Geotechnical considerations for planning and design of open stopes

E. Villaescusa CRC Mining, WA School of Mines

Abstract
An overall rational methodology for open stope planning process is detailed. The basic input consists of an
orebody delineation and rock mass characterization stage followed by a selection of the stoping method and
an estimate of the likely loading conditions from the mining sequences. The process requires two design
stages. The global design issues are relevant and applicable within entire areas of a mine, such an extension
of an existing orebody, while detailed design issues are applicable to the extraction of individual stopes.
Finally, a monitoring and back analysis strategy that allows a documented closure of the mine design loop is
presented.

1 Introduction
Mine planning is an engineering process encompassing all major technical functions undertaken in sublevel
stoping with the key performance indicators being safety, dilution control, recovery, productivity and cost
criteria. Mine planning provides the means for a safe, efficient, continuous and economic recovery of ore
while considering the life of mine issues and their implications for short term planning and design.
Mine planning prepares and evaluates all future design and operating strategies. Parameters such as of ore
reserve estimation, overall sequences of extraction, dimensioning of regional pillars and sublevel intervals,
design of ore haulage systems, backfill and ventilation systems are determined during the process. Although
it is beyond the scope of this paper to review such topics in detail, the geotechnical aspects of the process
from orebody delineation to stope extraction are briefly discussed.
The approach suggested here requires the interaction among geology, mine planning, rock mechanics and
operating personnel throughout the entire mine planning process (Villaescusa, 1998). The overall rational
methodology for the underground mine planning process is shown below.

Table 1 Key stages within the mine planning process of open stopes

Design Process Stages

Basic Input:
An initial orebody delineation
Rockmass characterization
Mining method selection

Control of Ground Behaviour:

Block design issues
Detailed design issues

Closure of the Mine Design Loop:

Back analysis and documentation

Six key stages are identified, with the orebody delineation and rock mass characterization stages as the basic
input. The requirements consist of an early determination of rockmass properties on a block scale, followed
by a selection of the mining method and an estimate of the likely loading conditions from the mining
sequences. The process requires a global and a detailed design stage, where global design issues are relevant
and applicable within entire areas of a mine, such an extension of an existing orebody, while detailed design
issues are applicable to the extraction of individual stopes (Villaescusa, 2004). Finally, a monitoring and
back analysis strategy that allows a documented closure of the mine design loop is required.

2 Geological and geotechnical characterization

The orebody delineation and rock mass characterization stages provide the input for the entire mine design
process (Brown & Rosengren, 2000). In most cases, however, the main role of a mine geology department is
limited to the definition and delineation of the ore zones within a deposit, the geological interpretation for
further delineation and exploration strategies and to undertake ore reserve estimations. Consequently, rock
mass characterization is rarely undertaken as a routine process as significant demands on quick orebody
delineation by the mine geologist may leave no time for rock mass characterization. Sometimes, a lack of
proper training and awareness of the relevant geotechnical issues by the mine geologists also contributes to
deficient data collection approaches.
The suggested approach is to obtain representative (mine-wide) rock mass properties required during the
global excavation design and stability analysis stages. In most cases, this information is obtained from
diamond drill holes (core logging of non-oriented holes) and direct mapping of underground openings.
Geophysical tools can also used for orebody delineation and rock mass characterization.
The confidence in the geological information must be sufficient to establish the nature and irregularities of
the orebody, the nature and location of major controlling geological structures, the general rock mass
characteristics as well as to carry out an economic evaluation to determine whether a stoping block should be
mined. This type of information requires that the sampling process extend beyond the orebody boundaries in
order to determine the likelihood of failure from orebody hangingwalls, footwalls or stope crowns.
The first step in any rockmass characterization process is a three dimensional definition of the main
geological discontinuities such as faults, shears, rock type contacts, etc. These structures are identified during
the orebody delineation process and are likely to play a major role in the overall mechanical behavior of the
entire deposit. The second step of a rockmass characterization program is to determine the rockmass
behavior away from the main geological discontinuities by defining what it is called a structural domain for
design. This can be achieved by core logging and direct mapping of joint set characteristics such as number
of joint sets, joint orientation, frequency, trace length, etc. (Villaescusa, 1991).

2 Global design
Global design issues are related to the design and stability of large sections of a mine, such as a new
orebody, extensions at depth or at the abutment of an existing deposit. Global design issues are listed in
Table 2 (Villaescusa, 2004). The issues involved include global orebody delineation, mine access and
infrastructure, dimensions of sublevel intervals, backfill requirements, equipment and ventilation
considerations, etc. Stress analysis of the global production schedules are critical to determine the loading
conditions (stress and displacement) likely to result from a proposed mine-wide stoping sequence. A limited
number of geotechnical issues are briefly discussed here.
Table 2 Global (block) design issues

Exploration drilling requirements for orebody delineation for the

designed area

Area wide rock mass characterization from borehole data and direct
access

Overall mining method selection

Quantity and grade of ore required with respect to scheduled metal

targets

Access and infrastructure development requirements - ore handling

systems, workshops, etc.

Production scheduling, details and timing

Induced stresses from scheduled sequences, including extraction

directions

Primary and secondary stope dimensions (including regional access

pillars)

Backfill system requirements

Equipment requirements

Ventilation

Global economic assessment

2.1 Block delineation

The geological analysis on a block scale requires information on orebody delineation, grade, major
geological structures as well as the major rock types within and around the orebodies. A grade distribution
and a geotechnical model on a block scale can be constructed from the geological interpretation of the data,
which is initially collected from widely spaced surface diamond drill holes. The preliminary design of a
mining block layout is based on confirmatory drilling, with holes drilled at 60-80 metres spacing. Additional
geological information is required to provide the ore limits and grade information suitable for detailed stope
design. This information can be collected as underground access becomes available and stope delineation
drilling at 20-40 metres spacing can be carried out. In addition, geological and geotechnical mapping is then
carried out from the exposed rock around the block development.
The geological and geotechnical models are used by the mine planning engineer to develop a geometrical
model of a stoping block in three dimensions. The major geological structures likely to influence the overall
block stability are determined and included in the analysis. The resulting three-dimensional model can then
be used to calculate tonnes and grade for a design block. Following mining method selection and an
economical analysis for the block, the design of the development, ore and waste handling systems, services,
ventilation, etc. can be undertaken.
2.2 Global extraction sequences
One of the limiting factors affecting the design of an underground excavation is the maximum void space
that a rockmass can sustain without failure. This failure may take place as a function of either movement
along planes of weakness, or through a combination of intact rock failures and geological discontinuities. In
most orebodies suitable to open stoping, the volume that may be safely excavated, such that stope wall
failures are avoided, is many times smaller than the orebody itself. Consequently, a series of individual
stopes must be excavated to achieve full orebody extraction.
One of the most important tools that a design and planning engineer has for controlling the overall behaviour
of a rockmass is the extraction sequence of the stopes contained within a given area of an orebody.
Extraction sequences are fundamental to achieve production targets safely and economically throughout a
stoping life. In most underground mines, a number of sources in various stages of development, production
and backfilling are being extracted at anyone time. The sources are likely to be scheduled from a number of
locations and extraction methods. In general a stoping sequence is driven by ore grade requirements,
operational issues and induced stress considerations (Potvin and Hudyma, 2000). A technically sound
strategy is to avoid creating blocks of highly stressed rock within an orebody. This can be achieved by
retreating stopes to an orebody abutment instead of creating pillars located within central orebody areas. In
general, an overall stope extraction sequence is influenced by the nature of the orebody in question
(Villaescusa, 2003).

2.2.1 Numerical modelling

Induced stresses from a particular extraction sequence can be determined using numerical modelling.
Depending upon the type of model being used, the input required include an estimate of the stress field (with
depth) from in-situ stress measurements, the deformational properties of the rock mass, the initial excavation
geometry and the overall sequence of extraction. Up to now, most of the numerical modelling programs
model elastic rock behaviour. Consequently the results must be used in conjunction with structural
information (for example large fault behaviour) in order to interpret the different extraction options.
Typical outputs from numerical modelling include stresses and displacements, which in turn can be
compared with empirical failure criterion established for the different domains within an orebody. Any
predictive models must be calibrated (validated) against field data and observations. In addition, effective
numerical modelling tools must allow a realistic assessment of mine-wide extraction sequences (Figure 1).

Figure 1 Main principal stress distribution in a stoping block using the program MAP3D
A model pre-processing must be linked to a three-dimensional model of the excavation geometries in order
to reduce mesh generation times. A link to mine scheduling is required in order to analyze the different
extraction sequencing options.
A limitation of linear elastic modelling include the inability to predict movement, fall-off or dilution from
fault or shear zones. Finite element based non linear models are required to predict a complete failure of the
rock mass and any resultant stress re-distribution from such failures (Beck et al, 2006). Progressive orebody
extraction may induce several phases of post-peak behaviour in a rock mass, and small changes to the stress
field induced by distant stope extraction may cause significant rock mass damage around the stope
boundaries.

2.2.2 Regional pillars

The use of regional pillars is sometimes required to control the overall stability and to provide safe access to
active stoping areas across an existing orebody. In some cases the pillars are required for permanent access
throughout the entire life of a stoping block. The use of transverse pillars to control the overall stability of
massive orebodies, such as the 1100 orebody at Mount Isa Mines is well documented (Alexander and
Fabyanczyk, 1982). Transverse pillars are an efficient way of controlling overall crown subsidence, while
ensuring safe access through the orebody (Figure 2).
4000mN

4500 mN

5000mN
L473

M422 L47 3

a ry
70
M4

rim
4

6p ar M 405 M40 9 M 413 M 418 M4 65 M 469

39
M pi ll N422 N426 °
99 N430 N434 66
N461
N3 M438 M4 44
J46
01 N458 N465
N3 N401 N405 N409 N413 N418
92 97
N3 N3 N4 54 N462
O418 O422 O426 O43 0 O434 N438 N442 O44 7
95 Q46 5
O3 O4 01 O405 O409 O458
2 O413
39 O461
O P 418 P422 P42 6 P 430 P434 O438 O442 O446
P 465
P3 97 P 401 P 405 P409 P450 P 454
94 P4 61
P3 P413 Q434 P442 P446 P4 71
Q397 Q418 Q422 Q426 Q430 P438 P 458
Q4 01 Q4 05 Q409 Q4 50 Q454 Q461
83 Q435
Q3 Q398 Q413 Q4 42 Q446
R430 Q438 Q465
96 R401 R40 5 R409 R41 8 R422 R426 Q451 Q4 55
R3 R434
R442
97 S4 00 S 405 S 408 R413 Q431
S3 Q421 R450
R432 S4 38 R454
95 S 442
S3 S4 13 S430 S44 6
S4 50
S 409 S409 S4 18 S422
S 401 S43 4
S 454
° S447 T450
60 T438
T44 2
J 46 T405 T409 T4 13
T430 T446 U4 50 65
T4 34 T45 4 °
T42 2 T426
S4

U403 U409 U442

8

U418 80
° U434 U43 8 °
55
V4 09
T4

V401
P41
5

V405 Y434
V43 0

W426

Filled stope Producing or empty stope Recently filled stope S che dule d stope

Figure 2 Plan view of the Mount Isa Mines 1100 orebody showing transverse pillar access

Stress re-distributions from a global stoping sequence may cause damage to transverse or regional pillars.
This damage may require rehabilitation or loss of access development through the pillar. Extension strain
cracking (Stacey, 1981) parallel to the direction of the major principal stress orientation may be experienced,
especially in rock masses exhibiting a high modulus. Consequently, an eventual recovery of transverse
pillars must be planned carefully, ideally with the initial pillar stope located in the least structured areas.
Extraction of the initial stope may allow an overall stress reduction within the pillar, as a stress shadow is
likely to be created for the adjacent transverse pillar stopes.
Damage to permanent pillars is not entirely determined by stress induced behaviour, as pre-existing
geological discontinuities can also influence the performance of a pillar. Geotechnical monitoring has linked
stoping activities and instability in concurrent extraction areas along the strike length of large fault zones
(Logan et al, 1993). The resulting behavior can be linked to induced stress relief along the structures with
increased loading and degree of freedom. Large stope blasts can transmit energy along continuous fault
zones, and fill drainage may introduce water into fault systems. As a result, production and filling strategies
must minimize stope interaction along common faults that intersect permanent pillars (Logan et al, 1993).

2.3 Block development

The purpose of block development is to provide suitable access for stoping and ore handling, fill reticulation,
ventilation, mine services as well as gaining further and more detailed information about the nature and size
of the orebody. The two main factors to be considered are: the mode of entry to the underground workings;
and the related lateral development required to stope the orebodies. The layout of the basic development
depends upon the orebody characteristics, the nature of the host rock and the stoping method chosen for
extraction. Properly designed block development is critical to the ongoing success of a stoping operation.

2.3.1 Vertical shafts

Vertical shaft is the most common type of access for deep underground orebodies. Shaft sinking and
equipping is a specialised, complex procedure usually costing millions of dollars. Consequently, it is
economically justifiable to spend a significant amount of time and money on site selection and
characterization. The rock mass investigations require geotechnical drilling to assess the presence of major
geological discontinuities, the hydrological regime, the nature and strength of jointing and the physical
properties of the rock types intersected. This is likely to indicate any potential stability problems during shaft
sinking and the subsequent access maintenance.
A shaft is sunk to a depth that will ensure many years of production during the life of a mine. Shaft location
is controlled by the mining method used as well as the rock types present on a particular site. In sublevel
stoping, the location of the shaft is usually to the footwall of the orebodies, where it is likely to be outside the
influence of any ground disturbance caused by the stoping operations. In cases where the shaft is located
within an orebody, a large amount of level development can be carried out within the orebody. However, a
large amount of ore around the shaft must be left unmined as a shaft pillar (Figure 3). For example, the main
and supply shaft services of the 1100 orebody at Mount Isa Mines has a shaft pillar that exceeds 200m in
diameter (Grant and DeKruijff, 2000).

F 60 61 62 63 64

G
H
I
J
K
L Restricted mining
N643

M
N645

N
O
P
Q
R62 supply & ore shaft
6000 N

6500 N

R
S
No mining

Figure 3 Plan view of no mining and restricted mining pillars around the R62 shaft complex in
Mount Isa Mines
The design and monitoring of shaft pillars usually include the prediction of strain profiles as a first pass
design using numerical modelling. This is followed by physical monitoring of rock mass response to mining
in order to identify displacement on pre-existing geological discontinuities intersecting the shaft.

2.3.2 Ramp access

In some cases, major access to stoping blocks is provided by ramps, which are usually located within the
footwall of the orebodies. Access and trucking ramp systems are generally used, with major trucking ramps
usually graded and designed with enough radius of curvature to preserve sight distance, manoeuvrability and
minimise tyre wear. Ideally, ramps are designed anti-clockwise downwards in order to provide optimum
sight distance to LHD drivers, which must descend bucket first. Ramps must not lead directly into accesses
to major mining excavations such as workshops, fuelling bays, etc.
The ramp dimensions are determined by the size of the mining equipment utilized. In particular, the design
of a ramp intersection with other roadways is important, as they must remain stable. Ramps may undergo
high stress re-distributions since the stopes are usually retreated towards crosscuts off a ramping system. The
location and geometry of the ramps must take into account factors such as the orebody geometry, the
rockmass strength and the stress loading as a result of the overall extraction sequence (Beck and Sandy,
2003).

2.3.3 Crown pillars

In some cases a major crown pillar is left in place to separate open pit and underground excavations within
the same orebody (Figure 4). Consequently, crown pillar stability is then critical to ensure a safe
underground extraction. The pillar dimension and stability are a function of a number of parameters. The
most important are the width of the orebody, the stress regime, the blasting practices, the rock mass strength
within the pillar, the overall stope extraction sequence (top down or bottom up), and whether backfill will be
introduced into the system.

Open pit extraction

Crown pillar under open pit

- 150m

- 250m

- 350m

- 600m
100m
Planned delineation drillhole

Figure 4 Long section view of crown pillar at the Kundana Gold Mine

The actual crown pillar dimension will depend upon the stress environment. Indications of high stress could
include obvious signs of mining induced stress fracturing. High stresses may also be induced in low stress
environment near the surface, due to the geometry of the orebody and the percent extraction below and
above the pillar. Numerical modelling is required to determine the stress concentration within the pillar. In
addition, if a crown pillar is situated within a stress shadow environment, consideration must also be given to
potential unravelling due to loss of clamping across the pillar. A crown pillar maybe recovered early in a
stoping life by incorporating extraction of portions of the crown pillar above each individual stope
extraction.

2.3.4 Sublevel interval

The selection of a sublevel interval is controlled by a global economic decision that provides the lowest cost
per ton of ore for the mining method chosen at a particular mining block. Consideration to select a sublevel
interval is not always controlled by stope wall stability. In most cases, the sublevel interval is based on
factors such as development cost, the irregularity of the orebody down dip (Figure 5), the available drilling
equipment and considerations of rock mass damage from explosives.

Figure 5 The effects of orebody nature on the chosen sublevel interval

Table 3 indicates the recommended range of hole lengths for different drilling technology, in order to
minimize hole deviation. They represent a starting point and the results should be evaluated against local
experience.

Table 3 Suggested blasting patterns for sublevel stoping

Hole diam (mm) Burden (m) Stand-off distance (m) Drilling technology Hole depth (m)

51 1.0-1.5 0.4 rods 10-15

63 1.3-1.8 0.6 rods 10-15

73 2.0-2.5 0.8 Rods + stabilizers 12-20

76 2.0-2.5 1.0 Rods + tubes 20-25

89 2.5-2.8 1.1 Tubes – top hammer 25-35

102 3.0 1.2 Tubes – top hammer 25-40

115 3.0-3.5 1.3 In the hole hammer 40-60

140 3.5-4.0 1.5 In the hole hammer 40-60

In some cases, the width of the orebody also plays a role while determining the hole diameter, as increased
blast damage may be expected with blasting large diameter holes in heavily confined narrow orebodies. In
addition, a sublevel interval can be increased by using a combination of downhole and uphole drilling
geometries. However, breakthrough holes are usually required in critical areas of a stope boundary, such as
the cut-off slot or the hangingwall holes, thus limiting the sublevel interval dimension.

2.3.5 Fill infrastructure

Mine fill is required to provide large scale ground support as well as localized stability for pillar recovery.
The key stages of a fill operation for sublevel stoping are material and stope preparation, fill delivery or
reticulation followed by backfill placement and drainage. Development for fill delivery and reticulation
issues is usually addressed during a global block design. The options may include fill delivery from a surface
material station using raise holes or boreholes, trucked to stopes via ramp access or from underground
sources. Underground fill reticulation is achieved by means of gravity fed or pumping to stoped-out areas.
Conveyor belts, pipeline distributions, standard or ejection tray trucks can be used.
Fill reticulation for massive orebodies usually requires long-term development within the crown of an
orebody (Figure 6) In such cases, crown subsidence may threaten the stability of the development associated
with a fill system above the orebody. To minimize this, progressive tight filling of stope voids is required as
the combined effect of unfilled stope crowns can result in regional subsidence. Geological and operational
factors such as delaying of fill can influence the rate of subsidence.

S50 N52
Fill pass Fill pass Screening Crushing KSOC
Conveyor

2468m 384m

Fill passes
(2-4m diam)

13C Sub
530-560

15 Level
530

545
522

538
515
500
492

507
484
476
469
461
454
446

19 Level

Figure 6 Schematic of fill distribution system at Mount Isa Mines (Bloss, 1996)

3 Detailed design
Detailed design is related to the extraction of individual stopes within a global area (Villaescusa 1998, 2004).
Detailed design is the process of establishing an optimum extraction method for an individual stope, subject
to a number of variables and constraints. Blasthole geometry, firing sequence, ground support, ventilation
and economics are some of the key variables considered. The constraints include the orebody boundaries, the
geological structures, any existing development, and in some cases, any adjacent backfill masses.
Figure 7 shows a typical process for taking an open stope from conceptual design through to production. The
detailed design process begins when a geological team undertakes detailed orebody delineation for a
particular stope extraction. In-fill delineation drilling, mapping, sampling and geological interpretations on a
stope scale are then completed. The mine planning engineer uses geological sections from a mine design
package to do a preliminary stope design, while the rock mechanics engineer completes a rock mass
characterization program, providing guidelines for dilution control, reinforcement and blast sequencing.
Geological considerations such as the presence of major geological discontinuities often influence the
blasting sequences. Other factors considered are the stress re-distributions within and around a stope and
likely to control fall-off behavior on the exposed walls. In addition, the retreat direction of the blasthole rings
must take into account the stope ventilation network, with a retreat direction into fresh air. A stope design
note covering many aspects involved in the development and production of a stope has been described in
detail by Villaescusa (2004).

Drilling and sampling Kriging and wireframe

Preliminary design

Final design

Survey pickup Development and ground support Face mapping, geological mark -up

Ring design Geological wireframe

Production drilling

Blasting, mucking

CMS survey

Filling

Reconciliation

Figure 7 A typical process for detailed stope design used at Mount Isa Mines.

Once a final stope design status has been achieved, the blasthole ring design is undertaken by considering the
production rigs that will be used, the ore limits, the survey pick-up of the access development, the extent and
sublevels of the stope, as well as the ring burden and toe spacing. The ore limits are usually updated in
accordance with the completed stope development. A scaled floor plan showing details of the latest survey
information including any vertical openings and status of surrounding stopes will be provided to assist the
drillers. Location of hangingwall, footwalls, cut-off detail and location of the main rings are also included
(Figure 8). A long section that includes a schematic view of the stope cut-off raise, the cut-off, the
production rings and the trough undercuts, is also completed. This section helps to explain the stope design
philosophy, and becomes a useful tool during drilling and blasting of the stope. Table 4 list a number of
issues that should be considered during stope design.
 6750 XC
16 A 16 B
Bench limit 6730N Bench limit 6730N

6700N 6700N
11C9 SILL DRIVE

12C9 SILL DRIVE

13C9 SILL DRIVE

13C8 SILL DRIVE

12C8 SILL DRIVE
N

6650N 6650N

Bench limit 6620N Bench limit 6620N

6600N 6601 XC 6600N

6600 XC

NOTES RE VISION MINE DESIGN

Bottom sill is 12C8 BENCH STOPE
FLOOR PLAN
shown to the left
16B-16A
SCALE 1:500

Figure 8 Floor plan of a bench stope showing cut-off slot position and main rings
Table 4 Detailed stope design checklist

Location, orientation and strength properties of large scale geological structures

Size of existing development and suitability for available drilling rig

Additional development requirements, size, shape and gradient

Ground support requirements for development and stope walls

Equipment needs for development including drilling, mucking, charging and ground support

Water drainage

Tramming distances and alternate ore and waste passes

Emergency escape routes during development and production

Drill drive layout, blasthole design and firing sequence

Ring firers access to stope

Drawpoint brow location and ground support requirements

Ventilation requirements during development and stope production

Bomb bays for storage of oversized rocks and secondary blasting

Explosive types for development and production blasting

Location, size and orientation of pillars

Overall rock mass (and fill mass) stability of the area prior, during and after stope extraction

Detailed scheduling of stope development, production blasting and filling

Cost comparison of alternative designs

Fill requirements including fill passes, reticulation and delivery to stope

Continuing stope performance monitoring during extraction

Undertake stope performance review after stope extraction

4 Stope reconciliation
Regular inspections of a producing stope are required, especially after each firing in order to monitor walls,
crown and drawpoint conditions. Any significant rock noise, fall-off or underbreak should be documented. In
addition, dilution exceeding more than 10% should be reported, so that the actual stope grade can be adjusted
accordingly. Geologist should conduct drawpoint investigations to estimate the grade of the ore being
produced. Secondary blasting of oversized rocks and hung-up drawpoints may be required. In some cases a
bomb bay may be available for stockpiling oversized rocks and undertaking secondary blasting.
Broken ore is mucked conventionally when the drawpoints are full, but it is sometimes required to remote
muck the last ore remaining in the floor of a stope, especially in large flat-bottomed stopes with retreating
drawpoints. Significant disruptions to mucking productivity can occur when excessive delays are
experienced during a stope extraction. Stopes left open over long periods of time may be influenced by time-
dependent regional fault behaviour. Stress re-distribution, production blasting and backfill drainage from
adjacent stopes are likely to influence stope stability over a period of time. Blast damage and the effects of
water from backfill can be transmitted along common fault structures intersecting a number of stopes.
Instability may create difficult remote mucking conditions due to large material falling off into the stope.
These delays (stope production tails) actually extend the stope life, which in turn may contribute to more
overbreak and more mucking delays.
The estimated cash per tonne of extraction reserves is calculated using the delineated mining reserve (tonnes
and grade), the metal prices and the extraction and dilution factors expected. The total cash profit (or loss) is
determined using a proper ore value model suited to the particular economics of a mine site. The input
factors may include tonnes mined, grades and metal prices, mining, milling, smelting, overheads and
royalties, exchanges rates, etc.
In periods of excess mining, hoisting and milling capacity the total net cash revenue can be increased by
mining marginal stopes or marginal ore within stope boundaries. Marginal ore can be included within a stope
design provided that little or no extra cost (no excessive extra development or additional reinforcement, etc.)
will be incurred. An individual stope should be extracted if it can return a positive total net cash revenue
after covering the costs of the remaining work required for extraction. Specific stopes may not make break
even but may be sufficiently advanced in terms of development, ground support, etc. to warrant a reduction
in the break even value.

Acknowledgements
The author wishes to gratefully acknowledge Mount Isa Mines for their permission to publish some of the
figures presented in the paper.

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