exhibited the highest Cohen’s value (d = 0.89) for the learning chemistry
theory scale. Similarly, for the remaining three scales (applying chemistry theory,
learning chemistry skills, and applying chemistry skills), the mean scores were
higher in spring semester indicating a significant difference in self-efficacy among
chemistry students. The Cohen’s values presented in Table 4 indicate a variable
effect size (d), but all ranged between 0.11 and 0.89.

ACS Test Scores, Perceived Learning Gains, and Self-Efficacy Levels

Several studies (Kan & Akbas, 2006; Xu, Villafane, & Lewis, 2013) investigated the
association between the affective constructs like students’ self-efficacy and perceived
learning and their chemistry achievement in an effort to understand the learning process
and improve instruction. Similarly, this study examined the strength and direction of the
relationship between students’ ACS test scores, measures of self-efficacy, and their
perceived learning gains in an effort to determine students’ successful learning in
POGIL classes.
To respond to the fourth research question—“What is the association between ACS
test scores, perceived learning gains and self-efficacy?”—the relationship between
ACS test scores, perceived learning gains (as measured by the learning gains instru-
ment), and self-efficacy (as measured by the self-efficacy part of CAEQ instrument)
was examined using Pearson correlation coefficient. The results presented in Table 5
are the correlation values for the relations between ACS test scores, measures of
perceived learning gains, and self-efficacy pertaining to students enrolled during fall
semester in 2011, 2012, and 2013.
Preliminary analyses were performed to ensure no violation of the assumptions of
normality, linearity, and homoscedasticity. There was a slightly negative correlation
between students’ self-efficacy and their ACS test scores for both fall 2012 (r = −.23,
p < .05) and spring 2013 (r = −.12, p < .05) semesters. For the spring 2013 semester,
there appears to be a positive correlation between perceived learning gains and ACS
test scores (r = .48, p < .01). Generally, a positive correlation existed between the
measures of perceived learning gains and self-efficacy as outlined in Table 5.
Exceptionally, a very strong and statistically significant relationship [(r = .87,
p < .01), (r = .75, p < .01)] existed between students’ self-efficacy and perceived learning
gains in the foundation chemistry classes of fall 2011 and spring 2012. For the 2012
and 2013 cohorts, a positive relationship existed between the measures of self-efficacy
and perceived learning gains; for the 2013 cohort, in the spring semester, the associ-
ation between perceived learning gains and self-efficacy levels is statistically significant
(r = .64, p < .05). However, overall, the results in Table 5 portray an inconsistent
relationship between ACS test achievement and the measures of self-efficacy and
perceived learning gains for 2012 and 2013 cohorts.

Students’ Perceptions of POGIL learning

To respond to the fifth research question—“What do students’ perceive about their

learning using the POGIL approach?”—the students’ written responses to the open-
ended items of the learning gains questionnaire, anonymous survey, and chemistry
Inquiry-Based Chemistry Education in a High-Context Culture

Table 5 Pearson Correlation coefficients between ACS test, measures of perceived learning gains, and self-
efficacy: 2011, 2012, and 2013 cohorts

Semester Measure ACS test Perceived learning gains

Fall 2011 (n = 17) ACS test

Perceived learning gains 0.22
Self-efficacy 0.36 0.87**
Spring 2012 (n = 17) ACS test
Perceived learning gains 0.29
Self-efficacy 0.11 0.75**
Fall 2012 (n = 18) ACS test
Perceived learning gains 0.07
Self-efficacy −0.23 0.30
Spring 2013 (n = 18) ACS test
Perceived learning gains 0.48*
Self-efficacy −0.12 0.37
Fall 2013 (n = 20) ACS test
Perceived learning gains −0.18
Self-efficacy 0.39 0.44
Spring 2014 (n = 20) ACS test
Perceived learning gains −0.20
Self-efficacy 0.12 0.64*

* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

course evaluation survey were coded to generate themes and were later explored for
meaningful conclusions. The thematic content analysis of qualitative data resulted in
five categories: instruction, learning, POGIL materials, confidence, and resistance. The
category POGIL materials has several themes, viz. POGIL activities such as activity
sheets, lecture notes, and quizzes. The outcome of the analyses is presented in Table 6.
The positive effect of instruction on the understanding of concepts by the students
was indicative of the emergent themes for the category instruction. In general, students
reported that POGIL tasks and POGIL-style discussions promoted their conceptual
understanding. Additionally, the students appeared to have recognized the importance
of POGIL activities. In situations where the students had difficulty in understanding
POGIL materials, a pre-POGIL preparation recommended by the instructor appeared to
be helpful. The findings on the data generated from the category confidence indicate
that the students who reported increased confidence and interest had a better under-
standing of concepts. The emergent themes from the coding of students’ responses for
the category resistance point towards a very minimal resistance based on the count of
negative statements from the student population. The students, despite their negative
perceptions based on the learning gains questionnaire, still liked the small group
interactions in the class, but they were concerned about understanding conceptually
challenging questions from POGIL activity materials and needed appropriate direction
from the instructor. A similar finding was reported from the study of Rajan and Marcus
 S. Qureshi et al.

Table 6 List of categories, themes, and sample statements

Categories Themes No of participants to Sample statements

offer this experience

Instruction Small groups, instructor, 16 “It was helpful, and I benefited a lot,
group discussions, especially that we solved it in groups
and process skills where we can learn from each other”
Learning Concepts, topics, 20 “This class is full of learning and fun
exercises, and helpful especially the labs”
POGIL Activities, worksheets, 18 “I thought they were all clear and helped us
materials tests, and quizzes understand the concepts”
Some were a bit confusing at first, yet they
were all very helpful”
Confidence Confidence, interest 17 “After several months of hardship, my view
for the POGIL exercises changed
because it helped me a lot and I could
understand the topics better”
Resistance Disagreement, lack of 9 “I am a visual learner; it would be really
interest, and helpful if we had more lectures in the
confusion class than calling POGIL”

(2009) wherein the students sought instructor’s intervention while working on guided-
inquiry assignments.
As well as reporting on the students’ CAEQ, the learning gains instruments, and the
anonymous online survey at the end of the year, the overall outcomes matched with the
comments from the Weill Cornell Medical College chemistry course evaluations that were
administrated during the final week of teaching in the fall and spring semesters. Table 7
lists some of the students’ statements from college chemistry course evaluations. These
statements revealed not only changes in student perceptions of POGIL but also differences
in how much the students believed that POGIL contributed to their learning from fall to
spring semesters. As shown in Table 7, the overwhelming trend is feeling negative about
POGIL in the fall semester, the first semester of their experience. Students’ initial
resistance to new pedagogical approaches like POGIL is not a new phenomenon (Duit,
Treagust, and Widodo, 2013; Mohamed, 2008; Prince & Felder, 2007) and are in line with
those reported by Rajan and Marcus (2009) and Geiger (2010). Although students new to
POGIL performed well, they still perceived POGIL in a negative light because they
preferred a didactic teaching mode. However, the comments in the spring semesters show
a considerable change in opinion towards POGIL because they become accustomed to the
teaching-learning approach and forget the alternative. Thus, their protests for more lectures
become fewer or non-existent.
Figure 4 represents the percentage of positive responses to the survey item—POGIL
contributed to my learning. No data were shown for fall 2011 because the survey did not
include this item. The percentage of positive responses was generally higher in the spring
than the fall semesters.
In this study, we examined foundation chemistry students’ performance in ACS tests,
their perceived learning gains, and self-efficacy levels. The improvement in students’
performance in post-ACS test (spring semester) could be attributed to various direct
experiences that gave students opportunity to expand their conceptual understanding
Inquiry-Based Chemistry Education in a High-Context Culture

Table 7 Students’ responses from college chemistry course evaluation survey

Semester

Fall Spring

More lecturing. Less working in clueless
groups
Have more lectures instead of solving
POGILs during the class. This is because
some of the students feel that they are
behind and a brief explanation from the
instructor would be helpful.
More lectures rather than POGIL sessions
Introductory lecture containing information
and examples on things we need to know
should be first demonstrated before doing
the POGIL exercise
More lectures and less POGILs. I believe that
I learn more in lectures and PowerPoints
rather than group work
Using POGILs only if the lesson was about
basic chemistry, which we all have learned
in school. But using POGILs for new
objectives is challenging and subject to
misunderstanding because students explain
to other students
No more POGILs and more explaining and
practice questions
I learned teamwork and I became confident in asking
questions
Put more POGIL exercises
The POGILs helped increase our knowledge in the
course through group work
The key strength to this course is that it goes to the
foundation of chemistry from the basic to make sure
that you have no previous misconceptions, and it
goes step by step (like in POGILS) so it feels like
you reached the understanding on your own
I actually learnt a lot through POGILs
I got to know my strengths and weaknesses. In
addition, my weaknesses from school got to be
reshaped with the POGILs, so I know how to tackle
things better instead of panic and give up all together
I learned a lot and it was very beneficial
It was very frustrating at the very beginning but I
became more comfortable by time

utilizing POGIL interaction. This result is consistent with previous studies’ results (Baepler
et al., 2014; Lewis & Lewis, 2008; Murphy et al., 2010). The improvement in students’
perception of their learning and self-efficacy levels could be attributed to (1) students gaining
more experience and confidence in the use of POGIL instruction materials and its approach
and (2) instructor’s maturity of using POGIL as instructional method and the provision of
adequate scaffolding in terms of guidance and support over fall and spring semesters. These
results are consistent with previous researchers’ findings (Chase et al., 2013; De Gale &
Boisselle, 2015) which reported improved self-efficacy levels and perceived learning gains
where students were continually engaged and encouraged to participate in active learning
pedagogies. Likewise, Chase et al. (2013) argued that any increase in self-efficacy in
chemistry could be related as an outcome of POGIL implementation.
The present study provides evidence supporting the positive relationship between
self-efficacy and perceived learning gains. The Pearson correlation coefficient values
(see Table 5) show a positive correlation between self-efficacy and students’ perception
of their learning. This is in line with the study of Glazer (2015) who argued that
improvement in students’ perception of self-efficacy leads to successful learning.
In this study, as the course progressed, student perceptions about POGIL also
improved in line with the findings of Geiger (2010) that the institutional environment
 S. Qureshi et al.

Fig. 4 Percentage of positive responses to survey item: POGIL contributed to my learning

influences POGIL implementation. Another outcome that could be derived from this
study is that long-term POGIL implementation helps students in foundation courses or
bridging programs to gain expected study skills or language competencies and prepare
for the challenges and academic rigor of professional courses, especially medicine.
Amaral, Garrison, and Klentschy (2002) also reported a similar relationship between
the length of inquiry-based student-centered science instruction and English learners’
achievement in science, their attitudes, and comfort levels. Their study revealed
students’ improvement in the use of language, expressive skills, and vocabulary as a
result of peer-led group discussion and argumentation.

Summary, Recommendations, and Limitations

In the context of preparing Qatari students to challenging tertiary courses at Education

City using western pedagogical practices, it would appear that a student-centered
intervention like POGIL is able to make positive difference in students’ chemistry
achievement and their perceived learning gains and self-efficacy. Pre-POGIL prepara-
tion and instructor’s guidance on challenging questions given in POGIL activities have
been shown to minimize students’ propensity towards lecture-style instruction. Specif-
ically, this study used perceived learning gains questionnaire and CAEQ to examine
Qatari students’ perceptions of learning chemistry over a two-semester period in pre-
medical education. The results clearly indicate that students are generally comfortable
with POGIL instruction and their perceptions of its positive effects became more lucid
during the second semester of the course.
The outcomes of this research provide useful information to practitioners of inquiry-
based teaching strategies, particularly those engaged in educational reform processes in
the Middle East, as there is a dearth of information pertaining to pedagogical research
in the higher education sector. Since Qatar’s higher education landscape is enriched
with North American institutions and the dissemination of research relating to Qatar’s
Inquiry-Based Chemistry Education in a High-Context Culture

pedagogical reforms is scarce, this study illustrates that a new pedagogical intervention
like POGIL is one way forward to prepare Qatari students academically for challenging
scientific programs.
Moreover, the present study demonstrates that POGIL interventions in the Qatari
cultural context do further the aims of Qatar’s National Vision 2030 (Scharfenort,
2012). In other words, when culturally appropriate active learning pedagogies are
implemented systematically in emerging countries like Qatar, academic competence
improves. The findings from this study lead to the conclusion that POGIL may be
beneficial to students engaged in learning in high-context cultures. The study further
provides research-based information to enthusiastic practitioners in the region who
otherwise may remain hesitant towards “Western” pedagogical approaches.
While the research limitations such as the lack of a comparison group and the small
sample size need to be acknowledged, the study highlights the experiences of Qatari
students in POGIL interventions and demonstrates to educators the importance of the
high-context cultural dimension for successful implementation of reform pedagogies in
the region. This study has contributed to the research literature in capturing important
affective factors in a POGIL learning environment in a high-context culture like Qatar.

Acknowledgments The authors would like to extend their gratitude to the students who participated in this
study, and to Dr Marco Ameduri and other colleagues for supporting this initiative in pre-medical education.
The authors thank the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) for supporting this study through a National
Priorities Research Project.

References

Abraham, M. R. (2008). Inquiry and the learning cycle approach. In N. J. Pienta, M. M. Cooper & T. J.
Greenbowe (Eds.), Chemists’ guide to effective teaching (Vol. 1, pp. 41–52). Saddle River, NJ: Prentice
Hall.
Abraham, M. R. & Renner, J. W. (1986). The sequence of learning cycle activities in high school chemistry.
Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 23(2), 121–143. doi:10.1002/tea.3660230205.
Amaral, O. M., Garrison, L. & Klentschy, M. (2002). Helping english learners increase achievement through
inquiry-based science instruction. Bilingual Research Journal, 26(2), 213–239. doi:10.1080/15235882.
2002.10668709.
Anderson, A. K. (2006). An assessment of the perception of learning gains of freshmen students in an
introductory course in nutrition and food science. Journal of Food Science Education, 5(2), 25–30. doi:
10.1111/j.1541-4329.2006.tb00078.x.
Anderson, G. (2004). Fundamentals of educational research (2nd ed.). London, UK: Routledge Falmer.
Azaiza, I., Bar, V. & Galili, I. (2006). Learning electricity in elementary school. International Journal of
Science and Mathematics Education, 4(1), 45–71. doi:10.1007/s10763-004-6826-9.
Baepler, P., Walker, J. D. & Driessen, M. (2014). It’s not about seat time: Blending, flipping, and efficiency in
active learning classrooms. Computers and Education, 78, 227–236. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2014.06.
006.
Chase, A., Pakhira, D. & Stains, M. (2013). Implementing Process-Oriented, Guided-Inquiry Learning for the
first time: Adaptations and short-term impacts on students’ attitude and performance. Journal of Chemical
Education, 90(4), 409–416. doi:10.1021/ed300181t.
Chouchane, L., Mamtani, R., Al-Thani, M. H., Al-Thani, A.-A. M., Ameduri, M. & Sheikh, J. I. (2011).
Medical education and research environment in Qatar: A new epoch for translational research in the
Middle East. Journal of Translational Medicine, 9(1), 16. doi:10.1186/1479-5876-9-16.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Cole, R. S., Becker, N., Towns, M., Sweeney, G., Wawro, M. & Rasmussen, C. (2011). Adapting a
methodology from mathematics education research to chemistry education research: Documenting
 S. Qureshi et al.

collective activity. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 10(1), 193–211. doi:10.
1007/s10763-011-9284-1.
Coll, R. K., Dalgety, J. & Salter, D. (2002). The development of the Chemistry Attitudes and Experiences
Questionnaire (CAEQ). Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 3(1), 19–32. doi:10.1039/
B1RP90038B.
Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qual-
itative research. Boston, MA: Pearson.
De Gale, S. & Boisselle, L. N. (2015). The effect of POGIL on academic performance and academic
confidence. Science Education International, 26(1), 56–61.
del Pozo, P. R. & Fins, J. J. (2005). The globalization of education in medical ethics and humanities: Evolving
pedagogy at Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar. Academic Medicine, 80(2), 135.
del Pozo, P. R., Fins, J. J., Helmy, I., El Chaki, R., El Shazly, T., Wafaradi, D. & Mahfoud, Z. (2012). Truth-
telling and cancer diagnoses: Physician attitudes and practices in Qatar. The oncologist, 17(11), 1469–
1474.
Dkeidek, I., Mamlok-Naaman, R. & Hofstein, A. (2010). Effect of culture on high-school students’ question-
asking ability resulting from an inquiry-oriented chemistry laboratory. International Journal of Science
and Mathematics Education, 9(6), 1305–1331. doi:10.1007/s10763-010-9261-0.
Dogru-Atay, P. & Tekkaya, C. (2008). Promoting students’ learning in genetics with the learning cycle. The
Journal of Experimental Education, 76(3), 259–280. doi:10.3200/JEXE.76.3.259-280.
Duit, R. Treagust, D. F, & Widodo, (2013). Teaching science for conceptual change: Theory and practice. S.
Vosniadou (Ed.). International handbook of research on conceptual change (pp. 487–503). New York:
Routledge.
Farrell, J. J., Moog, R. S. & Spencer, J. N. (1999). A guided-inquiry general chemistry course. Journal of
Chemical Education, 76(4), 570–574. doi:10.1021/ed076p570.
Fins, J. J. & del Pozo, P. R. (2011). The hidden and implicit curricula in cultural context: New insights from
Doha and New York. Academic Medicine, 86(3), 321–325. doi:10.1097/ACM.0b013e318208761d.
Frank, L. (2006). Qatar taps wells of knowledge. Science, 312(5770), 46–47. doi:10.1126/science.312.5770.
46.
Geiger, M. P. (2010). Implementing POGIL in allied health chemistry courses: Insights from process
education. International Journal of Process Education, 2(1), 19–34.
Glazer, N. (2015). Student perceptions of learning data-creation and data-analysis skills in an introductory
college-level chemistry course. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 16(2), 338–345. doi:10.
1039/C4RP00219A.
Grissom, R. J., & Kim, J. J. (2012). Effect sizes for research: Univariate and multivariate applications. New
York: Routledge.
Hake, R. R. (1998). Interactive-engagement versus traditional methods: A six-thousand-student survey of
mechanics test data for introductory physics courses. American Journal of Physics, 66(1), 64–74.
Hall, E. T. (1976). Beyond culture. New York: Anchor.
Hamdan, A. K. (2014). The reciprocal and correlative relationship between learning culture and online
education: A case from Saudi Arabia. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed
Learning, 15(1), 1–28.
Hanson, D. M. & Wolfskill, T. (2000). Process workshops—A new model for instruction. Journal of Chemical
Education, 77(1), 120–130. doi:10.1021/ed077p120.
Heady, J. E. (2001). Gauging students’ learning in the classroom. Journal of College Science Teaching, 31(3),
157–161.
Hein, S. M. (2012). Positive impacts using POGIL in organic chemistry. Journal of Chemical Education,
89(7), 860–864. doi:10.1021/ed100217v.
Hofstede, G. H., Hofstede, G. J. & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind.
New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Ibnouf, A., Dou, L., & Knight, J. (2013). The evolution of Qatar as an education hub: Moving to a knowledge-
based economy. In J. Knight (Ed.), International Education Hubs (pp. 43–61). Dordrecht, The
Netherlands: Springer doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7025-6_4.
Johnson, C. (2011). Activities using Process-Oriented Guided Inquiry Learning (POGIL) in the foreign
language classroom. Die Unterrichtspraxis/Teaching German, 44(1), 30–38. doi:10.1111/j.1756-1221.
2011.00090.x.
Johnson, C. M., Corazzini, K. N. & Shaw, R. (2011). Assessing the feasibility of using virtual environments in
distance education. Knowledge Management & E-Learning: An International Journal, 3(1), 5–16.
Jones, R. W. (2006). Problem-based learning: Description, advantages, disadvantages, scenarios and facilita-
tion. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care, 34(4), 485–488.
Inquiry-Based Chemistry Education in a High-Context Culture

Kan, A. & Akbas, A. (2006). Affective factors that influence chemistry achievement (attitude and self
efficacy) and the power of these factors to predict chemistry achievement-I. Journal of Turkish Science
Education, 3(1), 76–85.
Karplus, R. & Butts, D. P. (1977). Science teaching and the development of reasoning. Journal of Research in
Science Teaching, 14(2), 169–175. doi:10.1002/tea.3660140212.
Kazis, L. E., Anderson, J. J. & Meenan, R. F. (1989). Effect sizes for interpreting changes in health
status. Medical Care, 27(3), S178–S189.
Keeney-Kennicutt, W., Gunersel, A. B. & Simpson, N. (2008). Overcoming student resistance to a teaching
innovation. International Journal Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 2(1), 1–26.
Lewis, S. E. & Lewis, J. E. (2008). Seeking effectiveness and equity in a large college chemistry course: An
HLM investigation of peer-led guided inquiry. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 45(7), 794–811.
doi:10.1002/tea.20254.
Lovelace, M. & Brickman, P. (2013). Best practices for measuring students’ attitudes toward learning science.
Cell Biology Education, 12(4), 606–617. doi:10.1187/cbe.12-11-0197.
Mohamed, A.-R. (2008). Effects of active learning variants on student performance and learning perceptions.
International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 2(2), 11.
Moog, R. S. & Spencer, J. N. (2009). POGIL: An overview. In R. S. Moog & J. N. Spencer (Eds.), Process
Oriented Guided Inquiry Learning (POGIL) (Vol. 994, pp. 1–13). Washington, DC: American Chemical
Society. doi:10.1021/bk-2008-0994.ch001.
Muijs, D. (2010). Doing quantitative research in education with SPSS (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Murphy, K. L., Picione, J. & Holme, T. A. (2010). Data-driven implementation and adaptation of new teaching
methodologies. Journal of College Science Teaching, 40(2), 80–86.
Nour, S. S. O. M. (2011). national, regional and global perspectives of higher education and science policies in
the Arab region. Minerva, 49(4), 387–423. doi:10.1007/s11024-011-9183-1.
Prince, M. & Felder, R. M. (2007). The many faces of inductive teaching and learning. Journal of College
Science Teaching, 36(5), 14–20.
Prowse, J. & Goddard, J. T. (2010). Teaching across cultures: Canada and Qatar. Canadian Journal of Higher
Education, 40(1), 31–52.
Rajan, N. & Marcus, L. (2009). Student attitudes and learning outcomes from process oriented guided-inquiry
learning (POGIL) strategy in an introductory chemistry course for non-science majors: An action research
study. The Chemical Educator, 14(2), 85–93.
Raker, J. R. & Holme, T. A. (2013). A historical analysis of the curriculum of organic chemistry using ACS
exams as artifacts. Journal of Chemical Education, 90(11), 1437–1442.
Ruder, S. M. & Hunnicutt, S. S. (2009). POGIL in chemistry courses at a large urban university: A case study.
In R. S. Moog & J. N. Spencer (Eds.), Process Oriented Guided Inquiry Learning (POGIL) (Vol. 994, pp.
133–147). Washington, DC: American Chemical Society. doi:10.1021/bk-2008-0994.ch012.
Sanchez, I. & Gunawardena, C. N. (1998). Understanding and supporting the culturally diverse distance
learner. In C. C. Gibson (Ed.), Distance learners in higher education (pp. 47–64). Madison, WI: Atwood
Publishing.
Scharfenort, N. (2012). Urban development and social change in Qatar: The Qatar National Vision
2030 and the 2022 FIFA World Cup. Journal of Arabian Studies, 2(2), 209–230. doi:10.1080/
21534764.2012.736204.
Schroeder, J. D. & Greenbowe, T. J. (2008). Implementing POGIL in the lecture and the Science Writing
Heuristic in the laboratory-student perceptions and performance in undergraduate organic chemistry.
Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 9(2), 149–156. doi:10.1039/b806231p.
Schweisfurth, M. (2011). Learner-centred education in developing country contexts: From solution
to problem? International Journal of Educational Development, 31(5), 425–432. doi:10.1016/j.
ijedudev.2011.03.005.
Seymour, E., Wiese, D. & Hunter, A. (2000). Creating a better mousetrap: On-line student assessment of their
learning gains. San Francisco: Presented at the National Meeting of the American Chemical Society.
Smith, D. R. & Ayers, D. F. (2006). Culturally responsive pedagogy and online learning: Implications for the
globalized community college. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 30(5-6), 401–415.
doi:10.1080/10668920500442125.
Spencer, J. N. (1999). New directions in teaching chemistry: A philosophical and pedagogical basis. Journal
of Chemical Education, 76(4), 566–569. doi:10.1021/ed076p566.
Springer, L., Stanne, M. E. & Donovan, S. S. (1999). Effects of small-group learning on undergraduates in
science, mathematics, engineering, and technology: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research,
69(1), 21–51. doi:10.3102/00346543069001021.
 S. Qureshi et al.

Stasz, C., Eide, E. R. & Martorell, P. (2008). Post-secondary education in Qatar. Santa Monica: Rand
Corporation. doi:10.7249/MG644QATAR.
Straumanis, A. (2010). Classroom implementation of Process Oriented Guided Inquiry Learning: A
practical guide for instructors (2nd ed.). Retrieved from http://guidedinquiry.org/wp-content/
uploads/IG_2e.pdf
Treagust, D. F., Won, M., & Duit, R. (2014). Paradigms in science education research. In N. G. Lederman & S.
K. Abell (Eds.), Handbook of research on science education. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates. http://doi.org/10.4324/9780203097267.ch1.
United Nations Education, Scientfic, and Cultural Organization Institute for Statistics. (2014). Qatar. Retrieved
January 22, 2016, from http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=
289&IF_Language=eng&BR_Country=6340&BR_Region=40525
Vishnumolakala, V. R., Southam, D. C., Treagust, D. F., & Mocerino, M. (2016). Latent constructs of the
students' assessment of their learning gains instrument following instruction in stereochemistry. Chemistry
Education Research and Practice. Advance online publication. doi:10.1039/C5RP00214A.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society (14th ed.). London: Harvard University Press.
Weaver, K. & Olson, J. K. (2006). Understanding paradigms used for nursing research. Journal of Advanced
Nursing, 53(4), 459–469. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2648.2006.03740.x.
Westbrook, T. P. (2014). Global contexts for learning: Exploring the relationship between low-context online
learning and high-context learners. Christian Higher Education, 13(4), 281–294. doi:10.1080/15363759.
2014.924888.
Xu, X., Villafane, S. M. & Lewis, J. E. (2013). College students’ attitudes toward chemistry, conceptual
knowledge and achievement: Structural equation model analysis. Chemistry Education Research and
Practice, 14(2), 188–200. doi:10.1039/C3RP20170H.