Strengthening of Structures v2

BUDAPEST UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY AND ECONOMICS
FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Department of Structural Engineering
LECTURES NOTES
for the BSc subject
STRENGTHENING OF STRUCTURES
v2.0
Edited by: Dr. Kálmán Koris
Budapest, 27 May 2014.

Strengthening of structures
Table of contents
1. METHODS OF STRUCTURAL DIAGNOSTICS ...................................................................................... 2

1.1 REQUIREMENTS FOR EXISTING STRUCTURES ............................................................................................ 2
1.2 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF THE EXAMINATION PROCESS ............................................................................. 2
1.2.1 Acquiring basic information............................................................................................................... 2
1.2.2 Identification of the structure ............................................................................................................. 3
1.2.3 Examination of the structure .............................................................................................................. 3
1.2.4 Material tests...................................................................................................................................... 4
1.2.5 Verification of static requirements ..................................................................................................... 8
1.2.6 Classification of the structure (based on TSZ 01-2013 regulation) ................................................... 9
1.2.7 Actions after structural classification .............................................................................................. 10
1.3 REQUIREMENTS REGARDING THE CONTENTS OF THE EXPERTISE (TSZ 01-2013).................................... 11
2. DETERIORATIONS OF LOAD CARRYING STRUCTURES .............................................................. 12
2.1 DIRECT DAMAGES .................................................................................................................................. 12
2.1.1 Damage due to chemical reactions .................................................................................................. 12
2.1.2 Biological damage ........................................................................................................................... 16
2.1.3 Mechanical damages........................................................................................................................ 20
2.1.4 Heat motion and shrinkage induced damages.................................................................................. 20
2.1.5 Frost induced damage...................................................................................................................... 22
2.2 INDIRECT DAMAGES ............................................................................................................................... 22
2.2.1 Damages due to foundation problems.............................................................................................. 22
2.2.2 Damages due to ground surface movements .................................................................................... 23
2.2.3 Elementary damages ........................................................................................................................ 25
2.3 TYPICAL CRACKS IN REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES ................................................................... 34
3. ASPECTS OF STRENGTHENING AND REPLACEMENT OF STRUCTURES................................ 36
3.1 GENERAL ASPECTS OF STRENGTHENING AND REPLACEMENT ................................................................. 36
3.2 THE INFLUENCE OF MAINTENANCE TO VALUE OF THE STRUCTURE ......................................................... 37
3.3 WORKING LIFE ISSUES OF LOAD CARRYING STRUCTURES ...................................................................... 40
4. STRENGTHENING METHODS................................................................................................................ 42
4.1 STRENGTHENING OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES BY POST-TENSIONING ................................. 42
4.1.1 Alignment of the cables .................................................................................................................... 44
4.1.2 Anchorage of the cables ................................................................................................................... 47
4.1.3 Alignment of the cables .................................................................................................................... 49
4.1.4 Strengthening of structures with inappropriate shear resistance..................................................... 49
4.1.5 Calculation principles of the strengthening by post-tensioning ....................................................... 50
4.2 STRENGTHENING BY STEEL PLATES ....................................................................................................... 51
4.2.1 Strengthening of concrete structures by anchored steel plates ........................................................ 51
4.2.2 Strengthening of concrete structures by bonded steel plates............................................................ 59
4.3 STRENGTHENING OF STRUCTURES BY FRP SHEETS ................................................................................ 68
4.3.1 Introduction to fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) materials ................................................................. 68
4.3.2 Application process of CFRP sheets ................................................................................................ 70
4.3.3 Mechanical properties of FRP materials ......................................................................................... 71
4.3.4 Fields of application in case of structural strengthening................................................................. 72
4.3.5 Flexural strengthening of reinforced concrete beams with CFRP sheets ........................................ 73
4.3.6 Anchoring of FRP sheets and plates ................................................................................................ 80
4.3.7 Examples of the application of CFRP sheets for the purposes of strengthening.............................. 84
4.4 APPLICATION OF SPRAYED CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY FOR STRUCTURAL STRENGTHENING ..................... 87
4.4.1 Early application of sprayed concrete ............................................................................................. 87
4.4.2 Introduction to sprayed concrete ..................................................................................................... 88
4.4.3 Sprayed concrete technology............................................................................................................ 90
4.4.4 Specific issues of the practical application ...................................................................................... 95
4.4.5 Strengthening of structures with sprayed concrete .......................................................................... 99
4.4.6 Examples to the application of sprayed concrete........................................................................... 105
5. REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................... 106
1
1. Methods of structural diagnostics

1.1 Requirements for existing structures
In case of old structures, the static requirements are the same as in case of new
structures. It means that all parts of the structure (foundation, wall, column, beam,
slab, etc.) must have:
− adequate load carrying capacity,

− adequate stability,
− appropriate durability against fatigue and
− appropriate stiffness (to avoid excessive deformations).
Requirements regarding crack width must be also satisfied in case of reinforced

concrete structures (width limit is the same as in case of new structures).
1.2 General principles of the examination process
Recommended order of structural diagnostics:
− acquiring basic information about the structure,

− identification of the type of the structure,
− examination of structural conditions, allocation of structural damage,
− completion of in-situ and/or laboratory material tests,
− analysis of the results of examination, verification of static requirements,
− classification of the structure by the results of examination and static analysis,
decisions about the structure (it is adequate, it must be strengthened, it must
be demolished, etc.)
− determination of tasks that must be performed in order to ensure proper future
usability of the building.
1.2.1 Acquiring basic information
Basic information about the building can help the identification process and it usually
determines the method of examination. Most important basic information about a
building can be:
− date of construction,
− condition of the load-bearing structural members according to the results of
previous examinations (previous expertise),
− data about the original structure and about its modification, strengthening and
renovation (drawings, static calculations, technical descriptions, etc.),
− war damages and their renovation method.
2
1.2.2 Identification of the structure
The material and the type of the structure can be identified by:
− determination of the construction date (typical structural materials and

solutions vary in different eras),
− studying the original drawings and plans,
− visual inspection of the structure.
1.2.3 Examination of the structure
A preliminary sketch of the building must be prepared. The structural geometry,

detected damages and other specific conditions must be notated on this sketch.
Sketch of a brick wall with the notation of detected cracks
The building must be separated into examination units. An examination unit usually
consists of structural members that are made of same material or have the same
structural type or have similar load-bearing capacity or have similar conditions of use.
Separation of the building can be done by visual inspection, by measurements and also
by uncovering of the structure.
Uncovering process in case of different materials:
− Condition of a structure made of non-deteriorative materials (e.g. normal

concrete, steel or bricks in non-aggressive environment) must be examined at
those places where failures were spotted by the visual inspection.
− Structures made of deteriorative materials (e.g. timber, slag concrete or bauxite
concrete in wet or corrosive environment) must be examined in at least 2-5
points in case of each examination unit (depending on the size of the unit). If
any of these uncoverings delivers unsatisfactory results, the examination must
be repeated again in new points (at least 4-10 points).
Biological tests must be performed if any signs of biological damage (caused by

parasitic plants, fungi, bacteria, etc.) are detected in case of timber structures.
In case of slag concrete or bauxite concrete structures strength and corrosion tests
must be always performed. Slag is a residual product of metallurgy. Blast-furnace slag
is an artificial aggregate to produce lightweight concrete. Slag concrete is sensitive to
the presence of sulphates (e.g. SO2, NO2). Bauxite is the basic component of bauxite
3
cement. It is a natural mineral that was earlier used to produce heavy and/or quick
drying concrete. It produces higher heat of hydration, so it was also used for concreting
at low temperatures. In bauxite concrete the unstable hydration products become
stable hydration products over time, so porosity of cement paste increases and strength
of concrete decreases.
Material tests can be performed by authorized experts only. Necessity of material test
is decided by a structural engineer based on the results of structural uncovering.
1.2.4 Material tests

Material test can be performed in the following situations:
− during the examination process, when the quality of the utilized (non-
deteriorative) material seems to be lower than expected value due to external
impact (e.g. aging, corrosion, frost, fire),
− the examined structure is made of highly deteriorative material (e.g. timber,
slag concrete, bauxite concrete or certain stone types)
− actual values of material properties (e.g. Young’s modulus, strength) are needed
for the calculation of load-bearing capacity (e.g. in case of the extension of the
existing building).
Examinations are usually carried out at popular places therefore the application of
non-destructive material test is preferred. Destructive tests can also be performed if
necessary. The place, type and amount of material tests are decided by a structural
engineer considering the previous aspects.
Non-destructive material tests:

− Poldi hardness tester. It is handy equipment for hardness test. It consists of a
firing pin led in a case, which carries down a hardened steel ball of 10 mm in
diameter. By the impact with about 1 kg heavy hand hammer is pressed at the
same time the ball into the test sample and into a laterally introduced reference
metal piece. From the relationship of the two diameters of impressions with a
simple formula, the hardness of the test specimen is computed.
Poldihammer with reference metal Working principle of the Poldihammer

piece and magnifier
4
Steel in natural/annealed or hardened condition

80
70
Steel strength [t/in ]
2
60
50
40
30
20
0,8 0,85 0,9 0,95 1 1,05 1,1 1,15 1,2 1,25
dreference / dspecim en
Strength of natural steel material as a function of the impression diameter
− Schmidt-hammer. It is a device that is used to estimate the strength of normal

concrete, bricks or rocks. It measures the rebound of a spring loaded mass
impacting against the surface of the sample. The strength can be calculated
from the measured rebound values according to any appropriate evaluation
method available in the literature. In Eurocode (EN 13791) a bilinear function is
used to describe the connection of the rebound values and the concrete strength.
Results obtained from Schmitd-hammer measurements can be refined by
destructive test methods, such as measuring the core strength of specimens that
were taken from the same structure (see the diagram below).
In-situ compressive strength
Modification of the basic σ-R curve using the Scheme of an N-type

results of destructive core tests (EN 13791) Schmidt-hammer
1 Basic curve
δf1..n Difference between individual core strength and
strength value according to the basic relationship
2 Δf Shift of the basic curve
3 Relationship between indirect test method and
in-situ compressive strength for the specific
concrete under investigation
5
− Ultrasonic testing. Ultrasonic testing devices can be used to determine the

Young’s modulus and strength of concrete. Homogeneity problems (pockets,
cracks, damages) in the concrete can also be detected by this method.
Ultrasonic testing can be applied for bauxite concrete too.
− Measuring by radiograph. The structure is X-rayed by a radiograph. The layout

of armature, diameter of steel bars as well as the rate of steel bar corrosion can
be determined by this method. Radiograph measuring method can be used for
reinforced slag concrete structures too.
− Measuring by profometer. The profometer is a device using non-destructive

pulse-induction technology for the detection and analysis of rebar systems in
concrete. Number and diameter of steel bars inside the structures can be
detected by this method.
Theoretical scheme of high energy Use of the profometer to detect steel

radiography bars in the concrete
− Corrosion analysis. The Canin (Corrosion ANalysing INsitrument) assesses the

corrosion condition of steel in concrete through the half-cell potential method.
Scheme of corrosion analysis Corrosion Analysing Instrument
6
− Loading test. The loading test can also be considered as a non-destructive

material testing method. It can be applied on structures with known load-
bearing capacity in order to verify the calculations. Structures with unknown
load-bearing capacity can be also tested to determine the carrying capacity.
Loading tests must be performed according to the referring standards (in
Hungary TSZ 01-2013 must be used).
Deflection in span 34, 8 trucks
distance (m)
deflection (mm)
Horizontal natural frequencies in span 4 (Hz)
Static and dynamic loading test of the Kőröshegy viaduct
Most common destructive material test methods:
− Laboratory tests. Specimens derived from the examined structure can be

analyzed in the laboratory:
 Strength tests (e.g. compression or tensile test)

 Mechanical tests (e.g. measurement of hardness, bending test)
 Chemical assay to determine the chemical composition (e.g. detection of
deteriorative substances)
 Corrosion analysis to determine the corrosion rate of specimens
Compressive strength test of Bending test of fiber reinforced

concrete cylinder concrete member
7
− Biological tests. In case of biological deterioration of timber structures, the

parasites (e.g. fungi, worms) can be identified on specimens that were taken
from the structure (causing only slight damage to the examined structure).
1.2.5 Verification of static requirements
Static requirements (see chapter 1.1) can be verified by
a.) consideration of operating experiences,

b.) consideration of operating experiences and/or results of static calculations,
c.) consideration of operating experiences and/or results of loading tests.
a.) Operating experiences
The condition of the structure can be judged by
− relocation of the structures or structural parts,

− deformation of the structure,
− cracking of the structure,
− local failures or damages,
− deformations of non load carrying members (e.g. partition wall) caused by
relocation or deformation of load-bearing structures.
These considerations can be used safely enough only, if

− long-term (at least 20 years) experiences about the structure are available,
− there are no significant damages (relocation, deformation, cracks, local damage)
on the visible parts of the structure,
− the material of the structure is non-deteriorative under the given ambient
conditions (e.g. normal concrete, steel or bricks in non-aggressive environment),
− changes of the structural arrangement (e.g. modification, heightening of the
building, setting-in a loft) are not expected,
− no significant changes of the usage conditions are expected in the future (e.g.
the maximum expected increase of loading level is 10% and there is no risk of
rigid structural behaviour).
b.) Static calculation
We might combine the operating experiences with

results of visual inspection and static calculations to
verify the requirements (determine the current
condition, performance and expected future
operation). Input data (e.g. geometrical sizes, material
strengths) for the static calculations can be obtained
from original drawings and calculations, from
measurements on the examined structure, from
results of visual inspection and from material tests.
Static calculation must be usually performed in the
following situations:
− condition, and load carrying capacity of

the structure cannot be determined by Decrease of the cross-section
operating experiences, so proper operation of a reinforced concrete
cannot be guaranteed, column due to corrosion and
spalling
8
− noticeable deflections develop on the roof structure (that usually denotes to

overloading),
− the cross-section of the examined member has significantly decreased due to
environmental effects (e.g. corrosion) or improper use so the load carrying
capacity cannot be judged by adequate safety,
− significant structural reconstruction of the load carrying structure is
expected in the future (e.g. heightening of the building, setting-in a loft),
− only minor changes of the load carrying structures are expected in the
future, but these changes will affect the type of intensity of loading (dead
load, live load or meteorological loads)
Regulations (standards) that are in effect at the time of the examination must be
used for the static calculations.
c.) Verification by loading tests
Loading tests can be used for the experimental verification of an existing structure.
A loading test is usually performed in the following situations:
− there is not enough information available for a static calculation,

− assumptions of the calculation are uncertain due to damages, errors of
manufacture or abnormal impacts to the structure,
− expert persons are not satisfied with the results of calculations.
1.2.6 Classification of the structure (based on TSZ 01-2013 regulation)
After the examination the structure must be classified into the following categories:
− adequate
− tolerable
− dangerous
The structure is adequate if the static requirements are fulfilled (ultimate limit states,
serviceability limit states, durability). This can be verified by operating experiences, by
calculations and by loading tests.
The structure can be classified as tolerable if the following requirements are fulfilled:
− detected damages do not endanger the future operation of the building,
− there is no risk of rigid structural failure,
− the load-bearing capacity of the structure is adequate (serviceability limit states
such as deflection or crack width must not be analyzed),
− serviceability limit states such as deflection or crack width must not be checked,
− expected deterioration rate must determined to estimate the risk of excessive
deterioration (e.g. corrosion of steel bars in cracked concrete structure)
The structure is classified as dangerous if the static requirements are not fulfilled. The
risk of further structural damage and the expected amount of human injuries or
casualties is higher than socially acceptable. The situation is life-threatening if the
conditions of the structure are so bad, that immediate intervention is needed to avoid
human injuries or casualties.
9
1.2.7 Actions after structural classification
Immediate intervention is needed if there is a risk of human casualties or significant

property damage. The intervention usually includes restrictions concerning the usage
of the structure (e.g. closing the access to certain areas), as well as repair, support or
strengthening of the corresponding structural members. Loads on the damaged
structural members can also be removed to reduce the risk of further deterioration or
collapse.
In case of life-threatening structures, the expert person is liable for:

− informing the client (owner, operator, etc.) immediately,
− recommending theoretical solution (bracing of the structure, evacuation and
closing of the building, etc.) to avoid direct danger,
− notifying the competent building authorities about the results of observations
and about the theoretical preventative solutions,
− informing the owner of the building about his responsibility on performing the
actions recommended by the expert person to avoid life endangering situation.
In case of dangerous structures, the following solutions can be recommended:

− modification of the usage of the structure (e.g. decrease of speed limit on a
bridge) to ensure adequate or tolerable service,
− modification of the function of the structure (e.g. a highway bridge can be only
used by pedestrians) to ensure adequate or tolerable service,
− recommendation of the reconstruction, strengthening or demolish of the
structure.
Service of structures with tolerable conditions must be limited in some sort of ways:
− limitation of service life (the date of next observation must also be declared),
− limitation of structural usage (e.g. limitation of loads under controlled
conditions)
Adequate structures or structural members can be used without any further limitation.
The protection of human life is the most important aspect of structural classification!
Application of temporary support for a fire damaged concrete floor to avoid life-
threatening situation
10
1.3 Requirements regarding the contents of the expertise (TSZ 01-2013)
The static expertise must usually contain the following information:
− the style of the expertise (full, detailed or partial),

− aim of the examinations (including designation of the building and the purpose
of examinations),
− premises of the examination (including list of acquired data, documents and
drawings),
− results of discussions about the structure,
− exposition of the proportions, arrangement, setting-in, structural build-up,
materials,
− description of type and rate of structural damage (including photos and
drawings if available),
− summary of the results on previous investigations and expert opinions or expert
institutions if available (acceptance or denial of these results must be
explained),
− method of investigation (including in-situ examinations, laboratory tests,
calculations, etc.),
− the amount, place and method of structural uncovering (if there was any),
− results of examinations,
− conclusions based on premises and the results of examinations (e.g. what was
for reason of structural damage)
− the period of validity of the conclusions,
− recommendations, aspects and actions that must be performed,
− summary of the expertise,
− date, name and signature of the expert person, number of his designer license.
11
2. Deteriorations of load carrying structures

Damages to different structural parts might have a bad influence to the performance of
the whole structure and they reduce the service life of the building. The knowledge of
different deterioration processes is essential for the effective examination and
maintenance works. Types of structural damages are discussed in the following.
2.1 Direct damages
Direct structural damage usually occurs due to an external impact. This type of
damage is independent from the deterioration of connecting structural elements.
Several types of direct damages are listed below:
2.1.1 Damage due to chemical reactions
Damages caused by chemical reactions usually occur due to insufficient or spoiled

waterproofing as well as due to leakage of pipe system or high vapour condensation.
Unprotected structural materials are attacked by ambient chemical substances and this
process may result in the decrease of material strength or reduction of effective
structural cross-sections.
Typical examples to the structural damages due to chemical reactions:
− carbonation of concrete due to atmospherical CO2 content,

− corrosion of concrete
− corrosion of structural steel
a.) Carbonation of concrete
The free lime content of the concrete changes into calcium carbonate due to
atmospheric CO2 resulting the disappearance of the alkaline protective layer.
calcium
lime
carbonate
Alkaline protective layer
protective layer destroyed!
Calculation of the depth of carbonated concrete layer according to fib bulletin no 34:
(
xc (t ) = 2 ⋅ k e ⋅ k c ⋅ k t ⋅ R ACC
−1
)
,0 + ε t ⋅ C s ⋅ t ⋅ W (t )
where:
ke – environmental function (depends on the relative ambient humidity),

kc – execution transfer parameter (depends on the length of concrete curing period),
kt – regression parameter,
12
RACC,0 – inverse effective carbonation resistance of concrete derived from accelerated

test (ACC):
−1
R ACC , 0 [10
-11
(m2/s)/(kg/m3)] w/c ratio
Cement type 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60
CEM I 42.5 R - 3.1 5.2 6.8 9.8 13.4
CEM I 42.5 R + FA (k=0,5) - 0.3 1.9 2.4 6.5 8.3
CEM I 42.5 R + SF (k=2,0) 3.5 5.5 - - 16.5 -
CEM III/B 42.5 - 8.3 16.9 26.6 44.3 80.0
Effective carbonation resistance of concrete obtained from accelerated test

(Notations: I – homogeneous cement, III – fly ash cement, R – rapid cement, FA – fly ash, SF – silica fume)
εt – error term considering inaccuracies which occur conditionally when using ACC
test method
Cs – CO2 concentration, which is the sum of the CO2 concentration of the atmosphere
(Cs,atm) and additional CO2 concentration due to emission sources (Cs,emi).
Cs,atm ≈ 0.00057 ÷ 0.00062 kg/m3
Cs,emi ≈ 1.628·10-6 kg/m3/year
W(t) – weather function that takes the effect of rain events on the concrete
carbonation into account
The rate of carbonation as a function of elapsed time and concrete strength is

displayed in the following diagram:
depth of carbonation (mm)
time (years)
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b.) Corrosion of concrete
Type “A” corrosion

− Washing-out of concrete: Dissolution of the
compounds forming the cement stone (calcium
hydroxide), thus reducing the pH of the concrete.
The dissolution process can be facilitated by:
presence of deionised water (e.g. rain, snow, etc.),
water filtration under pressure.
− Corrosion due to exchange reaction: The compounds of the cement stone (Ca2+
calcium ions) are exchanged for ammonium or magnesium so the concrete
disintegrates, the porosity increases, the strength decreases. Example:
MgCl2+Ca(OH)2 = CaCl2+Mg(OH)2
Type “B” corrosion

− Acid corrosion: The carbonate layer on the surface of the concrete is dissolved
by organic or inorganic acids, and thus the lime is washing-out (e.g. carbonic
acid, sulphuric acid, nitric acid, acetic acid, lactic acid, formic acid). Using NaCl
for de-icing the structures can increase the chloride content of the concrete, thus
resulting the acidification of concrete.
− Alkali corrosion: Concrete corrosion caused by a strong alkali solution, e.g.
concentrated Sodium hydroxide (NaOH). It dissolves the calcium aluminate
hydrate from the concrete.
Type “C” corrosion

− Sulphation: Aggressive compounds (e.g. copper sulphate CuSO4, Al2[SO4]3
aluminium sulphate, FeSO4 ferroussulphate, etc.) react with the constituents
that are forming the cement stone. These chemical reactions are causing volume
increase, thereby destroying the structure of the concrete.
Concrete attacked by sulphation on a Sulfate crystals in the concrete.

scanning electron microscope image.
− Volume increase due to crystallization: The acting compounds are absorbed into
the pores in form of solution, and they crystallize in the concrete,
thereby damaging the structure of the concrete (ettringite, thaumasite).
Type “D” corrosion

− Oils (e.g. linseed oil, castor oil, butter, animal fats) may form soap together
with Ca(OH)2 inside the concrete, which softens the concrete.
− Some organic compounds (e.g. mineral oil, ester-type compounds) can form salts
with calcium ions, which destroys the concrete.
14
c.) Corrosion of the reinforcement
In the presence of water and oxygen there is a difference of electrostatic potential

between the anode and cathode part, which induces electrochemical oxidation of the
steel material. As a result of steel corrosion, iron oxide is produced.
Conditions of the reinforcement corrosion in reinforced concrete structures can be

usually characterized by the simplified potential-pH diagram of an iron-water system
(also known as Pourbaix diagram).
Range of immunity: The concentration of

dissolved corrosion products that are in
balance with the metal is smaller than
-6
10 mole/liter (thermodynamic equilibrium).
Range of corrosion: The concentration of
dissolved corrosion products that are in
balance with the metal is larger than
-6
10 mole/liter.
Range of passivity: The corrosion is
thermodynamically possible, but the process
is blocked, for example, the corrosion
products formed on the surface prevent
further dissolution of the metal.
The corrosion of steel means volume increase, because the volume of the rust is higher
than the volume of the steel. The volume growth can be up to several times of the
original volume, resulting cracks in the concrete and the loss of concrete cover.
The corrosion of the reinforcement and its consequences.

d.) Corrosion of structural steel
Frequent places of occurrence:

− Bridges
− Transmission masts
− Pipelines
Reasons:
− Environmental impacts
− Insufficient maintenance
15
Consequences of corrosion:
− Weakening of cross sections and structural elements
− Changes of failure mode
− Decrease of load carrying capacity
2.1.2 Biological damage
This type of damage is typical in case of timber structures. If the surface of the
structure is exposed to dump conditions, the timber is may attacked by parasitic
plants, bacteria, fungi or insects.
a.) Parasitic plants
Parasitic plants (e.g. mistletoe) usually attack the limbs of trees causing only minor
damage to structural timber (they let their roots in the tissue of the living tree).
A tree attacked by Mistletoe
b.) Bacteria
Wood decaying bacteria do not damage the timber itself, but they create biological
chain together with fungi (they are feeding on cellulose creating appropriate living
conditions for fungi). They can only be found in green wood, or in timber material that
was stored in water.
c.) Fungi
They are sporulated, micronucleus plants without

chlorophyll content. They are in the need of organic
materials that are taken from living or dead plant
organisms. Fungi feed either on the wall tissue or cell
contents of woody plants. Fungi that feed on the cell
contents (removing stored plant food) are causing
stains only. Wood-rotting fungi consume constituents
of the cell wall causing the disintegration of woody
tissue and serious decay in timber.
A germinated spore of fungi is developing a

microscopic, slender tube called hypha. A large mass of hyphae is known as a
mycelium, which is the growing form of the fungi (this is what we see on the
structure). Mycelium is responsible for the transportation and processing of nutritives.
From time to time, hyphae develop reproductive structures that are partitioned from
the hypha.
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Spore of fungi Mycelium
Conditions of mycosis:
− Certain degree of moisture inside the wood, min. 18% up to 60% (fungi can
survive without water for several years and start to grow again in wet
environment!)
− Optimal temperature: +24-32 ˚C (spawn dies at a temperature +45-60 ˚C but
spores can survive even higher temperatures!)
− Acidic environment
− Oxygen for breathing (at least 20% of oxygen content in the cell tissue of the
wood is needed)
Most common fungi to attack structures:
− cellar fungus,
− dry-rot fungus,
− brown rot fungus,
Wood material attacked by any of the previous cannot be used for any purpose. The
only protection against them is to burn the timber material on site.
Cellar fungus (Coniophora cerebella)

− attacks new or existing structures with very high moisture content (50-60%)
− mainly attacks pinewood (but sometimes frondiferous trees as well)
− feeds on cellulose causing discoloration of the wood (brown rot)
− acidifies timber, thus creates fair conditions to dry-rot fungus
Cellar fungus (Coniophora Mycelium of the cellar fungus

cerebella) inside a building
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Dry-rot fungus (Merulius lacrymans)

− one of the most dangerous fungi
− attack acidified wood only
− does not require humid environment because it decomposes the cellulose of the
cell walls into CO2 and H2O, therefore it is dangerous to dry wood material too!
− decomposes cell walls causing ‘brown rot’
− attacks pinewood and frondiferous trees as well
− it’s mycelium may spread on other materials (steel, concrete, masonry, etc) too
Dry-rot fungus (Merulius lacrymans)
Brown rot fungus (Poria vaporaria)

− mainly attacks pinewood with high moisture content (35%)
− does not attacks dry wood material
− totally decomposes cell structure causing ‘brown rot’
Timber floor attacked by brown Signs of brown rot on wood

rot fungus material
d.) Insects
The damage referred to as worm in timber is the result of insect activity. Insects
tunnel in timber, spoiling the appearance of exposed faces and, if tunnels are
numerous, they may so reduce strength properties as to make the wood valueless.
Some of the most common insects that attack timber structures are:
− house longhorn beetle (Hylotrupes bajulus L),

− bark beetles (Scolytidae),
− common furniture beetle (Anobium punctatum),
− lymexylid beetle (Hylecoetus dermestoides),
− powderpost beetles (Lyctus brunneus),
− termites.
18
House longhorn beetle Bark beetle
Common furniture beetle Lymexylid beetle
Powderpost beetle Termites (a - Termes spinosus Latr. young female;

b - Termes gilvus Hag. female; c - Hodotermes
ochraceus Burm. wingless male; d - Termes spinosus
Latr. soldier; e - Capritermes speciosus Hav. soldier;
f - Hodotermes ochraceus Burm. worker; g - Eutermes
tenuirostris Desn.)
19
2.1.3 Mechanical damages
Mechanical structural damages are usually caused by one of the following events:
− overloading of the structure,

− partial redistribution of loads (e.g. heightening of the building, setting-in a loft),
− long-term dynamic effect that the structure was not designed for (e.g. effect of
highway or railway traffic, instalment of new machinery).
Mechanical damages are indicated by residual strains (e.g. excessive deflections,
cracks). In several cases, loss of stability or even collapse may occur.
Collapse of the Interstate 35W highway bridge over the Mississippi River, USA, 2007.
2.1.4 Heat motion and shrinkage induced damages
Structural parts inside a building are changing their sizes due to the change of
temperature. In case of restrained deformations, these movements may lead to cracking
of the structure (natural expansion joints are forming) or even the cracking of
connecting structural members. According to Eurocode (EN 1991-1-5) the constituent
components of the temperature profile are the following:
centre of gravity
a) uniform temperature component; b) linearly varying temperature difference

component about the z-z axis; c) linearly varying temperature difference component
about the y-y axis; d) non-linear temperature difference component)
20
Cracks may develop in concrete or reinforced concrete structures due to the effect of
shrinkage. Development of these cracks can lead to isolation problems, decrease of
structural stiffness or cracks in connecting wall and floor tiles.
Shrinkage cracks in reinforced concrete wall and floor Water leakage through
a cracked concrete
floor slab
Disadvantages of cracks in concrete structures:
− undesirable sight of the cracks

− increased corrosion of the reinforcement
− damage of floor tiles and insulation
− water leakage through floor slabs
− decreased slab stiffness
− increased deflections
− decreased durability:
1) Simplified design method, cracked structural behaviour 1
2) Thorough design method, cracked structural behaviour 1
3) Thorough design method, non-cracked structural behaviour 1
1,E-04
9,E-05 Case 1. 9,E-06 Case 1.

Case 2. Case 2.
8,E-05 8,E-06
Case 3. Case 3.
Probability of bending
7,E-05
Probability of punching
7,E-06
6,E-05 6,E-06
failure
shear failure
5,E-05
5,E-06
4,E-05
4,E-06
3,E-05
3,E-06
2,E-05
2,E-06
1,E-05
1,E-06
1,E-09
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 1,E-08
Time [years] 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time [years]
Probability of bending failure of a Probability of punching shear failure of

concrete floor slab a concrete floor slab
1
For more details see: K. Koris, I. Bódi: Durability and economical aspects of the design of monolithic reinforced concrete flat
slabs. Proceedings of the 9th Central European Congress on Concrete Engineering - Concrete Structures in Urban Areas.
Wroclaw, Poland, September 4-6, 2013.
21
2.1.5 Frost induced damage
Deterioration of stone, brick or concrete from freeze thaw actions may occur when the
material is critically saturated, that is when approximately 91% of its pores are filled
with water. When water freezes to ice it occupies 9% more volume than that of water.
If there is no space for this volume expansion, freezing may cause distress. Distress to
critically saturated material from freezing and thawing will commence with the first
freeze-thaw cycle and will continue throughout successive winter seasons resulting in
repeated surface loss. Concrete with high water content and high water to cement ratio
is less frost resistant than concrete with lower water content. Indoor structures are
usually not subjected to frost induced damage.
Concrete deteriorated from freeze Brick wall deteriorated from freeze

thaw actions thaw actions
2.2 Indirect damages
Indirect structural damages are usually caused by the vertical or horizontal

displacement or deformation of connecting structures. Most common reasons of
indirect damages are subsoil related (foundation problems or ground surface
movements).
2.2.1 Damages due to foundation problems
Movement of vertical load bearing structural members is caused by:

− subsurface erosion and uneven settlement of a foundation (e.g. due to the
rupture of a sewer system),
− freeze-thaw damage of a foundation,
− deterioration of a foundation due to aggressive ground-water.
Signs of soil heave due to frost Subsurface erosion under a building
22
2.2.2 Damages due to ground surface movements
Ground surface movements (subsidence or heave) and damage of

the structure may caused by:
− Nearby underground construction works (e.g. building subsidence

construction, tunnelling, canalization and mining activity),
− Foundation problems (e.g. uneven load distribution and
different soil types under the building)
− Changes of soil moisture content (e.g. lowering of the ground
water level, soil shrinkage, evaporation by vegetation) heave
Soil movements and surface deformations cause tipping, opening or differential

settlement of load bearing walls. Buildings are especially sensitive to the opening of the
structure in case of saddle position of the surface deformations. Deformation of load
bearing walls usually causes indirect damage to the connecting structural elements.
Direct damage of the floors is usually irrelevant; however even the collapse of the floors
can happen in certain situations.
saddle trough R
a) Rotation b) Opening c) Differential

settlements
surface
soil settlement
tunnel
Soil settlements and damage of the Foundation movement due to soil

building due to tunnel construction moisture content changes
23
cracks
cracks cracks surface

surface
surface
backfilling
settlements
The effect of buildings parts with The effect of soil types with
different load concentration different quality
Ground surface deformations will cause the overloading of the load bearing walls and
columns. Horizontal ground movements may results in the damage of structures like
arches, vaults, simply supported beams, since they abutment can slide off the support.
Checking the horizontal sliding of Overloading rate of load bearing

vaults off the support walls caused by surface deformations
Trough subsidence induced by room-and-pillar

mining over active or abandoned mines
24
Mine subsidence may cause the damages of bridge structures too. Changes in the
location of the bridge elements include:
− Displacements of supports (in the foreground, vertical, rotating, swinging).

− Displacements of approaching slabs.
− Displacements of spans (in the plan, the vertical breaking, declinations,
contactless tracks).
− Displacements of bearings (in the plan, detachment, eject).
− Changes in expansion joints (tightening, gaping, shearing).
Deformations of the bridge elements include:
− Bends of the support elements (frame columns and wing abutments

deformation).
− Bends and torsions of spans (strains in indeterminate spans, oblique and curved spans).
− Deformations of bearings (roller jam, elastomeric deformation, breaking of
anchorages and bearing slides, exceeding the displacement range).
− Deformation of the carriageway on the approaches (bumps, humps, depressions
on pavement and sidewalks, tracks deformation in the plan).
2.2.3 Elementary damages
Elementary damages are complex deteriorations of the whole structure caused by one
or more of the following extraordinary effects:
− fire damage,
− wind (hurricane, tornado)
− earthquake,
− flood, tsunami,
− inland water,
− traffic accident,
− explosion,
− etc.
25
The effect of fire on different building materials
a.) Concrete
In case of concrete structures exposed to fire, we may observe the following:
− decrease of strength due to chemical transformation of the concrete components

− effects of restraint forces due to thermal expansion
− concrete spalling
Chemical and physical changes in the concrete during fire:
Temperature Hardened cement

Aggregates Polypropylene fibers
[°C] paste
100 evaporation of water

start of cement stone
200
dehydration melting and
decomposition
400
decomposition of
500
Ca(OH)2 transformation
of quartz
600
decomposition of
700
calcium silicate hydrate
800 decomposition of CaCO3
1200 melting
According to Eurocode (EN 1992-1-2) there is a coefficient kc(θ) which allows the
decrease of characteristic strength of concrete (fck).
Normal weight
concrete with
calcareous
aggregates
Normal weight
concrete with
siliceous aggregates
26
Spalling of concrete may occurs due to vapour pressure in the pores, due to thermal
expansion, or due to combination of the previous effects. The mechanism of
concrete spalling due to pore pressure of fire exposed concrete structures is
displayed below.
Material properties (e.g. yield strength, elastic modulus) of the reinforcement will also
decrease during fire. Coefficient ks(θ) allowing for decrease of characteristic strength
(fyk) of tension and compression reinforcement are displayed as a function of
temperature in the following diagram (EN 1992-1-2).
27
Reinforced concrete roof damaged by fire
b.) Structural steel
In case of steel structures exposed to fire, we may observe the following:
− Decrease of material properties (strength, elastic modulus, etc.)

− Effects of restraint forces due to thermal expansion
Reduction factors for the stress-strain relationship of carbon steel at elevated

temperatures are illustrated in the diagram below (EN 1993-1-2).
Compression of a steel column Buckling of the web of steel

exposed to fire beams due to fire
28
c.) Structural timber
Timber is a combustible material. Pyrolysis of the timber means thermal degradation

of wood material producing combustible gases and accompanied by a loss in mass
(starting from about 250 ºC). In case of timber structures exposed to fire, we may
observe the following phenomena:
− Decrease of cross-sectional sizes

− Decrease of material strength
− Decrease of the strength of connections
The original cross section of timber is reduced to a residual cross section as a result of
charring. The depth to the char front is shown as the dimension c [mm] which is equal
on all fire exposed surfaces, given by:
c = β·t
where β is the rate of charring in [mm/min], and t is the time of fire exposure in
minutes.
The relative strength and elastic modulus of timber material at elevated temperatures
are displayed in the following diagrams (EN 1995-1-2).
29
Fire damaged glue-laminated timber Nail plate connection between

beam timber members after fire exposure
The effect of earthquake on building structures

Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel through the Earth’s layers, and are a
result of an earthquake, explosion, or a volcano that imparts low-frequency acoustic
energy. Building structures may damage due to the acceleration caused by these
seismic waves. Among the many types of seismic waves, one can make a broad
distinction between body waves and surface waves. Body waves travel through the
interior of the Earth, surface waves travel across the surface. Surface waves decay
more slowly with distance than do body waves, which travel in three dimensions.
Particle motion of surface waves is larger than that of body waves, so surface waves
tend to cause more damage.
Body waves
− Primary waves (P-waves) are compressional
waves that are longitudinal in nature. P waves
are pressure waves that travel faster than
other waves through the earth to arrive at
seismograph stations first. These waves can
travel through any type of material, including
fluids, and can travel at nearly twice the speed
of S waves. In air, they take the form of sound
waves, hence they travel at the speed of
sound. Typical speeds are 330 m/s in air, 1450
m/s in water and about 5000 m/s in granite.
− Secondary waves (S-waves) are shear waves
that are transverse in nature. Following an
earthquake event, S-waves arrive at
seismograph stations after the faster-moving
P-waves and displace the ground
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
S-waves can travel only through solids, as
fluids (liquids and gases) do not support shear
stresses. S-waves are slower than P-waves, and
speeds are typically around 60% of that of P-
waves in any given material.
Surface waves
− Rayleigh waves, are surface waves that travel as ripples with motions that are
similar to those of waves on the surface of water (however, the particle motion at
shallow depths is retrograde, and that the restoring force is elastic, not
gravitational as for water waves). The existence of these waves was predicted by
John William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh, in 1885. They are slower than body waves,
roughly 90% of the velocity of S waves for typical homogeneous elastic media.
30
− Love waves are horizontally polarized shear waves (SH waves), existing only in
the presence of a semi-infinite medium overlain by an upper layer of finite
thickness. They are named after A.E.H. Love, a British mathematician who
created a mathematical model of the waves in 1911. They usually travel slightly
faster than Rayleigh waves, about 90% of the S wave velocity, and have the
largest amplitude.
Acceleration has this important influence on damage, because, as an object in

movement, the building obeys Newton’ Second Law of Dynamics:
F = m·a
This states the force (F) acting on the building is equal to the mass of the building (m)
times the acceleration (a). So, as the acceleration of the ground, and in turn, of the
building, increase, so does the force which affects the building, since the mass of the
building doesn’t change. Of course, the greater the force affecting a building, the more
damage it will suffer.
It is important to note that F is actually an

inertial force, that is, the force is created by
the building’s tendency to remain at rest,
and in its original position, even though the
ground beneath it is moving. This is in
accordance with D’Alembert’s Principle,
which states that a mass acted upon by an
acceleration tends to oppose that acceleration
in an opposite direction and proportionally to
the magnitude of the acceleration. This inertial force F imposes strains upon the
building’s structural elements. These structural elements primarily include the
building’s beams, columns, load-bearing walls, floors, as well as the connecting
elements that tie these various structural elements together. If these strains are large
enough, the building’s structural elements suffer damage of various kinds.
In case of building structures, there are a number of important characteristics which

further affect the building’s response in terms of the accelerations it undergoes, and the
deformations and damages that it suffers:
− Frequencies of the input ground motion

− Building’s natural frequency (when it is near to the frequency of the ground
motion, the building’s response reaches a peak level)
− Stiffness of the building
− Ductility of the structure (the ability to undergo distortion or deformation
without resulting in complete breakage or failure)
− Damping characteristics of the building (damping is the result of internal
friction and the absorption of energy by the building’s structural and non-
structural elements)
Typical structural damages in case of an earthquake:
− relocation of foundation
− relocation of vertical and horizontal structural elements
− damage of vertical structural elements
− damage of the connections of vertical and horizontal structural elements
− damage of horizontal structural elements
− collapse of the building or building parts due to the above damages
31
Office building damaged by earthquake Bridge piers damaged by earthquake
The effect of floods on building structures

A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land which is usually dry. Flooding
may occur as an overflow of water from water bodies, such as a river or lake, in which
the water overtops or breaks levees, resulting in some of that water escaping its usual
boundaries. Principal types and causes of floods:
− Areal (rainfall related): Floods can happen on flat or low-lying areas when the
ground is saturated and water either cannot run off or cannot run off quickly
enough to stop accumulating.
− Riverine: River flows may rise to floods levels at different rates, from a few
minutes to several weeks, depending on the type of river and the source of the
increased flow.
− Estuarine and coastal: Flooding in estuaries is commonly caused by a
combination of sea tidal surges caused by winds and low barometric pressure,
and they may be exacerbated by high upstream river flow. Coastal areas may
be flooded by seismic or storm events at sea, resulting in waves over-topping
defences or in severe cases by tsunami or tropical cyclones.
− Urban flooding: Urban flooding is the inundation of land or property in a built
environment, particularly in more densely populated areas, caused by rainfall
overwhelming the capacity of drainage systems, such as storm sewers.
− Catastrophic: Catastrophic flooding is usually associated with major
infrastructure failures such as the collapse of a dam, but they may also be
caused by damage sustained in an earthquake or volcanic eruption.
The most common effect of floods on building structures are:
− erosion of the soil around and/or under the building

− water pressure on the building
− impact of objects carried by the flood
− debris flow damage
− erosion and damage of building materials
32
Partial collapse of an apartment building due Walls of a building destroyed by tsunami

to debris flow, Venezuela, 2000 in Thailand, 2004
Damage of Stuart Highway bridge due to Village of Longarone destroyed by 100 m

flood, Australia high flood wave caused by landslide into the
Vajont river dam, Italy, 1963
The effect of wind on building structures
Wind occurs on a range of scales, from thunderstorm flows lasting tens of minutes, to
local breezes generated by heating of land surfaces and lasting a few hours, to global
winds resulting from the difference in absorption of solar energy between the climate
zones on Earth. The two main causes of large-scale atmospheric circulation are the
differential heating between the equator and the poles, and the rotation of the planet
(Coriolis effect). Within the tropics, thermal low circulations over terrain and high
plateaus can drive monsoon circulations. In coastal areas the sea breeze/land breeze
cycle can define local winds; in areas that have variable terrain, mountain and valley
breezes can dominate local winds.
Typical risks that are produced by wind include:
− Structural failure
 Wind pressure/suction/friction
 Redistribution of Snow
− Cladding failure
 Wind pressure/suction/friction
 Projectile impact
− Aerodynamic instability
− Serviceability problems
33
Collapse of Tacoma Narrows bridge Cladding failure of a roof caused by

due to the resonance caused by the strong wind, Hungary
strong wind, USA, 1940
2.3 Typical cracks in reinforced concrete structures
The damage of monolithic reinforced concrete structures is may caused by the

improper design, inappropriate construction, material defects or overloading of certain
structural parts.
Typical signs of such damages are:
− Crushing of concrete due to large bending moment;

− Yielding/rupture of steel bars due to large bending moment;
− Shear failure due to large reaction (support) forces;
− Shear failure due to torsion;
− Slipping of steel bars due to insufficient anchorage;
− Loss of stability (lateral torsional buckling) in case of narrow girders.
Typical cracks in a simply supported reinforced concrete beam:
1 – wall;
2 – beam;
3 – possible top flange;
4 – bending cracks;
5 – shear cracks;
6 – cracks due to insufficient links;
7 – cracks due to construction joints, torsion or shrinkage;
8 – cracks due to insufficient reinforcement;
9 – crushing of concrete;
10 – direction of loading;
11 – damage of the support;
12 – direct shear failure of the beam;
14, 15 – cracks due to inappropriate connection to prefabricated beams.
34
Classic strengthening methods of beams with bending failure:
Tensioning by steel bars

A – Side view
B – Cross section
Widening of the web

C – Side view
D – Cross section
1 – wall; 2 – beam; 3 – steel plate washer; 4 – drilled

screws; 5 – welding of the steel bar; 6 – steel bar;
7 – mounting rod; 8 – steel dowel; 9 – top flange of
T beam; 10 – carved top flange; 11 – ribbed beam
surface; 12 – additional concrete and reinforcement.
Classic strengthening methods of beams with shear failure:
Application of additional external links

A – Side view
B – Cross section
Application of steel sections

C – Side view
D – Cross section
1 – wall; 2 – beam; 3 – top flange of the T beam;

4 – shear cracks; 5 – drilled hole; 6 – Angle steel;
7 – connecting plate; 8 – steel rod; 9 – top
connecting plate; 10 – screw nut; 11 – place of
welding; 12 – through screw; 13 – U-steel section.
Typical cracks in monolithic reinforced concrete slabs:
Typical cracks in a one way spanning reinforced concrete slab are similar to the cracks
in beams. Typical cracks in a two way spanning, simply supported slab are presented
below:
A theoretical cracks (yield lines);
B cracks on the top surface of the slab;
C cracks on the bottom surface of the slab;
D cracks on the top surface due to in-
sufficient top reinforcement;
E cracks on the bottom surface due to in-
sufficient top reinforcement;
1, 2 – load model
3 – cracks
4 – mat reinforcement in the upper corner
35
Cracks in the concrete are different in case of the application of different steel bar
types. The application of smooth steel bars (it is typical in older structures) may result
in larger cracks spacing and crack width due to moderate adhesion between the
concrete and the steel, while more dense crack spacing usually refers to the presence of
ribbed steel bars.
A – smooth steel bars;
B – ribbed steel bars;
C – improper repair with cement mortar;
D – proper repair with epoxy resin;
1 – concrete; 2 – steel bar;
3 – crack; 4 – cement mortar;
5 – epoxy resin
3. Aspects of strengthening and replacement of structures

3.1 General aspects of strengthening and replacement
The structure must be strengthened or replaced if it is not able to carry the acting
loads. Replacement of the structure or structural elements is reasonable in the
following cases:
− there is a biological damage to the structure that can later spread to other
connecting structural parts (e.g. fungus pest on timber roof, that can spread
through the brick wall too),
− the material of the structure has lost most of it’s strength (e.g. extensive fungus
or worm pest, fire damage, etc.),
− the structure has partially or fully lost its stability (e.g. in case of earthquake,
flood, explosion).
The replacement of structures must be designed according to the relevant standard.
Strengthening of a structure means the addition of new structures or structural members
that assist the existing structure to carry the loads. Strengthening is usually performed at
inhabited areas or buildings; therefore it is essential to design quick and cost effective
strengthening solutions. Most of the strengthening methods can comply these aspects.
The applied strengthening method can be:
− cooperative, when the existing and the new structure have common internal
force distribution, that is they carry the loads together,
− uncooperative, when the existing and the new structure carry the loads
separately, that is they have independent internal force distributions.
p
p F1 F2 F3 floor
RC beam
masonry
ε σ column
adhesiv
CFRP sheets steel
I-beams
Cooperative flexural
strengthening of a reinforced
concrete beam by externally
bonded CFRP sheets
Uncooperative strengthening of a
masonry column by steel I-beams
36
During the design of strengthening, the regulations of the relevant standard, as well as
the following aspects have to be considered:
− existing forces inside the structure at the time of strengthening,

− deformation compatibility of the original structure, including slow deformation
capability, different thermal expansion coefficients and the modified internal
force distribution caused by strengthening,
− plastic deformability of new and existing structures,
− design service life.
The total load carrying capacity of the strengthener and the existing structure can be
determined separately and these values can be summarized (without detailed analysis) if:
− structural members has adequate plastic deformability to ensure proper force

distribution,
− there are no significant plastic deformations from the nominal values of loads,
− load carrying capacity is controlled for a 10% increased load level.
The uncertainties of the applied calculation method must be compensated by the

consideration of increased loads (5-25%). This kind of load increase must be always
used if we are not sure about the exact external and internal force distributions.
During the design of strengthening we must consider static requirements (stability,

load bearing capacity) as well as the following aspects:
− conditions and costs of operation of the building during the structural

strengthening or replacement process,
− the effect of structural strengthening or replacement on the increase of ‘moral
value’ of the building (e.g. disapproval of people against IMS type buildings
without strengthening), the rate of this increase (e.g. replacement of roof makes
the setting-in possible),
− costs of additional construction works (e.g. removal or recovery of doors and
windows, replacement of wires, pipelines and other building equipment).
3.2 The influence of maintenance to value of the structure
The value of a structure usually consists of the following technical expenses:
− execution costs (costs of design, organization, construction and expert

examinations, taxes, charges, etc),
− operation costs (expenses needed to ensure the operation of building equipment
and machinery),
− maintenance costs (expenses needed to ensure adequate technical conditions of
the structure),
− elimination costs (costs of design, organization, demolition and expert
examinations, taxes, charges, etc).
37
The decrease of the technical value of a building as a function of time (the value is
100% at the time of construction)
The obsolescence period of different structural parts
Life-cycle Life-cycle
Structure Structure
[years] [years]
Interior windows & doors 25-30 Interior coating 5-6
Exterior windows & doors 20-25 Wallpapering 5-6
Stair-tread covering 15-20 Building equipment 15-20
Floor surface: hardwood floor 10-15 Pipelines, tubes 25-30
carpet floor 5-8 Plate roofing structures 10-15
tile lining 15-20 Roof boards (e.g. roofing tile) 20-25
Interior painting 2-5 Flat roof waterproofing 15-18
Exterior plaster-work & paint 15-20 Electrical installations 25-30
38
Most common reasons of the technical obsolescence:

− natural aging process,
− quality of maintenance works,
− changes of the environment (e.g. construction of a nearby road or factory),
− changes of soil conditions (e.g. rise of ground water level),
− extraordinary events (e.g. earthquake, fire, explosion),
− inefficient construction work,
− intensity of proper use,
− misuse of the structure,
− intentional vandalism,
− etc.
reconstruction after World War II.
the communistic government

reconstruction supported by
reconstruction after the
revolution of 1956.
The decrease of value of an existing building
The assessment of depreciation (value loss) in case of different buildings:
a) Old building with timber roof and appropriate maintenance
39
b) Modern building with only minor maintenance to ensure usability
c) Modern building with regular maintenance and repair
d) Value of a building considering the rentals
3.3 Working life issues of load carrying structures
The service life (or life-span) is the maximum length of time a structure can normally
operate with adequate safety. The economical value of the structure depends also on
the expected service life at a given point of time. The service life significantly depends,
on one hand, on the regularity and workmanship of maintenance and repair works, on
the other hand on the geographical, climatic and other external effects:
− composition and quality of soil under the building (e.g. presence of expansible
clay decreases the service life),
− precipitation and soil conditions (e.g. prevalence of leakage, presence of stratum
water, ground water level fluctuation are decreasing the service life),
40
− temperature conditions (e.g. rate of thermal expansion),

− wind conditions,
− ambience pollution (e.g. stone, concrete and mortar are sensitive to ambience
pollution, their life-span is reduced by an increased pollution level),
− changes of traffic conditions (e.g. dynamic effect of fast vehicles can damage the
surrounding buildings),
− effect of nearby construction works (e.g. piling, tunneling, lowering of ground
water level can reduce the service life),
− effect of extraordinary events (e.g. earthquake, flood, fire, explosion).
Indicative categories of design working life defined by Eurocode are listed in the
following table:
41
4. Strengthening methods
4.1 Strengthening of reinforced concrete structures by post-tensioning
Besides the construction of new buildings and bridges, the

Cross-section
post-tensioning method is also used for the strengthening
of damaged structures or structures with inadequate load
carrying capacity. This method was first applied by
Eugéne Freyssinet in 1934 for the strengthening of the
700 new piles
Le Havre Marine Station in France. The comprehensive 25 to 30 m long
use of the post-tensioning spread after the 70’s by the
application of corrosion controlled cables.
The post-tensioning is usually applied to eliminate excessive cracks and deformations:
− deformations of reinforced concrete, steel and timber structures,

− bending cracks in reinforced concrete structures (tensioned zone)
perpendicularly to the longitudinal axis,
− shear cracks in the web of the reinforced concrete beams,
− cracks due to local force transfer like support region of beams, anchorage zone
of pre-stressing tendons, etc. (these cracks often spread out to form excessive
shear-bending cracks).
Common reasons of excessive cracks in reinforced concrete structures:
− improper consideration of thermal effects,

− neglecting the stress redistribution of the structure due to long-term, restrained
effects (e.g. creep, shrinkage),
− underestimation of loads,
− underestimation of stress loss in case of pre-stressed structures,
− cracks in pre-stressed concrete beams due to local force transfer at the
anchorage of the tendons:
Cross-section
y
Beam end
cracks
prestressing tendons
I I
lb x
I-I
tension
compression
σy
τxy
Local vertical stresses causing horizontal cracks in a prestressed

concrete beam
42
The idea of post-tensioning: Compressive forces are induced to the damaged concrete
structure by tensioning steel (or CFRP) tendons or bars. Post-tensioning is usually
applied to
− reduce or eliminate of tensile stresses inside the structure,
− close the cracks which develop on the original structure,
− reduce the excessive deflections,
− increase the load bearing capacity of the structure.
Cracks and excessive deflections No cracks and only small deflections
Post-tensioning operation:
1) A hydraulic jack is attached to one or both ends of the tendon and pressurized
to a predetermined value causing predetermined force in the tendon.
2) After jacking to the required force, the force in the tendon is transferred from
the jack to the end anchorage. The anchorage consist of steel wedges that grip
each strand and seat firmly in a wedge plate. The wedge plate itself bears on a
steel anchorage (simple steel bearing plate or special casting with two or three
concentric bearing surfaces that transfer the tendon force to the concrete). Bar
tendons are usually threaded and anchored by means of spherical nuts that bear
against a bearing plate.
3) After stressing, protruding end of strands or bars are cut off (flame cutting
should not be used).
4) For final protection, the anchorage may be covered by a cap of high quality
grout with a durable seal-coat.
Tensioning Tensioning bars Single-strand hydraulic jack
Corrugated metal & plastic ducts Steel bearing (wedge) plates and end caps
for post-tensioning
43
Steps of jacking Failed anchorage after the application of tension
The existing structures are usually not prepared for the direct application of post-
tensioning. New anchorage blocks, diaphragms and structures for the alignment of
cables must be constructed due to the large concentrated forces. Additional holes must
also be bored to allow the thread through and fixation of cables. The stretching
apparatus must be transferred and fixed to the desired location, which is usually
complicated due to insufficient place around the original structure (therefore a single-
strand jacking device is usually used).
Aspects of external post-tensioning:
− structural geometry, material properties and the allocation of reinforcement in the

existing structure must be measured before designing the post-tensioning,
− the vibration period of the tensioning cables and the original structure are different,
− the strain increment of unbounded cables dissipates along the total length of the
cable in ultimate limit state,
− the stability of the structure must also be checked if the external cables are
attached in the anchorage points only,
− the of initial prestress inside the cables can be lower than the usual value in case of
strengthening,
− the position of the cables must be strictly controlled during the construction,
− the controllability of the structure must be considered during the design,
− corrosion prevention of external cables (e.g. coating of cables, application of ducts,
grouting), anchoring and aligners must be prepared carefully.
4.1.1 Alignment of the cables
The alignment of the post-tensioning cables can be straight, segmented or curved

(circular). In case of straight cables, there is no need for alignment diaphragms and the
friction loss is low, however this solution is not really effective for the increase of
bending moment and shear capacity.
The intermediate section of cables must be fixed to avoid stability problems and the
development of unfavourable eccentricity due to loading.
44
External post-tensioning by the application of straight cables
Strengthening of a bridge headstock with external post-tensioning

a) cracked headstock b) cracks injected with epoxy resin c) headstock after post-tensioning
d) Load-deflection characteristics of original and strengthened headstock specimens
The bending moment curve of the structure can be followed and also the shear
resistance can be increased by the segmented alignment of cables. The disadvantage of
this solution is the need for alignment diaphragms and the increase of friction loss
inside the cables.
Post-tensioning by the application of segmented cables
45
Curved (circular) cables
− Applied for the strengthening of fish-bellied girders or cylindrical structures (e.g.

silos, tanks, domes, chimneys)
− Alignment diaphragms are not needed
− Friction loss increases as the curvature radius of the arc is decreasing (if cables
have cylindrical alignment with only one tensioning point, the friction loss can
be up to 50-70 %, making the strengthening by post-tensioning uneconomical.
The friction loss can be reduced by leading the cables inside of ducts filled with
grease or wax, or by the application of multiple anchorage or tensioning devices
around the structure.
− Higher concrete strength of the original structure can be considered after
circular post-tensioning due to the restrained horizontal strains (similar to the
tubular steel columns filled with concrete).
Peripheral post-
tensioning by spooling
method
Peripheral post-tensioning of Reducing the friction loss by the application

a reinforced concrete tank by of multiple anchorage devices in case of
the application of radial force peripheral post-tensioning
Floating anchorage for

ring (hoop) tendons
46
Strengthening of concrete pressure pipe using hoop

tendons
The pressure that can be taken after post-tensioning

(using the Barlow ’s formula):
2 ⋅ f ⋅ t 2 ⋅T
p= +
D D
where:
p p = pressure
f = allowable stress
t = wall thickness
D = outside diameter
T = tensioning force
T T
4.1.2 Anchorage of the cables

If the original structure is strong enough, the post-tensioning cables can be directly
anchoraged to it (e.g. to the cross-girders of a bridge). The original structure must be
drilled at the anchorage points to allow the thread through of cables. Steel bearing pad
should be applied for the transfer of compression force.
If the original structure is too weak to resist the concentrated loads at the anchorage,
additional anchorage blocks must be constructed and the cables must be fixed to these
new blocks. Common types of additional anchorage blocks:
a) Anchorage block or tensioned cross-girder is placed at the end of the beam
b) Anchorage block is placed at the web or at top or bottom flange of the beam
c) Anchorage block or cross-girder is placed inside the existing structure
a.) New anchorage block fixed to the end of the existing beam
This solution can be applied if there is enough space at the end of the original
structure. Cables are thread along the whole structure, including the new anchorage
blocks. There is no significant concentrated load acting to the original structure,
therefore this method can be used for structures with small cross-sections, insufficient
reinforcement or with low material strengths. The anchorage block can be
prefabricated or cast in-situ. Cement or resin binder with adequate strength must be
used in case of prefabricated blocks to ensure proper force distribution. Formwork of
in-situ block must be fixed to the original structure to ensure joint deformations.
47
The advantage of using new anchorage blocks at the end of existing beam is that no
significant concentrated load is going to act to the original structure. This solution can
be used for the strengthening of structures with small cross-sections, in-sufficient
reinforcement or with low material strengths.
b.) New anchorage block at the web or at top or bottom flange of the beam
This solution is recommended if a part of the original structure must be

strengthened only, or the tensioning force would cause too high compressive
stresses in some parts of the structure, or the structure cannot be strengthened by
through cables (e.g. the structure is a set of simply supported beams). Anchoring
blocks must be placed to the zones of compression of the structure to avoid
excessive local forces.
c.) New anchorage block or cross-girder inside the existing structure
This is usually applied for the strengthening of box girder bridges, with high
tensioning forces. New blocks or cross-girders are fixed inside the cross-section
by tensioning bars or adhesive bonded dowels. The effect of shrinkage on the
new anchorage block can be decreased by the application of bolted pressing
machine between separated block segments. The gap between the segments can
be filled after pressing them to the vertical walls of the original structure.
Anchorage points must be distributed evenly around the centre of gravity of the
new block.
48
4.1.3 Alignment of the cables
The direction of the cables can be aligned by prefabricated or in-situ concrete blocks,
steel blocks and existing or new cross-girders. The curved turn of tensioning cables is
ensured by plated steel sockets embedded into the block. The allowed minimum radius
of curvature of the cables must be considered by the design of curved cable turns.
Existing or new cross-girders of bridges can also be used to align the direction of
cables. An advantage of this solution is the better distribution of tensioning force and
the reduced effect of local forces.
Curved turn of cables inside the existing structure
4.1.4 Strengthening of structures with inappropriate shear resistance

Shear resistance of structures can be extended by the application of segmented
longitudinal tensioning or tensioned stirrups. The tensioning tendons or bars are
applied vertically inside drilled holes or outside to the web. Tensioning members are
anchoraged in the upper and lower flange. Tensioned stirrups can be used for the
strengthening of beams if:
− adequate web height is needed

− efficiency strongly depends on the quality of the construction due to the
corrosion sensitivity of the anchorage and the uncertainties of the tensioning
− web of the existing girder cannot be drilled through if the girder was originally
tensioned. In this case, post-tensioning tendons or bars can be led outside the
web, but particular attention must be paid to the symmetrical alignment of the
tensioning members.
a
Application of post-tensioned stirrups
49
4.1.5 Calculation principles of the strengthening by post-tensioning
The calculation method of the necessary tensioning force depends on the state of the
structure.
a) crack-free structures
b) structures with moderate cracks
c) structures with extensive cracks
a.) Crack-free structures
They are usually strengthened to achieve higher load carrying capacity. In case of such
girders, the necessary tensioning force can be calculated similar to the new structures.
b.) Structures with moderate cracks
− Forces caused by live loads and other effects (temperature changes, shrinkage,
etc.) must be neutralized by the tensioning force,
− cracks must be injected with epoxy resin to extend the efficiency of post-
tensioning,
− the elastic modulus of the epoxy resin and the concrete are significantly
different but it is not effecting the composite action,
− fictive elastic modulus of the resin:
 2 ν2  where E ′ is the original elastic modulus and ν=0.48 is

E = E ′1 − 
 1 − ν  the Poisson’s ratio of the epoxy resin,
− about 5-20% of the tensioning force is inefficient even by injecting the cracks,
therefore it is advisable to slightly oversize the tensioning,
− the effective stiffness of the original structure must be considered if the cracks
cannot be injected and they cannot be closed by the tensioning either.
c.) Structures with extensive cracks
Loading test must be carried out to obtain information about the effective stiffness of
the girder and about the rate of force redistribution. In case of significant force
redistribution in the existing structure, it is recommended to restore the original force
distribution (e.g. by the adjustment of the bearings in case of a continuous beams)
before starting the crack injection and the post-tensioning.
Dynamic characteristics of the strengthening must be also considered during the

design. The place of anchorages and diaphragms must be selected carefully to avoid
resonance of the original girder and the tensioning cables. The period of vibration of a
straight cable is approximately:
ρ
Tcable = 2l
σ
where l is the length of the cable between the supporting points, ρ is the apparent
density of the cable and s is the tensile stress inside the cable.
50
The period of vibration of a prismatic, simply supported beam can be evaluated from:
π m ⋅l4
Tbeam =
5 E ⋅I
where l is the span of the beam, m is the unit weight of the beam, E is the elastic
modulus and I is the inertia of the beam. Higher components can be calculated from the
period of vibration:
T
Ti = (n = 1, 2, 3, 4, …)
n
In case of complex structures, the period of vibration can be determined by a detailed
dynamic analysis (e.g. using FE software).
4.2 Strengthening by steel plates
4.2.1 Strengthening of concrete structures by anchored steel plates
Reinforced concrete structures subjected to bending (e.g. beams, slabs) can be

strengthened by external steel strips or plates that are fixed with steel anchor bolts. In
case of this strengthening method, the external steel plate is cooperating with the
internal steel bars to take the tensile forces due to bending. The tensile forces inside
the steel plate can be calculated by the same principles as in case normal of reinforced
concrete cross-sections if the anchors are applied dense enough.
The steel strip or plate can be fixed to the concrete surface by special steel anchors.
For the purposes of structural strengthening, post-installed fasteners are used, where
the force between the concrete and the fastener is transferred by friction (expansion
anchors), mechanical interlock (undercut anchors) or bond (bonded anchor).
expansion
anchor
undercut
anchor
bonded
anchor
Force transfer mechanisms and common post installed anchor types
51
a c
b d
Some HILTI anchors

a) HUS screw anchor for fastening directly into concrete b) HAS-F expansion stud anchor for non
cracked concrete c) HAD-TR self-undercutting anchor for dynamic loading in cracked or non-
cracked concrete d) HSL-3-SH heavy duty anchor for fastenings in cracked concrete
Application of the anchor bolts for flexural strengthening
Anchor bolts must be distributed along the longitudinal axis of the structure. The
shape of the shear-force diagram must be considered for the spacing of the anchors (i.e.
the anchors must be closer to each other where the intensity of the shear-force is
larger). The number (n) of necessary anchors can be determined by the comparison of
the reduced shear-force ratio per anchor (Kred) and the carrying capacity(KR) of the
applied anchor:
K R ≥ K red
The shear-force ratio per anchor can be calculated from the following equation:
1 QM
K = s
n z
where QM is the design value of shear-force, z is the arm of the internal forces (it can
be approximated by z = 0,8·h where h is the height of the beam), s is the longitudinal
distance between the anchors and n is the number of anchors in one row (supposing
that all anchors have the same diameter).
The value of shear-force ratio per anchor bolt can be reduced by the ratio of tensile
force inside the external steel plate (Hl) and the tensile force taken by the external
plate and the existing reinforcement together (H). Reduction can only be applied only
if steel bars inside the original structure are properly anchored.
The nominal value of loads must be considered during the calculation of anchors.
Hl
K red = K
H
The carrying capacity (KR) of the anchors is usually provided by the manufacturer.
Carrying capacities of some HILTI anchors are provided in the following table.
52
Carrying capacity Depth of bore-hole

Type of HILTI anchor
KR [kN] [mm]
HAS M 8×75 8,9 55
HAS M 10×90 15,4 60
HAS M 12×110 22,7 80
HAS M 16×145 41,4 100
Carrying capacity of HILTI anchors
The load carrying capacity of a single anchor depends on many factors, such as the
anchor type, anchor diameter, depth of the bore hole, strength of the concrete, etc.
The following diagram shows the effect of anchor diameter, anchor number and
borehole depth on the load carrying capacity of a single anchor.
Experimental results on the load carrying capacity of a single anchor

The stiffness of the bolted connection against sliding strongly depends on the type of
applied anchor. The maximum force can be achieved through a significant amount of
slip in case of self-undercutting anchors. To decrease the slip of the bolts during
loading, special anchors with slip control can be used. The following diagram illustrates
the sliding behaviour of different anchors subjected to tension.
53
slip [mm]
Sliding behaviour of different anchors subjected to tension (Eligehousen)
Typically, the anchors are subjected to tension or shear loading. In case of tension the
connection may fails due to concrete splitting, concrete pry-out, concrete blow-out,
steel failure or steel pull-out. Connections subjected to shear loading may fail due to
steel failure, concrete pry-out or concrete failure at the edge. Typical failure modes are
illustrated below.
Tension Shear
load load
Failure modes of the anchor in case of tension load: a) concrete splitting, b) concrete pry-out,
c) steel failure, d) concrete pry-out at the edge, e) steel pull-out or pull through, f) concrete
blow-out. Failure modes in case of shear load: a) steel failure, b) concrete pry-out, c-d)
concrete pry-out at the edge, e) concrete pry-out at the corner
The cracks inside the original concrete structure that is going to be strengthened will
also influence the force transfer at the anchors. Very narrow cracks are not defects in a
structure so they do not influence the load bearing mechanism. When anchor
fastenings are made in non-cracked concrete, equilibrium is established by a tensile
stress condition of rotational symmetry around the anchor axis. If a crack exists, the
load bearing mechanisms are seriously disrupted because virtually no annular tensile
forces can be taken up beyond the edge of the crack. The disruption caused by the
crack reduces the load bearing capacity of the anchor system. The width of a crack in
a concrete component has a major influence on the tensile loading capacity of all
fasteners, not only anchors, but also cast-in items, such as headed studs. The effect of
cracks on the distribution of tensile forces is presented in the following picture.
54
a) b)
Effect of cracks on the distribution of tensile forces: a) Non-cracked concrete

b) Cracked concrete
Calculation of load bearing capacity of pulled anchors:
− Design steel resistance: NRd,s = As·fsd

where: As is cross-sectional area of the anchor,
fsd is the design value anchor strength.
− Design pull-out resistance: NRd,p = p·Ø·hef·fbd
where: Ø is the diameter of the anchor,

Ø fbd is the design value of bond stress,
hef is the embedding depth.
Ac ,N
− Design concrete pry-out resistance: NRd,c = ⋅ ψs ,N ⋅ ψec ,N ⋅ N u ,c ,0
Ac ,N ,0
where:
H
Ac,N,0 is the area of the idealized
concrete cone around a single anchor, ~ 35º
Ac,N is the actual area of concrete cone
of the anchorage at the concrete
surface, limited by overlapping hef
concrete cones of adjoining anchors and
by edges of the concrete member,
ψs,N is the influence of the disturbance
of the stress-distribution due to edges, 3 hef
ψec,N is the influence of eccentricity,

N u ,c ,0 = k ⋅ hef1.5 ⋅ fcc
is the cone
resistance of a single anchor, where fcc
is the cube strength of the concrete,
and the k factor considers the anchor
type (e.g. k=7,2 for normal anchors,
k=15,5 for headed anchors).
55
Ac ,N
− Design concrete splitting resistance: NRd,sp = ⋅ ψs ,N ⋅ ψec ,N ⋅ N u ,c ,0 ⋅ ψh ,sp
Ac ,N ,0
where ψh,sp is the influence of the actual member depth.
Considering the previous, the design tensile resistance is the lower value of:
− Design steel resistance NRd,s
− Design pull-out resistance NRd,p
− Design concrete cone resistance NRd,c
− Design splitting resistance NRd,sp
Load bearing capacity of anchors subjected to shear loading
The anchors can be calculated as structures with continuous elastic support. This kind
of elastic support is provided by the concrete. Due to the peak stresses in concrete
under the anchor, the concrete must also be controlled for local compression. Details of
the analysis are provided below.
a
concrete wall
P
d
steel anchor
Distribution of stresses in the concrete:
σ (x) σc,max ≤ 3·fcd

σc,max
Bending moment distribution in the anchor:

xm
M (x)
M0
Mmax
Distribution of shear-force in the anchor:
Qmax ≤ KR
Q (x)
Q0 = –P
56
The maximum concrete stress under the anchor can be expressed as:
C
σ c ,max = P (1 + k ⋅ a )
2 ⋅ k 3 ⋅ EsI
where P is the shear force acting to the connection, Es is the elastic modulus of the
anchor, I = π·d4/64 is the inertia of the anchor, a is the distance between the shear
force P and the concrete surface. Value of k can be derived from:
C ⋅d
k = 4
4 ⋅ EsI
where C is the bedding coefficient of the concrete material. It can be approximately

calculated from the following equation:
1 1 
C = Ec  + 
d L 
where d and L are the diameter and embedded length of the anchor, Ec is the elastic
modulus of the concrete. The maximum bending moment in the anchor is:
P ⋅ e −k ⋅x m
M max = 1 + (1 + 2 ⋅ k ⋅ a )
2⋅k
The location of the maximum bending moment from the concrete surface is:
1  1 
xm = arctan  
k 1 + 2 ⋅ k ⋅ a 
Finally, the distribution of the shear force in the anchor bolt is:
Q (x ) = P ⋅ e −k ⋅x ⋅ cos( k ⋅ x )
The equations above can be used to control the stresses in the applied anchor and the
original concrete. Concrete stresses under the anchor bolt can be compared to the
strength of concrete considering the effect of local compression (3·fcd). The maximum
shear force inside the anchor must be compared to the carrying capacity of the anchor
provided by the manufacturer.
Strengthening of concrete structures by steel sections fixed with anchor bolts
Steel sections that are fixed with anchor bolts can be used for the strengthening of
beams or slabs if their shear resistance is inadequate or the supporting structure
(column, wall) is improper or damaged. The reason of such problems can be:
− poor concrete quality,

− insufficient or improper reinforcement,
− extensive corrosion of reinforcement
− cavities in the concrete due to improper concreting,
− local cracks or damage due to an external impact,
− improper structural configuration.
57
support extensions
Cavities in a concrete silo wall Improper structural configuration:

Bottom slab of stone container with
segmented support extensions
In case of strengthening with steel sections, the sections are fixed to the column or wall
directly below the appropriate beam or slab to provide additional support. The original
column or wall must have adequate load carrying capacity to resist the modified
internal force distribution (it can have local damages but intact parts can resist the
loads).
rc. slab
Strengthening of a rectangular Arrangement of the strengthening of a

grid floor with steel collar reinforced concrete slab by steel shoulder
58
4.2.2 Strengthening of concrete structures by bonded steel plates
The load carrying capacity of reinforced concrete structures subjected to bending

(beams, slabs and columns) can also be increased by externally bonded steel plates. In
this case, the steel plates are continuously bonded to the original structure by an
adhesive agent. The bonded steel plate strengthening can be applied with or without
anchorage at the plate end. To avoid the delamination of the steel plate, it’s end
section can be anchored by steel anchors (see Chapter 4.2.1) or bonded steel sections.
a) b)
c) d)
Flexural strengthening of beams by bonded steel plate a) without anchorage, b) with

mechanical anchorage. Shear strengthening of beams by bonded steel plate c) without
anchorage, d) with mechanical anchorage.
Adhesive agent
Epoxy resin is usually used for bonding the steel plates to the concrete surface. It
hardens as the result of a chemical reaction between two components: the resin and
the hardener. Adhesives are generally applied within a temperature range of +15 ˚C
and +30 ºC.
Characteristic time periods of adhesive utilization:

− Pot life: The period of time within the epoxy resin must be applied. After this
time has elapsed, the curing process is already so far advanced that the mixture
can no longer be allowed to be applied.
− Open time: Starts when the adhesive has been applied to the parts being
bonded and lasts until the hardening of adhesive so it is able to bond the parts
without temporary support.
Steps of strengthening process
− Preparation of surface to be glued by sandblasting

− Mixing the glue components
− Application of the adhesive
− Installing the steel sheet reinforcement
− Applying pressure with steel props
− Finished construction after removing of the props
59
General rules of the application of bonded steel plates
− Irregularity of concrete surface cannot be more than 5 mm along a length of 2.0

meters or 2 mm along a length of 0.2 meters. The concrete surface must be
cleaned by water jet or sandblasting. The surface must be dried before bonding
the steel plates.
− Thickness of single steel layer should be vl = (0.005 ÷ 0.007)·d, (where d is the
effective depth of the concrete cross-section), that is about 3-6 mm. Weld steel
(e.g. A24) should be used for the strengthening. The steel material must be cut
to proper size and its surface must be cleaned and granulated by sandblasting.
The steel plates must be protected against corrosion immediately after the
bonding.
− The application directives provided by the manufacturer of the adhesive agent
should be fully complied. It is recommended to use an epoxy resin based
adhesive agent which has at least the double shear strength of the concrete after
the hardening. The applied thickness of the adhesive agent should be smaller
than the half of the steel plate’s thickness (about 2-3 mm).
− The steel plate must be pressed to the concrete surface with a 15-40 kN/m2
force while the adhesive is hardening. This can be, for example performed by
the application of an appropriate bracing system.
− The quality of the bond must be controlled after manufacture and defects must
be corrected.
Principles of the calculation
The applied steel plate must be bonded to the tensioned side of the original structure
in case of flexural strengthening. The load carrying capacity of a structure
strengthened by externally bonded steel plates cannot be calculated the same way as in
case of ordinary reinforced concrete structures subjected to bending, even if there is
appropriate bond between the steel plate and the concrete surface. Based on
experimental results, the following effects must also be considered during the
calculation:
− local bending of the steel plate at cracks (I),

− distribution of strains between internal steel bars and external steel plate (II),
− debonding at the end of external steel plate (III).
Local effects demonstrated in case of a tensioned concrete bar

strengthened with externally bonded steel strips
60
It has been observed during experiments, that:

− maximum values of axial and shear stresses develop near the cracks. The value
of peak stress depends mainly on the structural geometry, but it is independent
from the length of the bonding (Lr).
− The maximum stress inside the adhesive agent is increasing with the increase of
the structural height, and with the increase of the applied steel plate thickness,
but it is decreases with the increase of the adhesive thickness.
− The ratio of the average and the maximum axial stress (σaverage/σmax) inside the
steel plate depends on the thickness of the plate. In case of a 3 mm thick steel
plate, this ratio is about 0.65 while in case of a 6 mm plate, the ratio of average
and maximum stresses is about 0.75.
The deformation of a reinforced concrete cross-section strengthened by externally

bonded steel plate
The principle of plane cross-sections cannot be applied due to the large deformations of
the adhesive. The ratio of the effective strain (εm) inside the steel plate and the strain
calculated on the basis of linear strain distribution (εl) depends on the intensity of loading.
In case of smaller load intensity, n = εm/εl ≈ 2, while in case of plastic deformation of the
steel plate (i.e. in case of larger load intensity) this ratio converges to n = 1.
The necessary cross-sectional area of the steel plate can be calculated similarly to the
flexural reinforcement of reinforced concrete beams:
b ⋅ xc ⋅ α ⋅ fcd − As ⋅ ky ⋅ fyd
Asp =
ksp ⋅ fspd
where fyd is the design strength of internal steel bars, and fspd is the design strength of
external steel plate. For the analysis of serviceability limit states (SLS), the strength
can be reduced by the following factors:
ky = 1.2 – 0.08·vl
ksp = 0.46 + 0.08·vl
where vl is the thickness of the steel plate (3 mm ≤ vl ≤ 6 mm)
61
For the analysis of ultimate limit state (ULS), the strength of the steel plate should be
reduced by a ksp = 0.65 factor due to the additional stresses caused by local bending of
the steel plate at cracks.
The thickness of the applied steel plate should not be larger than 6 mm. The
application of multiple steel plate layers is recommended if the necessary steel cross-
section cannot be provided by one single layer of steel. Changes of the bending
moment can also better be followed by the application of multiple steel layers. Based
on experimental results, the force inside the steel plate directly connected to the
concrete surface (F1) and the resultant force inside the steel layers (F) can be described
by the following factors:
– in case of two layers of steel plate: F1/F = 0.66

– in case of three layers of steel plate: F1/F = 0.5
It means that the steel layer directly connected to the concrete surface will resist the
largest part of the load, and the utilisation of the additional layers will be relatively
small.
Debonding (delamination) of steel plates

The debonding of the steel plate must be also
controlled during the design of strengthening. We
have to following approximate calculation methods
for controlling the debonding of steel plate:
− analysis based on the principles of fracture

mechanics,
− analysis based on the principles of elastic
cooperating layers.
Calculation method based on the principles of fracture mechanics

The debonding of the steel plate occurs if the energy difference (W) between the un-
strengthened and strengthened cross-section at the end of the steel plate is larger than
the crack propagation energy (R). Based on experimental results, the minimum of the
unit energy needed for crack propagation (considering common adhesives) is about
R = 50 J/m2.
The unit energy difference at the end of the steel plate can be theoretically calculated
from the following expression:
1  2  1 1  2  1 1 
W = M Ed  −  + VEd  − 
2br   Bc Bi   H c H i 
where MEd and VEd are the design values of bending moment and shear force acting to
the cross-section at the end of the steel plate, Bc = Ec·Ic is the bending stiffness of the
original concrete cross-section, Hc = Gc·Ac is the shear stiffness of the original concrete
cross-section, Bi = Ec·Ii is the bending stiffness of the cross-section strengthened by
steel plate, Hi = Gc·Ai is the shear stiffness of the cross-section strengthened by steel
plate and br is the width of the adhesive.
According to the previous aspects, the bond between the concrete and the steel plate is
appropriate (debonding of the steel plate will not occur) if W ≤ 50 J/m2.
62
For practical purposes, the bending moment that is causing the debonding is usually
expressed instead of the internal energy difference at the end of the steel plate. If the
quality of the adhesive agent and the connection between the steel plate and the
concrete is appropriate, then the debonding will occur in the original structure above
the end of bonded steel plate, in form of concrete splitting (see the picture below).
Splitting of concrete in case of a simply supported beam
The bending moment that is causing the splitting of the concrete can be calculated
from the following expression:
Ec ⋅ I II ⋅ fctd
M R,spl ,d =
γ ⋅ E sp ⋅ vl
where Ec is the elastic modulus of concrete, III is the inertia of the strengthened cross-
section considering cracked concrete, fctd is the tensile strength of concrete, Esp is the
elastic modulus of the steel plate, vl is the thickness of the steel plate and γ is the
safety factor:
γ = 1.86 for serviceability limit states,
γ = 0.9 for ultimate limit state.
According to the previous, no splitting occurs if MR,spl,d > MEd where MEd is the design
bending moment in the strengthened structure at the distance d (effective depth) from
the end of the steel plate. Typically the MEd design bending moment is smaller at the
end of the beam, which means that the risk of delamination is smaller if the end of the
steel plate was closer to the end of the beam. It can be also seen from the above
expression, that the value of splitting moment (MR,spl,d) increases, as the thickness of
the applied steel plate (vl) decreases. Based on these considerations, it is on one hand
practical to attach the steel plate as close to the support region as possible, on the
other hand it is advisable to use steel plates with smaller thicknesses since they result
in bigger resistance against splitting or debonding. The recommended thickness of the
applied steel plate is about: vl = (0.005 ÷ 0.007)·d
Calculation method based on the principles of elastic cooperating layers

According to the principles of elastic cooperating layers, the bonded connection is
satisfactory at the end of the steel plate, if the design axial and shear stresses (σd, τd)
do not exceeded the appropriate stress limits (σ0, τ0):
σd ≤ σ0 and τd ≤ τ0
63
The limit values of axial and shear stresses can be calculated from the following
expressions:
1/ 4
 Kn 
σ 0 = τ0 ⋅ vs  
4 ⋅E ⋅I 
 l l 
  Ks
1/2
 
b ⋅v
τ0 = VEd +   ⋅ M Ed  ⋅ l l (hl − x )
  E ⋅b ⋅v   I l ,m ⋅ br
  l l l  
where:
E r ⋅ br
Kn = is the specific tensile stiffness of the adhesive,
vr
Gr ⋅ br
Ks = is the specific shear stiffness of the adhesive,
vr
Eb ⋅ b ⋅ x 3
I l ,m = E l + As (h − x ) + bl ⋅v l (hl − x ) is the inertia of the strengthened cross-section,
2 2
3
VEd is the design shear force at the end of steel plate,
MEd is the design bending moment at the distance d/2 from the end of the steel plate,
El , Er and Eb are the Young’s modulus of steel, adhesive and concrete respectively, and
Gr is the shear modulus the adhesive.
In practical cases the values of stress limits are:
σ0 ≈ 1 ÷ 2 N/mm2
τ0 ≈ 3 ÷ 5 N/mm2
We should note that only those steel bars can be considered inside the original
concrete cross-structure that are properly anchored before and after the place of crack-
forming.
Debonding of the steel plate causes the rapid failure of the bonded connection. To
avoid or delay this process, the end of the steel plate can be anchoraged by steel
anchor bolts (see picture below) or bonded steel anchor sections.
Steel anchor bolts may increase the load carrying capacity by 5-10%, but they can be
used in case of thin steel plates only. In case of the application of thick steel plates, the
failure of the connection occurs at the bolts due to local shear effect before the
longitudinal splitting of the concrete or failure of the steel plate. For this reason it is
recommended to use more thin layers of steel plates instead of one thick layer.
64
The main advantage of the application of steel anchor bolts at the end of bonded steel
plates is that the ductility of the connection will be significantly improved (the area
under the load-deflection diagram will be higher). This can be especially useful in case
structures subjected to repeated loading (e.g. traffic bridges).
To avoid the local peak stresses at the anchorage zone, this bonded steel plate can also
be used (see the picture below). The load carrying capacity of the structure
strengthened by bonded steel plate can be improved by 55-60% using bonded steel
section anchorage. The ductility of the strengthening will also be improved by this
method, similarly to the application of steel anchors, however the reliability of the
connection will strongly depend on the quality of bonding.
Shear strengthening of concrete beams by bonded steel plates
If the transverse reinforcement in a a)

concrete beam is insufficient then we
may perform shear strengthening of the
beam by the application of externally
bonded steel plates (see the picture on
the right). We may apply continuous
steel plates (a), in which case a large b)
concrete surface must be prepared and
the injection of adhesive is difficult. It is
a better solution to use separate steel r
Asw αr
strips (b). In this case an angle steel
should also be used in the corners to
ensure the connection between lateral sr sr
and bottom steel plates. The angle steel
profile can be connected to the top flange
of the original beam by mechanical steel
anchors.
The design shear resistance of a strengthened concrete cross-section considering the

external steel plates can be calculated using the following expression:
 Ai Ar 
VRd ,cs = γV  sw fywd 0,9d (cot θ + cot αi ) sin αi + sw fsd 0,9d (cot θ + cot αr ) sin αr 
 s 
 i sr 
65
where:
Asw i
– is the area of the internal reinforcement inside the original cross-section,
Asw r
– is the area of the applied external steel strip,
si – is the spacing of the shear reinforcement inside the original cross-section,
sr – is the spacing of the external steel strip,
fywd – is the design strength of the shear reinforcement inside the original cross-section,
fsd – is the design strength of the external steel strip,
αi – is the angle between the original shear reinforcement and the axis of the beam,
αr – is the angle between the external steel strip and the axis of the beam,
d – is the effective depth of the original concrete cross-section,
θ – is the angle between the concrete compression strut and the beam axis
perpendicular to the shear force. Without detailed calculation cot θ =1.3 can
be used as an approximate value.
γV = 0.9 is the monolithic coefficient for shear to correlate the behaviour of
strengthened structure.
Strengthening of columns by bonded steel plates
Aim of the column strengthening is to increase the confinement, flexural strength or

axial strength. Using external addition of steel strips is more suitable in cases where we
have reinforcement insufficiency (for a significant improvement of axial capacity, the
concrete jacketing is may used as more adequate strengthening technique). To increase
the effectiveness of the connection, the bonded steel plate can be welded to the internal
reinforcement using steel connectors. The external steel plate can also be fixed to the
original column by steel anchors, if the plate has sufficient dimensions.
a) b)
c)
a) Connection of bonded steel plates complemented by steel connectors welded to the

initial reinforcement, b) Connection of bonded steel plates using steel anchors,
c) Confinement reinforcement of a column using steel strips and angle steel
The design of the column strengthening is similar to the beams, considering the
external steel as an additional reinforcement (see the next figure). The monolithic
coefficient for columns subjected to bending and compression is:
γMN = 0.9
66
zc
zs,j
The axial and bending capacity of the strengthened column are:
N Rd = γ MN (Fc + Fsi ,2 + Fsr ,2 − Fsi ,1 − Fsr ,1 )
 
N Rd = γ MN  Fc ⋅ z c +  Fs, j ⋅ z s , j 
 j 
where Fc is the compressive force in the concrete, Fsi ,2 and Fsr ,2 are the compressive
forces in the internal reinforcement and in the external steel plate, Fsi ,1 and Fsr ,1 are
the tensile forces in the internal reinforcement and in the external steel plate,
respectively.
If the distance between the initial (internal) and additional (external) reinforcement is
small, then we may determine the strength of the column cross-section simply using
the following equivalent steel area:
fsd
Aseq = Asi + Asr
fyd
where Asi is the area of the internal reinforcement, Asr is the area of the external steel
plate, fyd is the design strength of the internal reinforcement, and fsd is the design
strength of the external plates.
67
4.3 Strengthening of structures by FRP sheets
4.3.1 Introduction to fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) materials
Fibre reinforced plastic is a composite material that is widely used for strengthening of
structures made of different materials (reinforced concrete, steel, timber, masonry,
stone). Composite materials are materials with two or more constituents combined to
form a material with different properties than those of the individual constituents.
Fibre reinforced plastic is a composite material that consists of two constituents: a
series of carbon fibres surrounded by a solid matrix. A layer of composite material is
defined as a lamina and stacking laminas forms an FRP laminate.
Fibres Matrix Composite
Constituents of composite materials
θ=90 º
+θ y
Laminate
θ=0 º
−θ
Laminas x
Composition of a laminate
The fibres inside the composite carry the loads while the matrix keeps the fibres
together and protects them against environmental and mechanical damages. Typical
fibres used in composite materials are:
− carbon (or graphite) fibres,

− glass fibres,
− aramid fibres (Kevlar) and
− metal fibres.
The material of the matrix can be
− epoxy,
− polyester,
− polyethylene,
− metal (aluminium, magnesium, titanium, cobalt).
For the purposes of structural strengthening, carbon fibres are typically used together
with epoxy or polyester resin.
68
Strengthening is usually performed by the application of CFRP fabric sheets or pre-

impregnated CFRP plates (prepeg-plates). Post-tensioning of existing structures can
also be performed using CFRP bars.
Glass fibre sheet Aramid fibre sheet Carbon fibre sheet
Glass fibre reinforcement Aramid fibre bars Carbon fibre bars
Glass fibre plate Aramid fibre plate Carbon fibre plate
Advantages of the application of CFRP sheets:
− light weight
− small cross-sectional sizes (lower risk of delamination)
− high tensile strength & stiffness
− high strength to weight and stiffness to weight ratios
− corrosion resistance
− low thermal and electrical conductivity
− ability to vary the properties over a wide range
− easy transportation and application on damaged structures
Drawbacks of the application of CFRP sheets:
− high costs (more expensive than steel)

− lack of long-term experiences (e.g. slow deformations)
− lack of standards for the application
69
4.3.2 Application process of CFRP sheets

Preparation of the structure
− The condition of surrounding concrete must be checked (degree of carbonation

and presence of chlorides). Deteriorated concrete layer and irregularities in the
concrete base (such as loose pieces, voids, honeycomb, etc.) should be removed. If
necessary, repair must be carried out with mortars, filling any crack (by injecting
with very low viscosity epoxy resin). Any significant water seepage through
cracks or joints in the concrete should be remedied by waterproofing and a
drainage system must be placed on the surface before restoration of the concrete.
− Surfaces to be treated with CFRP sheets must be prepared by sandblasting in
order to remove loose surface parts and to guarantee a minimum of roughness to
the base.
− Difference between adjacent surface levels should not exceed 1 mm.
− Surface protrusions in the concrete should be smoothed and sharp corners in the
concrete should be rounded (radius of curvature: 20 mm or higher).
Application of the matrix
− The components of the matrix must be mixed in the recommended ratio (an electric
mixer is usually applied).
− The amount of mixed resin should be such that it
may be applied within its useful workability time.
The mixed resin amount cannot be used once it’s
useful time of application has been exceeded.
− The matrix should be evenly applied to the concrete
surface using a brush or roller. The amount to be
applied may vary according to the surface roughness
of the concrete (e.g. more resin mix should be applied
on the inner corners than on the flat concrete
surfaces in order to guarantee perfect adhesion of the Application of the matrix
CFRP to the concrete). with a roller
Application of the CFRP sheet
CFRP sheet should first be cut into the required sizes using scissors. The number of
sheets to be cut should be limited to the number scheduled for application within
the day. The sheet should be applied onto the concrete surface on which an
undercoat of matrix has previously been applied.
The surface of the applied sheet should be strongly
pressed two or three times in the longitudinal
direction of the fibre using a roller, in order to
allow matrix penetrate into the sheet and to
eliminate air from the resin. To join several strips,
an overlapping can be applied (length of 20 cm). A
further coat of matrix must be applied on the
point of overlap of the outer surface of the sheet
layer to be overlapped. No overlapping is necessary
in the lateral direction of the fibre. After
application of the first coat of matrix, the sheets Application of CFRP sheets to
should not be touched for at least 30 minutes. the concrete surface
70
Curing and protection of CFRP sheets
In the event of outdoor application, work should be protected from rain, sand and dust
by covering it. Upon completion of the CFRP application stage, work should be
protected from rain using plastic sheeting. Care should be taken so that the protective
sheeting does not come into contact with the sheet surface. CFRP should be left to
cure for at least 24 hours. If the surface of CFRP is exposed to direct sunlight, a
weather-resistant and UV protective film should be applied (a coat of protective film
may be applied upon completion of the initial resin setting stage).
4.3.3 Mechanical properties of FRP materials

The stress-strain curves of different FRP materials are displayed in the diagram below.
Stress-strain curves of
different FRP materials:
a) Prestressing wire ∅5 mm
b) CFRP rod (1×7), ∅12,5 mm,

A=76mm2, Vf=60%
c) HLV-Element (glass fibre bar),
∅7,5 mm, A=44,2 mm2, Vf=68%
d) Arapree (aramid fibre sheet)
2,6×20 mm, A=52 mm2, Vf=43%
Mechanical properties of some FRP materials are summarised in the following table:
Aramid fibre Glass fibre Prestressing

CFRP sheet tendon
sheet sheet
1570/1770
Typical size (mm) 3–7 7,5 7,5 – 25 12,5
Fibre content (vol%) 60 – 65 43 65 – 70 -
Tensile strength (MPa) 2800 1290 1670 > 1770
Elastic modulus (GPa) 160 53 51 195
Ultimate strain (%) 1,6 2,2 3,3 7
Density (g/cm3) 1,5 1,25 2,1 7,85
71
4.3.4 Fields of application in case of structural strengthening

In case of horizontal structural members (e.g. beams, floors, pipes, tunnels), the CFRP
strengthening is usually applied to take the excessive tensile forces due to bending or
to improve the shear resistance. The bending moment resistance is improved by CFRP
sheets bonded to the tensioned side of the structure. In case of shear strengthening, the
web of the beam is wrapped with the sheets.
Vertical structural elements (columns, chimneys, tanks, silos, etc.) can also be
strengthened by the application of CFRP material. Similar to the beams, the bending
moment resistance of the columns can be improved by bonded CFRP sheets. To
enhance the axial compression resistance of columns, CFRP wrap can be applied.
CFRP strengthening of
horizontal structures CFRP strengthening of
vertical structural
CFRP sheets can be applied for the retrofitting of structures against seismic actions.
The ductility and the load carrying capacity of such structural members (e.g. concrete
columns with extensive cracks, masonry walls) can be significantly improved against
future earthquakes by this kind of strengthening.
CFRP strengthening is also used to ensure the redistribution of internal forces and a
better crack distribution in case of accidental events (e.g. explosion).
CFRP strengthening against CFRP strengthening against

seismic actions accidental events
72
4.3.5 Flexural strengthening of reinforced concrete beams with CFRP sheets

For the flexural strengthening of reinforced concrete beams, CFRP sheets can be
applied on the tensioned surface (a). To increase the strength of the connection
between the original structure and the CFRP material, slot application can also be
used (b). The risk of delamination of the sheets can be decreased by the mixed
application of previous solutions (c, d).
a) b)
Concrete
c) d)
Concrete
Adhesive
a) Sheets bonded to the concrete surface; b) Sheets running in a slot; c-d) Mixed
solutions
The effect of the flexural CFRP strengthening on the load carrying capacity of a
reinforced concrete beam is illustrated in the following picture.
a) Flexural strengthened concrete T-beam; b) Load deflection diagram of the beam

before and after strengthening
73
Principles of calculation in case of bending
The necessary cross-sectional area of CFRP to be applied can be calculated from the
equilibrium conditions of the examined cross-section, using the elastic modulus (Ecf)
and the ultimate strain (εcf,u) of the CFRP material.
b Elongation Tension Forces

εc fc
d’ ε’s fs xc fs
x
d
h
εs fs fs
εcf fcf fcf
ΣForces = 0 ΣMoments = 0 εcf < εcf,u
The design load bearing capacity of the strengthened structural component should not
exceed twice that of the un-strengthened component. This is usually expressed by the
so-called strengthening factor (V):
MV
V = ≤ 2,0
M0
where Mv is the bending moment capacity after the strengthening and M0 is the
bending moment capacity of the original structure.
We can prevent the yielding of the internal reinforcement in the service state, by
applying the above limit for the degree of bending strengthening.
σ σ
INITIAL LOAD INCREASED LOAD
steel steel
ε ε
As0 Acf As0
M0
Mv
74
Elongation limit of the CFRP sheets
A large elongation of the CFRP laminate plate may lead to an increased depth of
cracking in the original reinforced concrete structure and also to separation of the
laminate plate from the concrete. For this reason the elongation of the applied CFRP
sheet or plate must be limited.
concrete
Concrete Concrete
Steel Steel
steel
min. ε max. ε
(elongation of the laminate) (elongation of the laminate)
detachment of the laminate
According to test results carried out on CFRP strengthened reinforced concrete beams
(University of Braunschweig, Germany):
− separation of the CFRP laminate plate depends on the elastic elongation as well as
on the plastic steel elongation,
− failure of the internal reinforcement was initiated at an elongation of the CFRP
laminate plate of approximately 0.65% which corresponds to 5.7 times the yielding
point of the internal steel bar,
− failure of the concrete beam occurred at about 1.3% elongation of the CFRP
laminate plate,
− the approved maximum elongation for design of CFRP plates should be restricted to
0.6% - 0.8%.
The necessary CFRP sheet area as a function of the ultimate strain of the
CFRP material
75
Design strength of CFRP sheet as a function of ultimate tensile strain are displayed in
the following table for CFRP sheet types S&P 150/2000 and S&P 200/2000:
The failure of the CFRP strengthened concrete beam depends on many parameters,
such as the shape and size of the original cross-section, reinforcement of the beam,
strength of concrete and steel materials, existing cracks inside the original concrete
structure, the type and amount of applied CFRP sheet, etc. Typical failure modes
of reinforced concrete beams strengthened by CFRP sheets are introduced in the
picture below.
Rupture of CFRP sheet Peeling or debonding at the interface
Concrete crushing Shear on concrete cover
Concrete failure outside the reinforcement zone Shear concrete failure near the support
76
Shear capacity of strengthened beams:
In case of concrete beams with inappropriate shear resistance, CFRP sheets or plates
can be applied on the web of the beam. The CFRP strengthening can be considered as
additional external reinforcement to cooperate with the internal shear reinforcement.
Asw d
df
Af Af
β
bw wf
sf wf sf
The shear capacity of the strengthened concrete beam is satisfactory if the following
equation is satisfied:
VEd ≤ VRd ,scf = VRd ,s + VRd ,cf
where VRd,s is the resistance of the shear reinforcement inside the original concrete
cross-section according to EC2, and VRd,cf is the shear resistance of the CFRP
strengthening:
Asw
VRd ,s = ⋅ 0.9 ⋅ d ⋅ fywd ⋅ (cot θ + cot α ) ⋅ sin α
s
Af
VRd ,cf = ⋅ d f ⋅ E f ⋅ ε fu ⋅ (cot θ + cot β ) ⋅ sin β
sf
In case of shear design of the strengthened cross-section, the ultimate strain of the
CFRP material should be limited to εfu = 0.2% ÷ 0.3%.
Some examples to shear strengthening of reinforced concrete structures with CFRP are
illustrated in the following pictures. Further examples of the CFRP shear
strengthening are shown in chapter 4.3.6.
a) b)
Shear strengthening of: a) beam end; b) short column.
77
Confinement of axially loaded columns:
Confinement of reinforced concrete columns (or

similar elements, like chimneys) significantly
enhances the performance under axial load,
bending and shear, because of the increase in
concrete compressive strength, the increase in
ductility, the increase in shear strength and the
higher resistance against buckling of the steel
reinforcement in compression.
The confinement of columns is achieved by means of internal lateral reinforcement

(hoop or closed stirrups) or by external reinforcement (steel or FRP jackets). In the
latter case, the confinement reinforcement can be provided either through external
strengthening of existing columns, or as formwork that acts as structural reinforcement
after construction of the columns. The main objectives of confinement are:
a) to prevent the concrete cover from spalling,

b) to provide lateral support to the longitudinal reinforcement and
c) to enhance concrete strength and deformation capacities.
In the case of circular columns, these goals can be achieved by applying external FRP
jackets, either continuously all over the surface or discontinuously as strips. In the case
of rectangular columns, the confinement can be provided with rectangular-shaped
reinforcement, with corners rounded before application (the radius is about 15 to
25 mm, depending on the specifications given by the FRP jacket supplier).
Rectangular confining reinforcement is less efficient as the confinement action is mostly
located at the corners and a significant jacket thickness needs to be used between
corners to restrain lateral dilation and column bar buckling. An alternative approach is
to enclose the rectangular column within an externally cast circular or oval shape that
provides the appropriate shape for the jacket.
Carbon fibres are preferred if strength increase is sought, glass (or aramid) fibres if a
ductility increase is sought instead. The FRP jacket can consist of active or passive
layers, or a combination of both. Like steel jackets, passive FRP jackets provide a
passive lateral confining pressure. When (prestressed) active jackets are used, the
lateral confining pressure is primarily provided by the active pressure, rather than the
passive pressure resulting from column lateral expansion. The latter influence will
increase confinement, but is not essential.
For uniaxially loaded cylindrical concrete columns

confined with FRP reinforcement, with fibres
circumferentially aligned and covering the total
concrete surface, the lateral confining pressure may be
found by considering the figure on the right. Assuming
uniform tension in the FRP, a uniform lateral pressure
is exerted on the concrete core. The lateral confining
pressure σl can be approximately expressed as:
σl = σf (2·t/D)
The increased concrete compressive strength after FRP confinement is approximately:
ffrp = fc + 4·σl
In the previous equations, fc is the uniaxial compressive strength of the concrete, σf is

the tensile strength of the FRP sheet, t is the thickness of the FRP sheet, and D is the
diameter of the column.
78
A more accurate determination of the confining pressure considering the influence of

partial wrapping and different fibre orientations can be found in the fib bulletin no 14.
For a square or rectangular column section wrapped with FRP and with corners
rounded with a radius rc, the parabolic arching action is again assumed for the concrete
core where the confining pressure is fully developed. Unlike a circular section, for which
the concrete core is fully confined, a large part of the cross-section remains unconfined.
Effectively confined core for non-circular sections

Taking the sum of the different parabolas, the total plan area of unconfined concrete is
obtained as:
4
wi2 b ′2 + d ′2
Au =  =
i =1 6 3
where wi is the clear distance between the rounded corners. Considering the ratio
(Ac - Au)/Ac, the confinement effectiveness coefficient ke is given by:
b′2 + d ′2
ke = 1 −
3 ⋅ Ag (1 − ρsg )
where Ac is the concrete cross-sectional area, Ag is the gross cross-sectional area and
where ρsg = As / Ag is the reinforcement ratio of the longitudinal steel reinforcement
with respect to the gross cross-sectional area.
Externally bonded FRP in compression
The elastic modulus of FRP in compression is, in general, lower than that in tension.
Moreover, typical configurations have very low flexural rigidity, so that local buckling
may occur at relatively low stress levels. It is generally felt that FRP should not be
used as compression reinforcement. However, at certain instances FRP may be
subjected to compressive stresses which may be of secondary importance but not
negligible. One example is illustrated in the following figure (a), where the FRP over
the support extends to positive moment regions.
Local buckling of the externally bonded strengthening may be avoided by placing

compressive stress limitations in the FRP, which are expected to be satisfied in many
79
cases, as permanent compressive stresses in concrete should be kept low too, in order to
prevent excessive creep deformations. Otherwise, FRP should either not be glued in
compression zones or special devices (e.g. external clamps) should be provided to fix the
reinforcement against buckling. In comparison to the conventional steel plate, FRP
adheres to the substrate until total destruction of the concrete in the compression zone.
b)
a)
a) Example of an unintentional use of CFRP in compression; b) Buckling of CFRP

plates due to compression
4.3.6 Anchoring of FRP sheets and plates
One approach to prevent the delamination of FRP is restricting the ultimate tensile
strain εfu at ULS to a certain value. In addition to this, the end anchorage has to be
verified using methods mainly based on fracture mechanics (see chapter 4.2.2) and
bond stress – slip relationships. Recent test results have demonstrated that the FRP
tensile strain when peeling-off occurs depends on a broad range of parameters, such as
the properties of the FRP and the concrete, the loading pattern, the crack spacing, etc.
A global strain limit may not be suitable to represent the whole range of applications.
Therefore the strain limitation in some cases could lead to a non-economical use of the
FRP, especially when strengthening large spans. Hence in the near future the strain
limitation model will be replaced by more accurate ones, which will be based on
extensive test data as well as analytical calculations.
Model for the shear stress – slip relation of externally bonded FRP (Holzenkämpfer 1994)
Using the bond law proposed by Holzenkämpfer (see the figure above) we may
calculate the maximum FRP force which can be anchored (Nf,max), and the maximum
anchorage length (lb,max) from the following expressions:
80
N f ,max = α ⋅ c1 ⋅ kc ⋅ kb ⋅ b E f ⋅ t ⋅ fctm [N]
Ef ⋅ t
lb ,max = [mm]
c2 ⋅ fctm
where Ef is the elastic modulus of FRP material, t is the thickness of the FRP
laminate, b is the width of the concrete cross-section, α is a reduction factor to
account for the influence of inclined cracks on the bond strength (generally α ≈ 0.9 can
be assumed, but in case of beams with sufficient internal and external shear
reinforcement or in case of slabs α = 1), kc is a factor accounting for the state of
compaction of concrete (generally kc ≈ 1 can be assumed, but for FRP bonded to
concrete faces with low compaction, e.g. faces not in contact with the formwork during
casting, kc = 0.67 should be applied) and kb is a geometry factor:
bf
2−
kb = 1.06 b ≥1
bf
1+
400
with bf/b ≥ 0.33, where bf is the width of the FRP laminate. In the above equations b,
bf and t are measured in mm, and Ef, fctm are in N/mm2. The coefficients c1 and c2 in
the above equations may be obtained through calibration with test results (for CFRP
strips they are equal to 0.64 and 2, respectively).
If there is not enough space to fully anchor the bonded FRP strengthening (the
available anchorage length is smaller than lb,max), we may use special anchorage
techniques as it is introduced in the following.
Ends of FRP laminate anchored with steel plate and anchor bolts
The forces are transferred from the laminate to
the concrete through a steel plate fixed with
bolts. According to tests, the tensile force
transferred from the laminate to the concrete can
be doubled by this type of anchoring.
Direct use of fasteners for FRP plates
Prepeg-plates are made by impregnation of the

reinforcing fibres with resin and by precuring.
The end of these plates can be directly fastened
using anchor bolts. Direct fastening of FRP
plates can also be used without bonding the FRP
plate (e.g. bonding not possible due to the severe
deterioration of the concrete surface). In this case
the strengthened structure is usable immediately
after installation, or the strengthening can be Laboratory test of an rc. beam
even performed during the normal use of the strengthened with bonded CFRP plate
structure (e.g. traffic on a bridge). using steel anchor bolts at the end.
81
Mechanical anchorages using steel plate and bolts or fasteners, may be effective in
laboratory, but they are not always practical in field applications due to corrosion of
steel, stress concentration at bolted locations and initial cracking of concrete caused in
bolting process.
Application of U-anchors for FRP sheets
U-anchor is may applied for embedding FRP sheets into preformed grooves in the
concrete. The FRP sheet is fixed inside the groove with a steel or FRP bar and epoxy
paste (see the picture below). This solution increases the shear capacity of FRP
systems, and reduces stress concentration at the end of the FRP sheets. Performance
of this solution is dependent on the concrete cover (may not be able to carry the whole
tensile force in the FRP sheets after delamination occurs).
saturant
paste
FRP bar
FRP sheet
a) b) c)  
After corner Before corner
anchorage anchorage
Application of U-anchors for: a) U-wrap shear strengthening of beams; b) flexural

strengthening of beams/slabs and walls/columns; c) plane surface anchorage for
flexural strengthening of beams/slabs
Anchorage of L-shaped CFRP links
L-shaped carbon fibre link can also be used as externally bonded shear reinforcement
of T-beams, or as an anchoring tool for longitudinal CFRP plates. These L-shaped
links can be anchoraged in the top flange of concrete beams (compressed zone).
Preparation of anchoring holes in the top flange is usually done with a special diamond
chainsaw, but they can also be prepared by drilling parallel holes using a regular
drilling machine. Specially treated plate end is bonded into the prepared anchoring
hole with a two-component epoxy resin based adhesive.
prepared hole
treated concrete beam

plate
end
adhesive
L-shaped CFRP link
Anchorage of L-shaped CFRP links in the top flange of the concrete beam
82
Application of U-wrap anchorage
U-wraps are carbon fibre sheets installed perpendicular to the longitudinal (flexural)
FRP sheets (see the picture below). U-wrap is usually applied to increase the capacity
of an FRP system by increasing the area of bonded FRP material. According to
experimental results, a longitudinal CFRP sheet anchoraged with U-wrap anchorage
can develop its full strength, though this method is not efficient with regard to the
amount of cost and material. U-wraps are not effective or applicable in certain cases,
when the web of the member changes shape (T-beams, I-girders, etc). The anchorage
of the U-wrap itself can be done by U-anchors, or by establishing mechanical
connection into the compression zone.
a) b) steel bolts
concrete U-wrap
beam
a) Application of U-wrap on a concrete beam; b) Anchorage of the U-wrap using

mechanical connectors
Anchorage of FRP sheets with FRP spike anchors
An FRP spike anchor is made by cutting an FRP strip, impregnating it with resin,
inserting it into a predrilled hole in the concrete and then fanning out fibres of the
anchor on the FRP sheet (see picture below). The angle of the fan may be 360º or
smaller than 90º depending on the direction of the force to be taken. The spike
anchor is saturated with epoxy and installed immediately after the FRP sheet is
placed so that the sheet and anchor work as a composite unit. FRP anchors can be
also applied in cases where U-Wraps are ineffective.
Ends of anchor Anchor

fanned out
Anchor bend CFRP Concrete

strengthening
sheet CFRP anchor
CFRP
sheet
Anchor depth Tensile force

in the CFRP
Concrete Concrete sheet
a) b)
a) CFRP anchor with 360º fan; b) CFRP anchor fanned out in one direction
83
Application of GFRP spike anchors
4.3.7 Examples of the application of CFRP sheets for the purposes of strengthening
Strengthening the Gasconade River Bridge in Missouri, USA

One of the girders was impacted immediately after construction jeopardizing the entire structural
performance of the new bridge. CFRP strengthening was chosen as the most cost/time efficient solution.
Strengthening of the Kallosund bridge (Sweden)

The picture is from the strengthening of the Kallosund bridge with CFRP plates. The longest plates have
a length of approx 30 meters, that’s why so many people are holding it.
84
Column Strengthening with AFRP sheets Failure mode of a CFRP strengthened

The impact resistance of several concrete columns rectangular column
in a new office building has been upgraded due to
wrapping techniques with SikaWrap 300A, AFRP
sheets impregnated and bonded with epoxy resin
Sikadur 300.
FRP retrofitting solution for a stone FRP polymer grids retrofitting solution
masonry pier after tests for masonry structures before tests
A lot of tests were made in order to improve the The model was tested without jacketing and after
FRP retrofitting solution for stone masonry. In the first serial of tests was jacketed with polymer
this idea a number of specimen piers were tested grid solution.
and this is the final result. It seem that the in
this case FRP is not the best solution.
85
Rapid Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete Bridge with

Mechanically Fastened CFRP Strips
Strengthened bridge deck using mechanically fastened CFRP strips (SAFSTRIP) attached to increase
the bridge load rating. The rapid procedure uses powder actuated mechanical fasteners to attach CFRP
strips to the underside of an existing 70 year old RC flat slab bridge to increase the deck’s flexural
capacity.
Strengthening of stone Strengthening of a Strengthening of timber

columns with Sika masonry wall with beams Sika CarboDur H
CarboDur H strips transverse Sika strips
CarboDur S strips
86
4.4 Application of sprayed concrete technology for structural strengthening
4.4.1 Early application of sprayed concrete
In 1902 the railway tunnel of Wuppertal (Germany) was plastered with sprayed cement
mortar. They used a machine called Zyklon to pump dry cement mix and water.
In 1908 a Hungarian engineer József Vass submitted two patents in Dresden and in Budapest
for a method and machine to transport and spray viscous materials of different specific
density. The machine was not widely used because it was too expensive.
Dr. Carlton Akeley, the curator at the Field Museum of Natural Science in Chicago USA, is
usually considered as the inventor of the dry concrete spraying process. He was searching for a
way to create models of prehistoric animals. He developed a device to enable the mortar
mixture to be sprayed on skeleton frames to form body shapes of animal sculptures. After
experimentation he applied single chamber pressure vessel which contained a mixture of
cement and sand. At the spraying nozzle the mixture was hydrated by water spray. This
equipment was known as the “Cement Gun”. This method was patented in 1911 and taken
over by the Cement Gun Company.
After moving from the USA to Germany in 1921 it eventually became a British owned
company in 1953. The early machines placed the dry mix of sand and cement into the
pressurised chamber from where it was projected to a nozzle where water was added. This
system was therefore termed the “dry process”. As the dry process was being developed the
“True Gun” method was also being developed. This required the sand and cement mixture to
be fully mixed with water before being pumped through a fundamentally different machine.
Because of its different mixing the system became known as the “wet process”. The wet
process was not fully developed commercially until well into the 1970’s, much of its
experimentation being carried out in the USA. The original name for the sprayed mixture of
sand and cement was “Gunite”. Other terms have been, and are still used including “Sprayed
Concrete” “Shot Concrete” and “Shotcrete”. The term “Shotcrete” is often used when describing
a mix whose maximum aggregate size is more than 10 mm. However, the current acceptance
is that “Shotcrete” is used in the USA and “Sprayed Concrete” is the more widely used term in
Europe.
Dr. Carlton Akeley The “cement gun”
Patent for a concrete mix spraying Application of the “cement gun” for building construction
machine from József Vass, Hungary, 1911
87
4.4.2 Introduction to sprayed concrete

The technique of concrete spraying is used for
construction, structural repairs and for other purposes
for more than 100 years. The sprayed concrete is not
a special concrete material but it is rather a special
concrete casting procedure, where the mixture is
transported to the construction area in pipes under
pressure (~6 atm) and it is sprayed to the application
surface with high speed (~100 m/s). The mixture is
sticking to the application surface and it is compacted
by the impact of subsequent concrete stream. The
concrete spraying technology includes the following Concrete spraying
procedures:
− production of the concrete mixture,
− transportation,
− placing of concrete mixture,
− compacting of concrete.
Fields of application
Depending on the type of admixture, the spraying concrete can be used for different
purposes (e.g. construction or strengthening of reinforced concrete structures,
construction of lightweight concrete structures, application of heat or fire resistant
concrete layers). Application fields of spraying concrete if case of new structures:
− shell roofs, domes, barrel vaulting,
− plate structures, diaphragm walls, retaining walls,
− post-tensioned circular silos and tanks,
− water towers,
− canal or tunnel linings, caissons,
− swimming pools,
− reservoirs and dams,
− sewer pipes,
− underground opening support in mines,
− construction of formwork for mass concrete,
− bank vaults,
− blast proof structures.
Sprayed concrete is also used for the strengthening of existing concrete, reinforced
concrete, masonry, stone or steel structures. The applied new concrete layer is
cooperating with the original structure to resist the loads. Typical applications:
− Damaged concrete (e.g. concrete spalling due to a mechanical impact or due to the
corrosion of the internal reinforcement),
− fire damaged structures,
− housing,
− cooling towers (see the following pictures),
− bridges,
− jetties and wharves,
− brick arches and tunnels,
− tunnel linings,
− cathodic protection overlays.
88
a) b)
c)
Strengthening of a cooling tower by sprayed concrete a) Cooling tower before

strengthening b) Concrete surface prepared for concrete spraying c) Concrete spraying
process
Besides the construction and strengthening of load carrying structures, sprayed
concrete can be used as a protective coating:
− fire-proof coating for steel structures as well as for chimneys and furnace walls,
− refractory (heat and corrosion resistant) linings,
− rock and soil stabilization,
− construction of waterproof layers,
− pipeline encasement.
Sprayed concrete is may used for other, non-structural purposes like landscaping,
climbing walls, theme parks, sculptures, water sports slalom courses, bobsleigh runs,
zoological structures, etc.
Advantages of the application of spraying concrete:

− can be applied on areas that are difficult to access,
− formwork is required on one side only,
− can be used for the construction of three dimensional, thin surfaces without the
application of conventional formwork,
− overhead application without counter formwork,
− preparation, transportation and compaction of the concrete mixture is performed in one step,
− the construction can be fully automated.
89
Drawbacks of the application of spraying concrete:
− loss of concrete due to rebound of aggregate particles,

− high machinery cots.
4.4.3 Sprayed concrete technology

The concrete spraying process can be dry or wet.
Dry spraying process
In case of this process the dry concrete mix (cement+aggregate+admixture) is pumped

by the spraying machine and the water is introduced before the gunite nozzle only.
a) b)
a) Dry concrete spraying b) Concrete spraying machine for dry spraying process
Operating principle of the dry spraying process:
1. Material is gravity-fed from hopper to empty
pockets of the rotary feed wheel (feed bowl) below.
2. The rotary feed wheel, driven by a motor, rotates.
The material-filled pocket is positioned under a
compressed-air chamber.
3. Introduction of compressed air lifts the material
out of the pocket and into the material outlet.
4. Dry material is conveyed in suspension through
the hose to the gunite nozzle where water is
introduced to the dry material.
Advantages of the dry spraying process:
− continuous feeding of materials
− higher performance and longer operation distance,
− easy feeding of hardening accelerator,
− machinery is relatively simple, inexpensive and is easy to maintenance,
− relatively small space demand (small distance between the gunite nozzle and the
application surface).
Drawbacks of the application of dry spraying process:

− dust formation during spraying (dirty & unhealthy working environment),
− higher loss of concrete material due to rebound,
− the water-cement ratio is not uniform.
90
The nozzle is generally hand held and the stream of materials is directed by the
nozzleman, who also adjusts the amount of water added. The water can only be varied
within a limited range (too little water will prevent the mixture compacting into a
homogenous mass, while an excess will make it too workable, causing slumping).
If the construction situation could be

hazardous for a nozzleman, remotely
controlled robotic spraying arms may also
used for spraying the concrete. They also
avoid the need for temporary access in order
to place the material at high level.
Advantages of using robotic spraying
equipment are:
− Increased safety, visibility and control,

− less rebound by using the correct angle,
distance and compaction,
− more consistent concrete quality, Robotic arm spray nozzle
− material saving,
− faster setup, therefore earlier completion,
− no lift expense.
The dry technique is very flexible, for concrete spraying most of cement types and a
wide range of conventional and lightweight aggregates can be used. Theoretically an
aggregate size of d ≤ 20 mm can be used for the concrete mixture, but for practical
purposes the use of d ≤ 10 mm aggregate is more typical. The distribution of the
aggregate particles for a sprayed concrete mixture is illustrated in the diagram
below. The range of aggregate/cement ratio mixes that can be sprayed is typically
from 3.5/1 to 4.0/ 1 by weight. The rebound material is mainly aggregate, so the
placed mix will be richer in cement than the normal concrete mix. The performance
characteristics of dry process sprayed concrete are good density, high strength
(typically 40 to 50 N/mm2) and very good bond to a suitable substrate.
Distribution of aggregate particles for a sprayed concrete mixtures
91
Wet concrete spraying process
A low-slump concrete mix (cement + aggregate + admixture + water) is pumped with

a concrete pump to the end of the pipeline where a special ‘shotcrete nozzle’ is
attached. That nozzle introduces compressed air (produced by air compressor) to the
concrete. Compressed air adds velocity to the concrete so it sprays out of the nozzle.
This velocity, combined with the low slump of the concrete mix, allows the concrete to
be sprayed on slopes, vertical walls, and overhead. This process is typically used for
large-scale tunnel constructions, strengthening and repair.
a) b)
a) Wet concrete spraying b) Concrete spraying machine for wet spraying process
Advantages of wet spraying process:
− no dust formation during spraying,

− lower concrete loss due to rebound,
− uniform water-cement ratio and concrete quality,
− higher concrete thickness in one cycle (up to 15 cm).
Drawbacks of the application of dry spraying process:
− higher water cement ratio is needed for transportation, which result in

lower concrete strength and higher shrinkage rate,
− more expensive machinery is needed.
Wet mix sprayed concrete can be supplied by ready mix or site batching facilities, or
may be supplied as a dry, pre-blended material in bags (bagged material is favoured for
small operations such as repairs, where site access may prohibit large wet-mix concrete
deliveries).
With the wet process the water/cement ratio can be accurately controlled, and w/c
ratios below 0.45 can be easily achieved by the use of plasticisers. Concrete strength is
higher compared to normal concrete due to the cement rich characteristic (350-
450 kg/m3). The resulting cube strengths will normally vary between 30 N/mm2 and
60 N/mm2 after 28 days. With the use of hydration control admixtures, the utilization
period of wet mix concrete can be extended up to 72 hours allowing the system great
flexibility, and preventing the need to clean out the system after each application.
Usually concrete is built up in 150-200 mm thick layers. Further layers may be applied
to achieve greater thicknesses once the underlying layer has achieved a final set. The
surface to receive the new sprayed concrete layer should be free from deleterious
substances by jet washing with air-water, starting at the top of the structure and
working downwards. This is normally achieved with the sprayed concrete nozzle.
92
Fibre reinforced sprayed concrete
Fibres can be also be added to sprayed concrete (both wet and dry) to improve
material properties. Advantages of the application of fibres:
− control of plastic shrinkage cracking,
− control of thermal cracking,
− improved abrasion and impact resistance,
− improved fire resistance,
− improved ductility and toughness,
− enhanced tensile and flexural strength.
Nozzle for dry spraying process with Nozzle for wet spraying process with
steel fibre feeding steel fibre feeding
Behaviour of a steel fibre reinforced concrete bar
Change (approximate
Property values)
Tensile strength + 40%
Compressive strength +15%
Ultimate strain up to +2000%
Elastic modulus +5%
Shrinkage -30%
Creep +20%
Coefficient of thermal expansion 0%
Thermal conductivity +40%
Volume density +7%
Changes of the material properties in case of concrete with steel fibre content
93
Compression C
zone
Neutral axis
Uncracked Tuncracked
tensile zone
Aggregate
bridging
zone Cracked Tcracked
tensile zone
Fibre
bridging
zone
Traction
free zone
Improvement of flexural strength of a concrete beam due to the application of fibre

reinforcement
The specific costs of poured and sprayed concrete as a function of concrete thickness
are compared in the following diagram. According to the diagram, the application of
sprayed concrete technology is cheaper in case of structural thickness ~150 mm.
94
4.4.4 Specific issues of the practical application

Rebound of concrete
During the spraying process, a certain amount of fresh concrete does not adhere to the
application surface so it is rebounding. The amount of rebound concrete depends on:
− the diameter of the spraying nozzle

− the distance between the nozzle and the application surface
− the speed of the sprayed mix
− the direction of spraying
− the consistency of the concrete mix (water cement ratio)
− the size of the aggregate and the composition of the mixture.
The rebound particles are mainly coming from the coarse boundary region of the
concrete stream. This coarse boundary region of the stream is getting bigger as the
diameter of the nozzle is increased, which results in higher rebound rate.
Connection between the rebound and the diameter of the spraying nozzle
The relationship between the spraying velocity and the amount of rebound is displayed
in the following diagram. Spraying machines operate in the hatched region. This region
does not belong to the lowest available rebound rate; however the highest concrete
strength can be achieved by the application of this speed range.
Connection between the rebound and the spraying velocity
95
The rebound loss also depends on the relative position of the spraying nozzle to the
application surface. The effect of relative position of the spraying nozzle to the amount
of rebound is displayed below:
<1 m ~1 m >1 m
The effect of vertical spraying angle to the amount of rebound is displayed in the
following picture. The rebound is maximal at the angle ϕ=90º because the weight of
the new concrete layer is carried by the adhesion only and heavier particles may fall
back more easily.
The effect of horizontal spraying angle to the amount of rebound is displayed in the
following picture. The rebound is minimal if the nozzle is perpendicular to the
application surface because the rebounding particles are colliding to the concrete
stream and they are sticking to the surface again.
96
The amount of rebound is also affected by the consistency of the concrete mixture. In
case of the application of plastic concrete, incoming particles penetrate deeper into the
concrete and the chance of the rebound is smaller. If we use damp concrete, the
penetration depth is smaller so the rate of rebounding particles is higher. The effect of
concrete consistency on the rebound is demonstrated in the diagram below.
Reinforcement of the sprayed concrete
The reinforcement of the sprayed concrete can be:
− load carrying reinforcement,

− reinforcement used as formwork,
− reinforcement used to support the fresh concrete structure.
Load carrying reinforcement (‘conventional’ reinforcement) is taking the loads after

hardening of the concrete only. It is usually made from steel bars with small diameter
(6-8 mm) and medium strength (340-380 N/mm2) to ensure better embedding into the
concrete and to reduce the forming of cracks. The application of small steel bar
diameters is resulting in higher mesh density. The minimal distance between steel bars
is four times the aggregate size or 50 mm.
Load carrying steel bars progressively covered with sprayed concrete
97
It is also possible to use the reinforcement as a formwork or to support the structure

while the concrete is not hardened. Concrete is sticking directly to the reinforcement,
which consists of steel bars with larger diameters, with or without additional wire
mesh stretched on it. This kind of reinforcement must be strong enough to resist the
forces due to concrete spraying and the self-weight of the structure. The reinforcement
is usually formed by bent steel bars following the shape of the structure. It is also
possible to use straight steel bars to form a plane mesh, which is later lifted and
supported to form a curved shape (see the picture below).
Reinforcement for prefabricated shell panel
The reinforcement must be strong enough to avoid harmful vibrations of steel bars
which could cause the compacting of concrete around the bars decreasing the adhesion
between steel and concrete.
Formwork for sprayed concrete
Permanent formwork is usually used in case of the application of sprayed concrete.

Characteristics of formwork in case of sprayed concrete:
− the formwork used for sprayed concrete is one sided only,

− it must be strong enough to resist the spraying forces,
− same materials and formwork systems can be used for sprayed concrete
structures as in case of conventional concrete casting,
− shell structures can also be constructed by using pressurized tents,
− permanent formwork is usually used in case of the application of sprayed
concrete,
− the formwork is might cooperating with the sprayed concrete structure,
− the original structure works as formwork in case of strengthening of columns,
walls, beams, floors, tunnel walls, rock walls, soil banks, etc.
Pressurized tent is used as formwork for

sprayed concrete
98
Preparation of the application surface
If the sprayed concrete is applied directly to the soil (e.g. in case of canalization), loose
parts must be removed or soil must be compacted before spraying. Concrete spraying
cannot be used if the soil is frozen or it contains unconfined groundwater.
In case of sprayed concrete used for strengthening of concrete or reinforced concrete

structures, loose parts of the concrete surface must be removed. Corners and edges
must be rounded to provide continuous transition for the thickness of sprayed concrete
layer. Surfaces must be cleaned by sandblasting to remove surface contamination. The
surface must also be humidified so it won’t be able to absorb water from sprayed
concrete.
Finishing of sprayed concrete surface of sprayed concrete

on the side of the formwork can be arbitrary depending
on the shape and surface of the formwork. The exterior
surface of the sprayed concrete is usually rough and
uneven. Smoother surface can be achieved using a blade
to remove unnecessary parts and loose particles. A thin
mortar layer can be applied to the concrete surface using
wooden, rubber or steel spatula if necessary. Hardened
concrete surface can be treated with a plastic-based
coating to provide appropriate corrosion protection
against environmental effects.
4.4.5 Strengthening of structures with sprayed concrete

a) Strengthening of walls and columns
The strengthening of walls and columns is usually performed by increasing the cross-
sectional sizes. The new concrete layer is constructed using sprayed concrete
technology, and it usually includes additional longitudinal reinforcement as well as
stirrups in case of columns.
Side view
Cross-section
Reinforced concrete column strengthened with sprayed concrete
The direct load acting to the new concrete layer is usually hard to establish because of
the uncertainties of the connection. The sprayed concrete layer and the new
reinforcement are usually taking the forces that are transferred by the friction from the
original structure. The applied stirrups help, on one hand, to avoid the buckling of
99
longitudinal steel bars, and on the other hand they restrain the transversal
deformations of the column which result in higher load carrying capacity. Stirrups are
also used to take the splitting forces at the ends of the column where loads are
transferred. The load carrying capacity of the strengthened column or wall can be
calculated in the usual manner, considering the following aspects:
− the strengths of sprayed concrete and additional steel bars depend on the type
of the force transfer between the floor slab and the new concrete layer,
− the strengths of sprayed concrete and additional steel bars depend on the
utilization of the original column or wall,
− the confinement provided by the sprayed concrete layer will increase the
strength of original concrete material.
Strength of materials in the new sprayed concrete layer:

Modified strength of the concrete:
fcd ,mod = mc ⋅ α ⋅ fcd
Modified strength of the steel bars:
fyd ,mod = ms ⋅ α ⋅ fyd
In the above expressions, mc and ms are parameters for taking the type of force
transfer into consideration. If the loads are directly transferred from the floor slab (or
beam) to the new sprayed concrete layer, mc = 0.9 and ms = 0.7 should be used, while
in case of indirect loading mc = 0.35 and ms = 0.2 should be applied. The α parameter
is applied to take the utilisation of the original column into consideration:
α = 1−η
where η = NEd/NRd is the utilization of the original column.
Strength of concrete in the original column:

The following concrete strength can be considered for the original column cross-section:
fcd,mod = fcd + Δfk

where:
3 ⋅k ⋅ p fywd
Δfk = ⋅ ≤ fk
1 + n ⋅ p 100
k – depends on the ratio of the width (b) and height (h) of the column cross-
section: if b/h = 1 then k = 1, while in case of b/h>2 the value k = 2·h/b can
be used,
Asw
p= is the percentage of the volume of the column and the links,
100 ⋅ b ⋅ sw
n – depends on the ratio of the larger size of the column cross-section (a) and the
thickness of the new concrete layer (v): n = 1 if a/v < 10, while n = 2 if a/v > 20.
fywd – strength of the applied new shear reinforcement (links),
kf – strength of the concrete in the original column.
100
a) b) Column P46
3Ø16
545
Ø16 Ø16
Ø8
3Ø16
5
5 45 5
c) d)
NEd
NEd
MEd MEd
a) Damaged reinforced concrete column in a residential building; b) Strengthening of the column cross-
section with 5 cm sprayed concrete layer and additional reinforcement; c) interaction diagram of the
column before strengthening (load-bearing capacity is not satisfactory); d) interaction diagram of the
column after strengthening (load-bearing capacity is satisfactory)
b) Strengthening of reinforced concrete beams

In case of beams, the main problem is to ensure the cooperation of the new
longitudinal reinforcement and the compression zone of the original structure. This
cooperation can be assured by the application of a full sprayed concrete shell around
the beam including stirrups (a) or using the original stirrups inside the beam (b).
These methods are usually difficult to apply (e.g. due to space restrictions) so we may
use mechanical connection (e.g. drilled and bonded steel bolts) between the original
beam and the sprayed concrete layer (c).
101
If the web of the original beam is too thin, it is suggested to weld the additional
reinforcement to a steel profile and this profile can be mechanically connected to the
beam (d). A possible arrangement of such reinforcement is also displayed in the
following picture.
c) Strengthening of reinforced concrete floors
In case of floors, the most common way is to increase the thickness of the slab by the
application of sprayed concrete on the upper or lower surface. The sprayed concrete
applied to the upper side of the slab is increasing the size of the compression zone, the
cooperation between the original structure and the new concrete layer can be assured
by the adhesion between the surfaces (see the picture below). The surface of the
original slab can be roughened to increase the adhesion. Mechanical connectors (e.g.
steel bolts) can also be used if necessary. If the sprayed concrete is applied to the
bottom of the slab, tensioned steel bars can also be installed. The cooperation between
these steel bars and the compression zone of the slab are usually assured by
mechanical connectors.
If the original structure is seriously damaged so it cannot take any load but we do not
want to remove it, we may apply steel beams under the slab, which is fully supported
by sprayed concrete (see the picture below). The sprayed concrete slab is continuous
and it is cooperating with the steel beams.
102
The strengthening of timber roofs can also be performed by the application of sprayed
concrete. Some available solutions are displayed in the following pictures. The
solutions a, b and c can also be constructed by traditional concreting, but solution d is
typically constructed by concrete spraying.
a)
b)
c)
d)
a) Strengthening of a covered timber beam floor; b) Strengthening of a pinned timber floor;

c) Corrugated reinforced concrete slab constructed at the top of the existing timber floor;
d) Corrugated reinforced concrete slab constructed at the bottom of the existing timber floor
d) Strengthening of shell structures
The sprayed concrete is often used the strengthen reinforced concrete cooling towers or
similar shell structures. The strengthening is usually necessary because of the
imperfections of concrete surface caused by environmental effects or the corrosion of
the steel bars. A 6-10 cm thick sprayed concrete layer is usually applied on both inner
and outer surface of the shell including new reinforcement. The sprayed concrete layer
is often coated by a plastic protective shield against corrosion. In case of cooling
103
towers, the load effect caused by the wind can be modified by changing the roughness
of the surface. Sprayed concrete can be applied to increase the surface roughness and
hereby decrease the internal forces due to wind actions. Some pictures about the
strengthening of shell structures are demonstrated below.
Corrosion protection of the Surface of a silo wall after

reinforcement sandblasting
Connection of the mesh reinforcement Outer jacketing of a silo
e) Strengthening of buildings
The strengthening of different structural members was previously discussed, but
sprayed concrete can also used to construct temporary support (columns, walls) for
damaged buildings to prevent collision. Structures with high load carrying capacity can
be constructed from sprayed concrete in a short time to allow removal replacement of
damaged structural parts.
Sprayed concrete is often used for the strengthening of structures damaged by seismic
actions. Damaged columns and shear walls can be strengthened or reconstructed by
the application of this method.
104
4.4.6 Examples to the application of sprayed concrete
Strengthening of a concrete bridge Strengthening of a concrete beam
Tunnel lining with sprayed concrete Fixing of steel bars
Strengthening of a Strengthening of a damaged concrete floor slab

reinforced concrete wall
105
5. References
A. Gomes, J. Appleton: Strengthening design of concrete beams by addition of steel

plates; EPMESC VII: International Conference on Enhancement and Promotion of
Computational Methods in Engineering and Science, Vol. 1., p.657-666, 1999.
Bódi I., Madaras B.: Vázpillérek megerősítése vasbeton köpenyezéssel. BME Hidak és
Szerkezetek Tanszéke Tudományos Közleményei, 2004.
Bucur-Horváth I., Mátyás Gy.: Vasbeton silók jellegzetes károsodása és megerősítése II.
Beton XV. évf. 7-8. szám, 2007. július-augusztus.
C. D. Austin: Buckling of symmetric laminated fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP)

plates; Graduate Faculty of School of Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, 2003.
C. I. Goodier, S. A. Austin: Construction and Repair with Wet-Process Sprayed
Concrete and Mortar; A Preview of the Forthcoming UK Concrete Society Technical
Report, Shotcrete, Winter 2002.
Carbopree®, Arapree® and Glasspree® Wet Lay Up application (www.sireg.net)
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BUDAPEST UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY AND ECONOMICS

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Edited by: Dr. Kálmán Koris

Budapest, 27 May 2014.

1. METHODS OF STRUCTURAL DIAGNOSTICS ...................................................................................... 2

1. Methods of structural diagnostics

− adequate load carrying capacity,

Requirements regarding crack width must be also satisfied in case of reinforced

1.2 General principles of the examination process

Recommended order of structural diagnostics:

− acquiring basic information about the structure,

1.2.1 Acquiring basic information

1.2.2 Identification of the structure

− determination of the construction date (typical structural materials and

1.2.3 Examination of the structure

A preliminary sketch of the building must be prepared. The structural geometry,

Sketch of a brick wall with the notation of detected cracks

Uncovering process in case of different materials:

− Condition of a structure made of non-deteriorative materials (e.g. normal

Biological tests must be performed if any signs of biological damage (caused by

1.2.4 Material tests

Non-destructive material tests:

Poldihammer with reference metal Working principle of the Poldihammer

Steel in natural/annealed or hardened condition

Strength of natural steel material as a function of the impression diameter

− Schmidt-hammer. It is a device that is used to estimate the strength of normal

Modification of the basic σ-R curve using the Scheme of an N-type

− Ultrasonic testing. Ultrasonic testing devices can be used to determine the

− Measuring by radiograph. The structure is X-rayed by a radiograph. The layout

− Measuring by profometer. The profometer is a device using non-destructive

Theoretical scheme of high energy Use of the profometer to detect steel

− Corrosion analysis. The Canin (Corrosion ANalysing INsitrument) assesses the

Scheme of corrosion analysis Corrosion Analysing Instrument

− Loading test. The loading test can also be considered as a non-destructive

Static and dynamic loading test of the Kőröshegy viaduct

Most common destructive material test methods:

− Laboratory tests. Specimens derived from the examined structure can be

 Strength tests (e.g. compression or tensile test)

Compressive strength test of Bending test of fiber reinforced

− Biological tests. In case of biological deterioration of timber structures, the

1.2.5 Verification of static requirements

Static requirements (see chapter 1.1) can be verified by

a.) consideration of operating experiences,

a.) Operating experiences

The condition of the structure can be judged by

− relocation of the structures or structural parts,

These considerations can be used safely enough only, if

b.) Static calculation

We might combine the operating experiences with

− condition, and load carrying capacity of

− noticeable deflections develop on the roof structure (that usually denotes to

c.) Verification by loading tests

− there is not enough information available for a static calculation,

1.2.6 Classification of the structure (based on TSZ 01-2013 regulation)

1.2.7 Actions after structural classification

Immediate intervention is needed if there is a risk of human casualties or significant

In case of life-threatening structures, the expert person is liable for:

In case of dangerous structures, the following solutions can be recommended:

1.3 Requirements regarding the contents of the expertise (TSZ 01-2013)

The static expertise must usually contain the following information:

− the style of the expertise (full, detailed or partial),

2. Deteriorations of load carrying structures

2.1 Direct damages

2.1.1 Damage due to chemical reactions