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Forensic Science International 178 (2008) 16–23

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Bone weathering patterns of metatarsal v. femur and the

postmortem interval in Southern Ontario
Martyna A. Janjua a, Tracy L. Rogers b,*
a
McMaster University, Department of Anthropology, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8S 4L9
b
University of Toronto at Mississauga, Department of Anthropology, 3359 Mississauga Road North, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada L5L 1C6
Received 4 January 2007; received in revised form 15 January 2008; accepted 29 January 2008
Available online 24 March 2008

Abstract
Twenty-five defleshed pig femora and 25 metatarsals were placed outdoors and observed over 291 days to establish: (1) bone weathering
patterns for use in estimating time since death in Southern Ontario and (2) whether larger (femora) or smaller (metatarsals) bones provide a better
indicator of time since death. Pig hind limbs were observed to determine a timeline for decomposition of soft tissues during the fall and winter.
Ambient air temperature, humidity, precipitation, sunlight, soil pH, and freezing and thawing were considered as factors affecting the breakdown of
bone. Weathering patterns were observed based on the extent of bleaching, amount of periosteum and soft tissues present, as well as the appearance
of greasiness, cracking and flaking of cortical bone. Both entomological activity and climatic conditions affected soft tissue decomposition. Animal
activity affected both the process of bone weathering and soft tissue decomposition, causing variability in sample decomposition and bone
breakdown. The variation in microenvironment, partially caused by soil composition, introduced variability in bone weathering rates. Four bone
weathering stages were established based on patterns observed. Femora proved to be more resilient and showed more degrees of change due to
weathering, thus proving to be a better indicator of time since death than metatarsals.
# 2008 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Forensic anthropology; Weathering; Postmortem interval; Decomposition; Taphonomy; Skeletonization

1. Introduction damage is caused to surface bone material through contact with

One aspect of death investigation is to establish time since
death, but time since death estimation becomes problematic
when bodies are in an advanced state of decomposition. Vass
et al. indicate that the post-skeletonization period of decom-
position is most difficult to assess [1], yet little research has
been done on this topic, particularly with respect to bone
changes. It is therefore critical to study taphonomic changes to
skeletal remains as an aid to determining the postmortem
interval (PMI) to assist in the investigation of found human
remains.
One taphonomic process that could be very useful in
estimating time since death is surface weathering. This is the
process through which bone is destroyed by natural weather-
related processes, such as temperature, precipitation, humidity
and sunlight [1–5]. A related phenomenon is erosion, by which
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 905 828 5449; fax: +1 905 828 3837.
E-mail address: tracy.rogers@utoronto.ca (T.L. Rogers).
0379-0738/$ – see front matter # 2008 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2008.01.011
acidic and basic soils, and other materials found in the
environment. Although rodent and carnivore scavenging can
have a serious impact on the overall condition of bone, animal
activity is not limited to a specific time period after death and
therefore cannot be used to estimate the PMI. Animal activity
was noted during data collection because scavenging can
increase the rate of tissue loss, exposing bone to the elements
more quickly, but animal activity will not be included in the
analysis of time-dependent variables.
The purpose of this research is to study weathering effects on
bone in Southern Ontario in order to determine the PMI.
Although bone weathering studies have been conducted in parts
of Africa [6,7], southeast Australia [8], Wales [9] and
Wisconsin [10], no research of this nature has been conducted
for the unique climate found in Southern Ontario. It is
important to study weathering by region because weathering
rates differ with changes in climate [6,7]. The data collected
from this analysis can be applied to forensic investigations for
the region of Southern Ontario and similar climates.
 M.A. Janjua, T.L. Rogers / Forensic Science International 178 (2008) 16–23
Another aspect of this research is to determine: (1) which
bones are more durable and therefore more likely to be
recovered in forensic contexts and (2) whether or not significant
differences exist in the weathering patterns of different
elements. A review of the literature reveals a number of
discrepancies relating to these topics. Some suggest that
smaller bones, such as extremities, are less durable than larger
limb bones. It has been reported that phalanges will
disarticulate before the femur and are therefore more likely
to be carried off by scavengers, resulting in a smaller chance of
recovery for analysis [11,12]. Yet, this contradicts Hill, who
reported that bones similar in size to phalanges, such as
metatarsals, would disarticulate later than femora. Hill also
noted that phalanges, tarsals, and metatarsals tend to
disarticulate from the lower limb in a unit comprised of
several articulated bones still connected by ligaments. This unit
is larger than a single, disarticulated bone, such as a femur, and
will therefore be more resilient to scattering [12]. He also
suggests that bones that remain articulated are more likely to be
protected from weathering by remnants of soft tissue [12], thus
the most significant weathering changes are expected on larger
elements. Behrensmeyer [6] also stated that small bones will
weather more slowly and may not exhibit the same stages of
weathering as larger bones, but once small bones attain an
advanced stage of decomposition, the rate rapidly increases and
small bones can weather much faster at that point than larger,
more durable bones. She does not explain the reason for this
phenomenon. Clearly bone size is a factor in weathering rate
and the inconsistencies evident in the literature necessitate
further research on weathering patterns.
Behrensmeyer proposed six weathering stages that were
defined through observation of continuous physical changes in
bone over time. According to Behrensmeyer’s criteria,
assigning a weathering stage to an element is based on the
most advanced change observed over a minimum area of 1 cm2
on the bone surface [6]. In this analysis, Behrensmeyer’s
weathering stages were used as a guideline to classify physical
changes, but given the differences in duration of the research
period and climate it was necessary to identify stages of
decomposition at a finer resolution, i.e. less than 1 year, in order
to be able to estimate PMI in the early post-skeletonization
period.
Sus scrofa (domestic pig) bones and carcass parts were used
as an analogue for human remains in this study. According to
Aerssens et al. [13], dog bones most closely resemble human
bones on the basis of cortical and trabecular bone composition
and density of cortical femoral bone, but pig bones are the next
best substitute. Pigs are also more readily available and less
expensive than dogs, making them the preferred human
analogue [14–16]. The body mass of a pig is consistent with
Behrensmeyer’s requirements to use mammals with total body
weight greater than 5 kg [6]. Adult pigs are preferable to
juvenile because the latter typically decompose faster than
adult [6], thus giving different PMI approximations. On the
basis of epiphyseal fusion, only one femur was classified with
certainty as adult, and due to availability, the remainder of
bones used were subadult.
17
2. Materials and methods
The sample consisted of 24 defleshed femora, 1 defleshed humerus, and 25
defleshed metatarsals because lower limbs of humans are amongst the regions
recovered most often during death investigation [5]. Five hind extremities cut at
vertebrae L2–L3 along the transverse plane were used to study decomposition rates
of soft tissues. Fully fleshed legs were separated with a cut along the sagittal plane.
The hind extremities were obtained from a deadstock facility. The femora were
obtained from a butcher already partially defleshed. Thirteen feet were purchased
from a farm and were defleshed using a scalpel. Metatarsals 2 and 3 were extracted
for this study. The periosteum was left on the bone after removing the soft tissue.
No freezing or heating of samples occurred before they were placed in the field
because frozen and thawed tissues are more prone to insect and bacterial activity,
which can increase decomposition rates [2,17]. Some refrigeration was necessary
because the animals were slaughtered 24–120 h prior to pickup.
Two clearings on the University of Toronto at Mississauga (UTM) campus
containing mixed coniferous and deciduous trees were selected for this study
because partial shade is common to most body dumpsites. The fleshed samples
were put in wooden-framed wire cages to protect them from scavengers, while
leaving them exposed to the elements. The cages did not contain a floor,
permitting direct contact between the specimen and the ground surface. The
wire structure allowed arthropod access since, after temperature, insect activity
is the most important factor affecting decomposition rate [2,4,18,19]. Metal
spikes at each corner secured the cages to the ground. The dismembered section
of the leg was placed in contact with the ground and was designated the
‘‘bottom’’ surface for all subsequent analyses. Each sample was tagged using
circular aluminum sheets (30 mm diameter) with stamped numbers for doc-
umentation and tracking.
Flesh temperature was recorded 30 times over 195 days using probe
thermometers (see Fig. 3). Physical appearance, odour, and arthropod activity
were also recorded to determine decomposition stages as outlined by Galloway
et al. [20]. Over the first 16 days the legs were lifted and turned over to record
changes to the bottom surface, since contact with the ground increases
decomposition on that side of the remains [2]. Disturbing the remains can
place stress on the tissues and inadvertently increase decay rates, thus this
practice was stopped after day 16 when soft tissues began to lose their integrity.
The average temperature, relative humidity, and precipitation for the study
period are given in Figs. 1 and 2.
Each defleshed femur was randomly attached to a metatarsal with a wire to
ensure they stayed in the same microenvironment [2]. Circular tags numbered
1–25 were attached to the wire connecting each pair of bones for documentation
and tracking purposes. Bone samples were placed in a fenced compound to
discourage scavenging by larger animals, since scavenging is not a weathering
process and is not central to this study. Due to the amount of thick vegetation
Fig. 1. Average monthly ambient air temperature and relative humidity
recorded at University of Toronto at Mississauga, Ont., October 2004–July
2005.
18 M.A. Janjua, T.L. Rogers / Forensic Science International 178 (2008) 16–23
Fig. 2. Total monthly precipitation recorded at University of Toronto at
Mississauga, Ont., October 2004–July 2005.
and the potential difficulty of tracking bones subjected to significant animal
activity, the bones were attached to wooden stakes that were hammered into the
ground to prevent movement. Although entomological activity influences the
decomposition rate, it very rarely damages bone [21]. In this study entomo-
logical effects were not considered weathering processes, but they were
recorded because of their potential affect to the results, particularly regarding
the decomposition of soft tissue.
Bone colour was recorded in the lab after defleshing and again on the first
day in the field using a Munsell Colour Chart. Further daily colour observations
were done subjectively. The Munsell Colour Chart was used at the end of the
research but only to identify colours from photographs, since the research
period was truncated due to unexpected events. The remainder of data was
qualitative in nature, including: greasiness of bone; odour; degree of surface
flaking; cracking. Carnivore activity, such as gnawing, scalloped edges, and
other scavenging marks, was recorded for each sample separately.
Soil pH can affect the breakdown of organic compounds including bone [1],
and was therefore checked and recorded prior to starting the research. Soil type
influences the microenvironment, based on the concept of permeability [22]. Soil
texture affects the amount of moisture retention—the higher the clay content, the
less permeable the soil becomes [22]. Using a hand auger, soil samples were
collected adjacent to the fleshed specimens and from the site of the paired bones.
The first inch of topsoil was removed in the field. Laboratory analysis followed to
determine particle size distribution using the hydrometer method. Dry sifted soil
samples were weighed at 100 g. Each sample was submerged in 2 mL of Calgon1
with 200 mL of distilled water. The solution was stirred and allowed to sit for
15 min. Each solution was mixed with an electric mixer for 1 min and the
suspensions were transferred to Buoyoucos cylinders. The volume of each
solution was brought to 1 L with distilled water. The remainder of the analysis
followed procedures outlined by Sheldrick and Wang [23]. Final results were
obtained by averaging the results of five samples for each site.
Data was collected over a period of 291 days. Samples were checked daily for
the first 10 days and every other day from day 12 to 18. The femora and metatarsals
were checked every 3–4 days from day 18 to 35, every 5 days until day 45, weekly
until day 195, and biweekly until day 291. The flesh samples were checked more
frequently than bone samples, continuing every other day from day 12 until day
32, every third day until day 51, and weekly until day 291. The visits occurred less
frequently due to fewer observable changes in the samples. Weather conditions
also affected observations particularly during the winter months due to frequent
snowfalls. All samples were photographed during each observation period.
3. Results
3.1. Fleshed samples
According to Galloway et al., the stages used to classify
decomposition are: (A) fresh (no insect activity or discoloura-
tion); (B) early decomposition (green, gray, brown and black
discolouration, skin slippage, hair loss, and leathery appearance
of skin); (C) advanced decomposition (sagging of flesh, caving,
arthropod/maggot activity, mummification and partial skeleto-
nization); (D) skeletonization (exposure of bones of more than
half the skeleton); (E) extreme decomposition (involving
breakdown of skeletal material) [20].
Upon receipt, samples were in stages B1 and B2 (early
decomposition showing fresh flesh with some green disco-
louration). Colour changes progressed from pink, to green,
gray, dark pink, to mainly brown with navy/black around the
edges where samples were cut. Oviposition was noted starting
day 4. Peak maggot activity was observed between days 16 and
40. Maggot activity dramatically decreased and ceased during a
drop in temperature in December. Carcass temperatures are
listed in Fig. 3, showing temperatures higher than ambient air
between days 1–7, 16–30, and 35–60. Lowest carcass
temperature was observed in sample 1F. Temperatures were
not recorded between December 2004 and March 2005 due to
inaccessibility caused by snowfalls. Temperatures below the
freezing point (0 8C) could not be quantified due to equipment
restrictions.
Coyote burrowing was noted on day 35 at sample 1F. The
specimen did not fall into the depression created by the coyote,
but was partly suspended by a root system of a nearby tree. This
disturbance caused a loss of maggot activity in the specimen.
The most advanced stages of decomposition of each specimen
in this analysis are listed in Table 1. No bloating was observed
in this study.
3.2. Bone samples
3.2.1. Scavenging
Scavenging could not be completely eliminated from the
study despite the use of a compound to house the specimens.
Twenty-nine bones in total were affected by scavenging with
the earliest onset on day 5. Damage to bone caused by
scavengers was categorized into three stages. Mild scavenging
is described as gnaw marks visible on, and slightly affecting,
Fig. 3. Ambient air and carcass temperatures of fleshed specimens 1F–5F,
October 2004–April 2005.
 M.A. Janjua, T.L. Rogers / Forensic Science International 178 (2008) 16–23 19

Table 1 scavenging was almost equal between femora and metatarsals,

Observed stages of decomposition of fleshed specimens 1F–5F, October 2004–
while extensive scavenging affected mostly metatarsals (see
July 2005
Table 2).
Specimen Latest stage of decomposition Earliest onset
1F C3 Day 268 3.2.2. Tissue loss
2F C4 Day 59 Not all of the soft tissues could be removed during
3F C4 Day 51 defleshing; some pieces of muscle and tendons were present on
4F C4 Day 51
5F C5 Day 181
the specimens along with the periostea. Soft tissue loss was
important to note because it exposed bone to sun bleaching,
staining from vegetation, disarticulation of epiphyses, and
only one end of a bone. Moderate scavenging describes a bone cracking. It was also noted that the rate of soft tissue
with one epiphysis or distal/proximal end chewed off. decomposition was higher on bone surfaces in contact with the
Extensive scavenging refers to either both ends of a bone ground, as well as on scavenged specimens.
being gnawed to the point where the marrow cavity is exposed, Decomposition was observed on all specimens with the
or the specimen is missing entirely. Mild and moderate onset at day 1. On day 4, greasiness increased on all bones. It

Table 2
Observations of changes to bone specimens visible on day 291, July 2005
Observation Bone Bones affected Affected (%)
Scavenging (femora n = 24, metatarsals n = 25)
Mild (end slightly affected) Femur 6 25.0
Metatarsal 5 20.0
Moderate (one end missing) Femur 2 8.3
Metatarsal 2 8.0
Extensive (both ends affected; marrow cavity exposed) Femur 3 12.5
Metatarsal 11 44.0
Total femora 11 45.8
Total metatarsals 18 72.0
New sample size reflects scorable bones remaining after scavenging (femora n = 24, metatarsals n = 19)
Bleaching Femur 15 62.5
Metatarsal 4 21.1
Green staining Femur 12 50.0
Metatarsal 3 15.8
Cracking
Diaphysis (top surface) Femur 3 12.5
Metatarsal 0 0.0
Diaphysis (bottom surface) Femur 1 4.2
Metatarsal 0 0.0
Tissue decomposition
Mild (less than 1/2)
Top surface Femur 1 4.2
Metatarsal 4 21.1
Bottom surface Femur 0 0.0
Metatarsal 2 10.5
Moderate (more than 1/2)
Top surface Femur 16 66.7
Metatarsal 9 47.3
Bottom surface Femur 3 12.5
Metatarsal 7 36.8
Extensive (complete)
Top surface Femur 7 29.2
Metatarsal 5 26.3
Bottom surface Femur 21 87.5
Metatarsal 11 57.9
Total tissue decomposition (femora n = 48, metatarsals n = 38 (both surfaces of each bone))
Mild Femur 1 2.1
Metatarsal 6 15.8
Moderate Femur 19 39.6
Metatarsal 16 42.1
Extensive Femur 28 58.3
Metatarsal 16 42.1
20 M.A. Janjua, T.L. Rogers / Forensic Science International 178 (2008) 16–23
began to diminish by day 24 and almost completely
disappeared by day 40, however the change in moisture caused
the remnants of soft tissues to remain greasy even after a period
of being dry. Over time these soft tissues either dried up or
decomposed with the aid of fly larvae. Fly eggs were observed
on day 14 and larvae hatched by day 18. Some were observed in
the spring as well. Odour was associated with the presence of
soft tissues and their decomposition processes. The odour was
initially faint. After 20 days odour was detectable only directly
above the specimens, and was completely undetectable in the
spring.
Different degrees of soft tissue loss from the mainly
defleshed bone were observed. Mild decomposition describes
remaining soft tissue covering more than half of bone surface
area. Moderate decomposition refers to remaining soft tissue
covering less than half of bone surface area. Extensive
decomposition describes complete or almost complete
soft tissue decomposition, exposing bare bone. By the end
of the research period, moderate tissue loss was seen almost
equally in both femora and metatarsals. More femora were
observed at the extensive decomposition state, while more
metatarsals were in the mild phase of decomposition (see
Table 2).
Table 3
Weathering stages of bone specimens within decomposition stage E (extreme decomposition)
Stage PMI
1 0–1 months
2 1–2 months
3 2–6 months
4 6–9.5 months
3.2.3. Colour change
The most common factors that affected colour of bone were
moisture, lighting, sun exposure, and decomposition. Many
colour changes were observed and used to help establish
weathering stages (see Table 3). In some cases, more than one
colour was present on a single surface of bone at a time. For
example, the ephiphyses of a bone may have been covered by
decomposing soft tissues, whereas the shaft was bleached an
off-white colour, thus making the classification of true colour
challenging.
When the bones were first defleshed, the observed colours
were fairly uniform. In weathering stages 2 and 3, the colours
became highly variable due to different decomposition rates and
microenvironmental changes. In the last weathering stage, the
colours stabilized and once again became uniform, particularly
due to almost complete decomposition of soft tissue remnants.
Colour differences were recorded separately for top and bottom
surfaces, as soil and sun exposure create different effect. Overall,
the metatarsals exhibited colours of higher value and lower
chroma than femora. Most common colours observed during
each weathering stage are reported in Table 3.
Bleaching was observed first in the third stage, with the
earliest onset on day 155. The predominant hue recorded was
Observations
Very greasy
Top: 5RP (8/4, 8/6, 7/6), 2.5R 8/4, 10R (8/1-2, 7/2)
Bottom: 5RP (variable), 10R and 2.5YR (8/1-3, 7/2-3)
Strong odour
Mild soft tissue decomposition
Fresh, moist soft tissue remnants
No cracking/flaking
Very greasy
Top: 5RP (variable), 10R and 2.5YR (8/1-2, 7/1-4, 6/3-4)
Bottom: 5RP (chroma 4, value 4-8), 10R and 5YR (8/1-2, 7/1-4, 6/2-3)
Mild odour
Mild soft tissue decomposition
Fresh, moist soft tissue remnants
No cracking/flaking
Slightly greasy
Top: 10R (7/1-3, 6/2-3), 5YR (chroma 1-3, value 5-7)
Bottom: 10R (7/1-3, 6/2-3), 5YR (7/1-2), 2.5YR (chroma 2 and 4, value 6-7)
Some bleaching, top surface (GLEY 1 8/N)
Some green staining, bottom surface (5GY 6/4)
No odour
Mild to moderate soft tissue decomposition
Hardened soft tissue remnants
No cracking/flaking
Dry bone
Top: 10R (8/1, 7/1-2, 6.2, 5/3), 7.5YR (7/1, 6/1-3)
Bottom: 2.5YR, 7.5Y and 5YR (7/1-2)
Bleaching, top surface (GLEY 1 8/N)
Green staining, both surfaces (5GY 6/4)
No odour
Extensive soft tissue decomposition
Hard dry soft tissue remnants (if any)
Longitudinal cracks on diaphysis
No flaking
 M.A. Janjua, T.L. Rogers / Forensic Science International 178 (2008) 16–23
GLEY 1 8/N, followed by GLEY 1 7/N towards the end
of stage 4. Mostly femora were affected by this
taphonomic process. With an onset on day 181, green
staining on bone was mainly seen on femora, and rarely
found on metatarsals. The lower surface, in contact with
the ground, was more commonly affected. As green
algae were microscopically identified from the specimens
(Kohn, personal communication, 2006), it can be inferred
that the green stains observed in this study were caused by
algae.
3.2.4. Cracking
Cracking was first noticed on day 181. A total of three cases
were observed, located on the diaphyses of femora; two top
surfaces and one bottom surface were affected (see Fig. 4a and
b). Specimen 9 had a longitudinal crack of 7 cm on the shaft of
the top surface, as well as a longitudinal crack measuring
6.5 cm on the shaft of the bottom surface. Femur number 11
exhibited two longitudinal cracks measuring 1.5 cm on the
proximal half of the diaphysis, as well as a 3 cm longitudinal
crack on the distal half. There were numerous longitudinal
cracks of different size located on the diaphysis of specimen 14.
They were found on the top surface and measured up to 2 cm in
length. Sample 19 was unknowingly placed in a depression
where water pooled due to precipitation in the fall. As
temperatures dropped, ice encased the bones. Although it is
commonly thought that the freezing process could potentially
cause cracking, specimen 19 exhibited no cracks. No
metatarsals were affected by cracking. There was also no
cortical bone flaking observed on any of the specimens during
this research.
Fig. 4. (a) Femur, specimen 9, bottom surface, longitudinal crack on diaphysis,
day 211. (b) Femur, specimen 14, top surface, longitudinal cracks on diaphysis,
day 211.
21
3.2.5. Mold growth
Molds were observed growing on upper and lower surfaces
of both femora and metatarsals. It was first observed on day 16
and remained there until snowfall; others appeared in the
spring. In April 2006, five specimens were randomly chosen for
microscopic mycological analysis. Some molds identified
included Fusarium, Acremonium, Paecilomyces, Cladospor-
ium, Mucorales (possibly Mortierella), Alternaria, Geotri-
chum, and Anthrobotrys, as well as green algae. The algae and
all of the listed molds, with the exception of Anthrobotrys, were
located on the surface of bones and, in some cases, soft tissue
remnants; Anthrobotrys was located inside the marrow cavity of
femur 4.
3.2.6. Soil samples
The pH at both sites was neutral (pH 7). The soil where bone
specimens were kept (site A) was classified as loam, consisting
of 50.8% sand, 34.4% silt, and 14.8% clay. The soil from the
flesh specimen site (site B) was classified as loamy sand,
composed of 78.4% sand, 15.6% silt, and 6% clay. A significant
difference exists between the soils found at both sites. Soil from
site A has a moderately coarse texture and is a loamy soil, while
soil from site B has a coarse texture and is classified as a sandy
soil [22] which is atypical of soils found in Mississauga
(Gradowski, personal communication, 2005).
4. Discussion
4.1. Flesh samples
Although cold climates retard decomposition, giving tissue a
fresh appearance for longer periods of time than in warm
climates [20], the results of soft tissue decomposition in this
research are not consistent with results reported by Komar [5].
The latest stage of decomposition after 197 days was advanced
decomposition, while Komar [5] reported skeletonization in
several cases in less than 200 days in a similar environment.
The most probable explanation for the slower decay rate in this
study can be the result of using separated legs rather than whole
pigs. When using an entire individual, decomposition largely
related to intestinal bacterial activity, including bloating and
putrefaction, is seen during the early stages of decay [1].
Although some bacteria were present in the flesh specimens
located in sections of recta, it was not enough to create decay
rates consistent with those reported in other studies. The time
frames derived from the results of this research may therefore
be more applicable to cases of dismembered bodies.
Specimen 1F did not progress beyond the earliest stage of
decomposition (B3, early decomposition) until the spring.
Fig. 3 illustrates that 1F had the lowest carcass temperature over
the study period. It is therefore possible that this sample was not
exposed to as much sun. Cooler temperatures retard maggot
development [15] and bacterial activity (anaerobic decom-
position causing putrefaction) [1,2], further decreasing
decomposition rates and extent. Another possibility is the
microenvironmental change caused by animal activity. At the
time the animal tunneled under the specimen, all of the maggots
22 M.A. Janjua, T.L. Rogers / Forensic Science International 178 (2008) 16–23
were located on the bottom surface of the pig leg. The
interference caused the larvae to fall from 1F. Because the soil
was removed, the maggots could not return to their feeding
source. This is consistent with the study of hanging pig
carcasses by Shalaby et al. [14]. Other studies reported that if no
insects are present on a carcass, decomposition and drying of
remains progresses more slowly [3,24]. The removal of soil
under the specimen also exposed the carcass to the effect of
cooling by air [14]. Since decomposition is more rapid on the
bottom surface in contact with soil rather than the top surface
[2], the burrow caused a decrease in carcass surface area in
contact with the ground, contributing to the preservation of 1F.
In the summer, a new generation of larvae hatched on specimen
1F causing it to advance to a later decomposition stage more
consistent with the other samples.
4.2. Bone samples
Weathering data from bone was used to establish the
timeline for stage E—extreme decomposition, which begins
after skeletonization (stage D; see Table 3) [20]. Since
skeletonization does not occur uniformly, different skeletal
elements are exposed at different stages of soft tissue
decomposition. This inconsistency creates a problem with
estimation of PMI; bones exposed early on will show more
advanced stages of weathering than bones exposed later. There
is not a standardized way of determining a sequence of
exposure, as this depends on many factors unique to each case.
This study demonstrated several differences in weathering
patterns from those reported in the literature. First, cracking
was reported by Behrensmeyer in stage 1, between 0 and 3
years with the greatest degree occurring later in the stage [6]. In
the present study, three specimens exhibited diaphyseal
cracking within 6 months. Even when one allows up to a
year for the tissues to decompose and expose the bone, the
earlier onset of cracking observed in this study relative to
Behrensmeyer suggests that the effects of freezing and thawing
increase the rate of weathering. Second, this research reveals
the unreliability of utilizing soft tissue remnants to estimate
time since death and/or classify weathering stages. Over time
soft tissues dry up, but due to high humidity and precipitation
they periodically rehydrate. The lack of dessication has the
potential to confuse investigators and could result in under-
estimating time since death.
Weathering stages were created using data on bleaching,
colour, greasiness, the amount of soft tissues present (also
variable), odour, and cracking. Four weathering stages were
established within the extreme decomposition stage. They are
not at constant intervals due to variable decomposition. The
longest stage, stage 3, lasted over the period of heavy snowfall.
Stage 4 occurred in the spring and summer, where most drastic
changes in the appearance of bones were observed (see
Table 3).
The identification of Arthrobotrys on one of the specimens
may be of importance. This mold, a known nematode predator,
is not easily isolated from soil (Kohn, personal communication,
2006), thus suggesting that bone could provide an ideal
substrate for the growth of specific molds. The presence of
mold on the samples clearly differed between bone and flesh,
indicating that a potential exists to use mold growth in
taphonomic studies to determine if a species-specific sequential
mold growth occurs at different post-depositional stages.
4.3. Soil type
The difference seen in type and quantity of mold growth
on the samples from the two sites can also be attributed to
differences in microenvironment caused by different soil
types. Fungi are present in all soils, but the soil type
determines what kind of fungi predominate [22]. In addition,
soil type is a determinant factor of the microenvironment
thus indirectly influencing weathering. Water-holding capa-
city of sand (more typical of site B) is low, therefore the
drainage rate is high [22]. In contrast, water-holding capacity
of clay (more typical of site A) is high and drainage is low
[22], therefore soils with higher clay content will result in a
more moist environment. It can be concluded that more
decomposition due to freezing and thawing will be observed
in a moist microenvironment where seasonal temperatures
fluctuate above and below 0 8C.
5. Conclusion
The biggest setback during research was losing bone
samples to scavengers, while the most significant confounding
variable was seasonality. Temperature, moisture, insect activity,
mold growth, and sun exposure all vary by season and affect the
rate at which taphonomic changes occur. The stages proposed
in this study reflect changes one can expect from a body
deposited in the fall (Table 3). A body dumped in the spring is
expected to proceed through the stages more quickly.
Decomposition patterns, which are dependent on environ-
mental conditions, determine the final state of skeletal remains
[2]. Rodriguez and Bass [3] determined that soil pH increases
with decomposition of soft tissue, and according to Behrens-
meyer [6] bone weathering increases in alkaline soil.
Recommendations for future research include: (1) repeating
this study using a complete, fully fleshed carcass, rather than
single defleshed bones, and monitor the effects decaying flesh
has on bone; (2) determining the precise degree of difference in
weathering for adult v. juvenile bone; (3) testing the stages for
bodies deposited in different seasons. The current study
highlights the importance of testing soil type prior to selecting
research locations. Locations A and B were within 100 m of one
another and appeared similar in nature, yet there was distinctly
greater clay content in A. Clay content affects moisture
retention and influences rate of decomposition.
Lastly, having considered the primary factors contributing to
taphonomic change, this study demonstrates that femora
provide a much better source of information and clearer
guidelines for bone weathering patterns and rates than the
metatarsals because the former are stronger and more resistant
to physical damage. The chances of recovering a femur are also
greater than recovering a metatarsal during a search. Femora
 M.A. Janjua, T.L. Rogers / Forensic Science International 178 (2008) 16–23
exhibit more changes than metatarsals and thus can be placed in
the different stages of weathering to more easily establish TSD.
6. Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Dr. David Gibo for allowing use of
field equipment and providing us with invaluable ecological
and entomological information, and Dr. Tomasz Gradowski for
guidance and help with soil analysis. Many thanks go out to
family and friends for technical help.
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