Skeleton & Muscles

Dr. Fazlina Kasim

Department of Anatomy
PPSP, USM
 Outline
Skeleton Muscle
• Parts of the Skeletal System • Attachments
• Composition of the Skeleton • Arrangement of
1) Cartilage Fascicles
2) Bone • Naming Skeletal
 Function Muscles
 Types • Functional Roles of
Skeletal Muscles
 Classification based on Shape
• Innervation of Skeletal
 Pneumatic Bones Muscles
 Epiphyseal Plate
 Bone Coverings
 Bone Surface Markings
 Bone Marrow
 Arterial Supply of a Long Bone
 Parts of the Skeletal System
• The skeletal system is Skeletal
divided into 2 parts:
1) Axial Skeleton System
2) Appendicular Skeleton

Axial Appendicular
Skeleton Skeleton

UL Pectoral LL Pelvic
Bones Girdle Bones Girdle
 Axial Skeleton
Skull
• Composed of bones
located along the central
axis of the body:
1) Skull Rib
Sternum
2) Hyoid bone
3) Vertebrae
4) Sternum Vertebrae
5) Ribs
 Appendicular Skeleton

• Consists of:
Pectoral
1) Bones of the upper Upper girdle
limbs limb

2) Pectoral girdle
Pelvic
girdle
3) Bones of the lower
limbs
Lower
limb
4) Pelvic girdle
 Appendicular Skeleton
1) Bones Of The Upper
Limb: Clavicle
Pectoral
a) Humerus Scapula girdle
b) Radius
Humerus
c) Ulna
d) Carpals
Ulna
e) Metacarpals
f) Phalanges Radius Bones of
Upper Limb

2) Pectoral Girdle Carpals

a) 2 Scapulae Metacarpals
b) 2 Clavicles Phalanges Anterior
view
 Appendicular Skeleton
3) Bones Of The Lower Pelvic
Limb: Hip bone
girdle
a) Femur Femur
b) Patella
c) Fibula
Patella
d) Tibia
Tibia
e) Tarsals
f) Metatarsals Fibula Bones of
g) Phalanges Upper Limb
Tarsals
4) Pelvic Girdle
a) 2 Hip bones Metatarsals
Phalanges Anterior
view
 Axial & Appendicular
Skeleton

• Green – Appendicular Skeleton

• Brown – Axial Skeleton
 Composition of the Skeleton
• The skeleton is
composed of:
1) Cartilages Skeleton
2) Bones

Cartilage Bone

Hyaline Elastic Fibro-

Cartilage Cartilage cartilage
 Cartilage
1) Hyaline cartilage
• Most abundant cartilage
in the body.
• Location
1) nasal septum
2) tracheobronchial tree
3) Part of larynx (cricoid,
arytenoid & thyroid)
4) costal cartilages
5) most articular Cartilages
surfaces Hyaline
6) epiphyseal plates of Elastic
growing bones Fibro-
cartilage
 Cartilage
2) Elastic Cartilage
• Location (3E):
a) Ear pinna
b) Eustachian tube
c) Epiglottis

3) Fibrocartilage
• Location
a) Intervertebral
discs
Cartilages
b) Pubic symphysis Hyaline
c) Menisci of a knee Elastic
joint Fibro-
cartilage
 Introduction - Bone
• Specialised connective tissue

• It is hard because of calcium present in ECM (mineralised)

• Has a degree of elasticity because of the presence of CT fibres

• Highly vascular

• Bone is a living tissue

• Has a regenerating capacity

• Constantly changing in response to stresses placed on it

• Some bones take many years to complete its development eg:

long bones – development completed at the age of 18 - 20 y.o.
 Functions of Bone
• Supports & Protects
important organs eg: rib cage
supports & protect lungs;
pelvis supports & protects
urinary & reproductive
organs
• Involved in producing
movement. Muscles attach
to bones contract and pulls
on the skeleton to produce
movement.
• Stores minerals - calcium
and phosphate.
• Contains red bone marrow
that produce new blood
cells (hematopoiesis)
 Types of
Bone

Macroscopic Microscopic
features features

Compact Spongy
Bone Bone

Non-lamellar Lamellar
Bone Bone
 Bone Types - Compact and Spongy Bone

• Both compact & spongy Compact

bones are present in bone
most of the bones of the
body
Spongy
bone
1) Compact Bone

• Solid and dense without

cavities
Compact
• Form external walls of bone
bones

Spongy
bone
 Bone Types - Compact and Spongy Bone
Flat Bone
2) Spongy Bone

• = Cancellous bone

• Consists of a branching Spongy

network of bone plates = bone
trabeculae Compact
bone
• Located within bones eg:
a) Flat bones – called
Trabeculae
diploe, lies in
between 2 layers of
compact bone.
b) Long bones - in
epiphysis
 Bone Types : Non-lamellar & Lamellar Bone

1) Non-lamellar Bone (Woven 2) Lamellar Bone

Bone)
• Immature bone
• Initial bone formed in embryo
• Cells & collagen fibres are
arranged randomly
• Also seen in adults - during bone
remodelling and repair of fractures
• Mature bone
• Replaces woven bone.
• Collagen fibres arranged in
layers - lamellar appearance.
• Cells are arranged in
between the lamellae
Non-lamellar
Lamellar bone
Bone
 Classification
of Bones

Based on
Shape

Long Short Flat Irregular Sesamoid

Bones Bones Bones Bones Bone
 Bone Classification based on Shape
1) Long bones

• Most of the bones of the

limbs eg: humerus, femur,
metacarpals & phalanges

• Their length is greater than

their width

• Parts of a long bone:

a) Diaphysis
b) Epiphysis
 Bone Classification based on
Shape Epiphysis

Metaphysis
1) Long bones - Parts

a) Diaphysis
 Cylindrical shaft
 Composed of: Diaphysis
Medullary
i. Externally – compact bone cavity
ii. Internally - medullary /
marrow cavity (space
within diaphysis)
 Metaphysis – part of
diaphysis closest to the
Metaphysis
epiphysis (present in growing
Epiphysis
bones)
 Bone Classification based
on Shape Epiphysis

1) Long bones - Parts Metaphysis

b) Epiphysis.
 Expanded ends
 2 epiphyses:
i. Proximal epiphysis - nearest to
Medullary Diaphysis
body trunk. cavity
ii. Distal epiphysis - furthest from body
trunk
 Composed of:
 Externally – compact bone
 Internally – spongy bone
 The part of epiphysis that articulates Metaphysis

with another bone is covered by a thin Epiphysis

hyaline cartilage = articular cartilage

 Bone Classification based on Shape
2) Short bones
• Cuboidal in shape
• Present in the ankle
(tarsus) & wrist (carpus)
• Eg: scaphoid, lunate, talus
& calcaneum
• Composed of:
a) Externally - compact
bone
b) Internally - spongy
bone
 Bone Classification Cranial
vault
based on Shape
3) Flat bones

• Eg: bones of cranial vault

(parietal bone), sternum,
ribs & scapula Compact
bone
• Composed of:
a) 2 layers of compact bone
- outer and inner tables Diploe
(spongy
b) a layer of spongy bone in
bone)
the middle - diploe
 Bone Classification based on Shape
4) Irregular bones Anterior view
of sphenoid
• Have complex bone
shapes and do not fit
into the long, short or
flat categories.
• Eg: vertebrae,
ethmoid & sphenoid
bones (bones of the
skull)
• Also composed of:
a) Externally - thin
compact bone Superior view
b) Internally – spongy of vertebra
Anterior view
bone of ethmoid
bone
 Bone Classification based on Shape
5) Sesamoid bones Quadriceps
femoris
• Small bones that are tendon
present in certain tendons
(where tendons rub over Patella
bony surfaces)
• Function – to reduce
friction on the tendon
• Eg:
Sesamoid
1. Patella bones
 Largest sesamoid bone
 Located in tendon of Anterolateral
quadriceps femoris view
2. Sesamoid bones that are Flexor
present in tendons of hallucis
flexor pollicis brevis & brevis
flexor hallucis brevis Plantar view
 Pneumatic
Frontal
Bones bone

Frontal
sinus

Sphenoid
sinus Midsagittal
section
Pneumatic bones
• Contain air-filled cavity = air sinuses / air cells
• Eg: frontal, maxillary, ethmoid & sphenoid bones
 Epiphyseal Plate
Epiphyseal
• = epiphyseal cartilage plate

• Lies in between metaphysis

and epiphysis

• Present in growing bones

• Made of hyaline cartilage

• Responsible for growth in

length of a long bone
 Bone Coverings
• Coverings made of connective tissue
Endosteum
covering
• There are 2 bone coverings: trabeculae
1) Periosteum
2) Endosteum

• Function:
1) It anchors blood vessels & nerves to
the surface of bone
2) Blood vessels in bone coverings
supply nutrition to bone tissue
Periosteum
3) Osteoprogenitor cells in bone
coverings supply new osteoblasts for
bone growth & repair.
 Bone Coverings
1) Periosteum
• Covers outer surface of Endosteum
bone except areas covering
covered by articular trabeculae
cartilage
• Supplied by many
sensory nerves
carrying pain fibres
• Very sensitive to
tearing, thus producing
acute pain from bone
fractures

2) Endosteum Periosteum
• Lines the inner
surfaces of bones
 Bone Surface Markings

• Present where:

1) tendons, ligaments and fascia are attached

to bone

2) arteries lie adjacent to or enter bones

3) tendon courses
 Bone Surface Markings
• Can be divided into 4 types:

A. Elevations C. Areas for articulation

1) Linear elevation 1) Expanded ends for
 Line, ridge & crest articulation
2) Rounded elevation  Head, condyle &
 Tubercle, tuberosity, epicondyle
trochanter, 2) Small flat area for
protuberance & articulation
malleolus  Facet
3) Sharp elevation
 Spinous process & D. Openings
styloid process  Fissure, foramen, canal
& meatus
B. Depressions
 Notch, groove / sulcus
& fossa
 Bone Surface Markings
A. Elevations Iliac
crest
1) Linear Elevation

a) Line
• Superior nuchal
line of occipital
bone
Anterior
b) Ridge Medial view
• Medial & lateral supra-
supracondylar chondylar
ridge of humerus ridge

c) Crest
• Iliac crest of hip Anterior
bone Superior
view Posterior
nuchal
line view
 Bone Surface Markings
A. Elevations Greater Greater
tubercle trochanter
2) Rounded
Elevation
Lesser
trochanter
a) Tubercle
• Greater & lesser
tubercle of
humerus

b) Tuberosity
• Ischial tuberosity

c) Trochanter
• Greater & lesser
trochanter of Anterior view
femur of humerus
Anterior view of femur
 Bone Surface Markings
A. Elevations

2) Rounded
Elevation

d) Protuberance
• External
occipital
protuberance External
occipital
e) Malleolus protuberance Anterior
• Medial view
malleolus of Lateral
tibia view of skull

Lateral Medial
malleolus malleo
of fibula lus
 Bone Surface Markings
A. Elevations Lateral
view of skull
3) Sharp Elevation

a) Spinous
process
• Spine of
vertebra Superior view
of vertebra
Styloid
b) Styloid process
process
• Styloid process
of temporal
bone

Spinous
process
 Bone Surface Markings
B. Depressions Intertubercular
groove
a) Notch
• Indentation at the edge of a
bone
• Greater sciatic notch of hip
bone
Greater
b) Groove / Sulcus sciatic
notch
• Elongated depression
• Intertubercular / bicipital
Acetabular
groove of humerus fossa

c) Fossa Lateral view

Posterior view of hip bone
• Acetabular fossa of hip bone of humerus
 Bone Surface Markings
C. Areas for Articulation Head of
femur

1) Expanded Ends for Articulation

Posterior
a) Head view
• Head of femur

b) Condyle
• Medial & lateral condyles of femur

c) Epicondyle
• Medial & lateral epicondyles of femur Medial
• A prominence located superior to epicondyle
condyle Lateral
condyle
 Bone Surface Markings
C. Areas for
Articulation Facet
Facet
2) Small Flat Area
For Articulation

a) Facet
• Facet on head Posterior
of rib for view of rib
articulation with
vertebral body

Facet
Superior
view of
vertebra
 Bone Surface Markings
D. Openings

a) Fissure
• Superior orbital
fissure of spheoid
bone Sup. orbital
fissure
b) Foramen Foramen ovale
• Foramen ovale of
sphenoid bone

c) Canal Carotid canal

• Carotid canal of
temporal bone
Internal acoustic
d) Meatus meatus
• Internal acoustic
meatus of temporal Superior view
bone of cranial base
 Bone Marrow
• Present in the marrow cavity &
the spaces in between the
spongy bone.
Yellow
• At birth, the marrow within all marrow
the bones is red.
• Blood-forming activity lessens Red
with age. Red marrow starts to marrow
degenerate & replaced by
yellow marrow (fatty tissue) at
7 years old.
• In adults, red marrow only
present in the bones of skull,
vertebral column, thoracic cage,
the girdle bones and proximal
ends of humerus & femur.
 Arterial Supply of a Long Bone

• A long bone has 4 major Epiphyseal a.

arterial supply:

• 1. Nutrient artery Metaphysial a.

• 2. Juxta-epiphysial
(metaphysial) arteries
Periosteal
• 3. Epiphysial arteries arteries

Periosteal
• 4. Periosteal arteries arteries
 Arterial Supply of a Long Bone
1. Nutrient artery
– enters the shaft through nutrient foramen
– Supplies the bone marrow, spongy bone & deeper parts of
the compact bone

2. Juxta-epiphysial (metaphysial) arteries

– Supplies the ends of the bone

3. Epiphysial arteries
– Supplies the ends of the bone

4. Periosteal arteries
– they ramify beneath periosteum
– supply most of compact bone
Muscles
Muscle Attachments
• Most skeletal muscles run
from one bone to another.

• One bone will move – the

other bone remains fixed.
1) Muscle attachment to
fixed bone - Origin
(proximal attachment).
2) Muscle attachment to a
moving bone -
Insertion (distal
attachment).

• The thicker middle region

between the origin &
insertion → the belly of the
muscle.
 Muscle Attachments
• There are 2 forms of
muscle attachments:

1) Indirect attachment.
i. Tendon
ii. Aponeurosis – a thin,
flat sheet of connective
tissue.

2) Direct attachment
• Muscular tissue
emerging directly from
bone.

Aponeurosis
 Arrangement of Fascicles
• Arrangement of
fascicles affects:
1) Muscle power
2) Range of motion
(direction of its pull)

• There are 5 different

arrangements of
fascicles:
1) Convergent
2) Fusiform
3) Parallel
4) Circular
5) Pennate
 Arrangement of Fascicles
1) Circular
• Fascicles arranged in
concentric rings.
• Eg: orbicularis oculi.

2) Convergent
• The fascicles converge
from a broad origin
toward a single tendon
insertion.
• Eg: pectoralis major.
Pectoralis major
 Arrangement of Fascicles
3) Parallel
• Fascicles run parallel to
the long axis of the
muscle.
• Eg: sternocleidomastoid.

4) Fusiform Sternocleidomastoid
• Spindle shaped muscle
with an expanded belly.
• Eg: biceps brachii.

Biceps brachii
 Arrangement of Fascicles
5) Pennate
• Short fascicles attached
obliquely to a central tendon.
• There are 3 types of pennate
muscles:
a) Unipennate
 The fascicles attach only
to 1 side of the tendon.
b) Bipennate
 The fascicles attach into
both sides of the tendon.
c) Multipennate
 Have multiple rows of
fascicles, with a central
tendon which branches
into two or more tendons.
Eg: deltoid
Rectus femoris
 Naming Skeletal Muscles

1) Location of muscle
2) Shape of muscle
3) Relative size
4) Direction of fibres
5) Number of origins
6) Location of attachments
7) Action
 Muscles Named by Location
Supraspinatus

• A muscle name may

indicate a nearby bone
or body region.
Tibialis
anterior
• Eg: Supraspinatus &
infraspinatus

Infraspinatus Posterior view

 Muscles Named by Mastoid
Location of its Origin
or Insertion

• The sternocleidomastoid
muscle - the sternum
(“sterno”) and clavicle
(“cleido”) are its origins
and the mastoid process
of the temporal bone is its
insertion.

Clavicle Sterno- Sternum

cleidomastoid
 Muscles Named by
Number of Origins
Biceps
brachii

• Biceps indicate 2
origins.

• Triceps indicate 3
origins.

• Quadriceps indicate
four origins. Triceps
brachii
 Muscles Named by Size

• Maximus (largest)
• Minimus (smallest)
• Major (large)
• Minor (small)
• Longus (longest)
• Brevis (shortest) Gluteus
maximus
• Eg: gluteus maximus is
the largest muscle of the
gluteus muscle group.
 Muscles Named by Shape

• Deltoid (triangular)

• Rhomboid minor &

rhomboid major
(rhomboid)

rhomboid
 Muscles Named by Direction of
Muscle Fibres
• Muscle names refer to
the direction of the
muscle fibers in relation
to the midline of the
body.

• Rectus (parallel) – eg:

rectus abdominis
Rectus
abdominis
• Transversus
(perpendicular)

• Oblique (at an angle)

Anterior view
External
oblique
muscle

Transversus
abdominis

Anterior view
 Muscles Named by Action

• Flexor carpi radialis –

flexes the wrist. Flexor
carpi
radialis
• Extensor digitorum –
extends the fingers.

• Adductor pollicis –
adducts the thumb

Anterior
view
 Functional Roles of Skeletal Muscles
• There are 4 functional roles of skeletal muscles:
1) Prime Mover
2) Antagonists
3) Synergists
4) Fixators

• Body movements are the result of the activity of 2 or

more muscles.

• The functional role of a muscle depends on the joint

action.
 Functional Roles of Skeletal Muscles
1) Prime Mover
• The primary muscle
which causes a
movement.
• Eg: For flexion of the
elbow joint - biceps
brachii is the prime
mover.
Triceps brachii
2) Antagonists
• The primary muscle
that causes the
opposite movement.
• Eg: triceps brachii –
extends elbow joint.
 Functional Roles of Skeletal Muscles
3) Synergists
• Muscles that help prime
movers to produce
movement.
• Eg: brachialis

4) Fixators
• Specialised synergists.
• Stabilise the origin of a
prime mover.
• Eg: Rhomboid major
stabilise scapula when the
biceps brachii flexes the
elbow joint.
Innervation of Skeletal Muscle
 Motor Innervation

• Muscle fibres contract

when stimulated by motor
neurons (nerve cells).

• 1 motor neuron (nerve

cell) stimulates about 200
muscle fibres.

• 1 motor neuron & all the

muscle fibres it stimulates
= 1 motor unit.
 Motor Unit
• Muscle fibers from a
motor unit are spread
throughout the muscle
– Not confined to one
fascicle

• Therefore, contraction
of a single motor unit
produces a weak
contraction of the
muscle

• To produce a strong
contraction, more
motor units need to be
stimulated
 References
1. Clinically Oriented Anatomy. 6th edition. 2010. Keith L.
Moore, Anne M. R. Agur & Arthur F. Dally. Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins.

2. Atlas of Human Anatomy. 4th edition. 2006. Frank H. Netter.

Saunders Elsevier.

3. Clinical Anatomy by Regions. 9th edition. 2012. Richard S.

Snell. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
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