HELICOPTER

CONFIGURATION
AND
MAINTENANCE
 BASIC COMPONENTS OF A HELICOPTER
1. Main rotor. The main rotor is located on the top of the fuselage. It is put in
motion by the power plant (engine). The main rotor produces lift as well as
thrust which is used to gain vertical and lateral movements of the helicopter.
2. Fuselage. It is intended to accommodate crew, passengers, equipment and
cargo. Major parts of a helicopter such as main rotor, landing gear etc are
attached to the fuselage.
3. Landing gear: It is used to support the helicopter when it is on the ground.
It is also used to perform ground maneuvers during taxing on the ground.
4. Tail rotor. Provides directional equilibrium and directional control of the
helicopter.
5. Propulsion system which sets in motion the lifting and tail rotors and
auxiliary systems.
6. Transmission system transfers the torque from the power plant to the
main and tail rotors.
 TERMINOLOGY RELATED TO HELICOPTER
1. ADVANCING BLADE: Any rotor blade on a rotary wing aircraft in horizontal
motion, moving into the relative wind.
2. RETREATING BLADE: Any rotor blade on a rotary wing aircraft in horizontal
motion, moving with the relative wind.
3. FLAPPING: The vertical movement of a blade about the flapping hinge is
known as flapping.
4. FEATHERING: The action that changes the pitch angle of the rotor blade by
rotating them around their feathering axis.
5. LEAD AND LAG: The fore and aft movement of the rotor blade in the plane of
rotation. It is the blade motion about the vertical hinge at the blade root.
6. ROTOR DISC: The area of a circular plane described by the path swept by the
rotor blades.
7. DISC AREA: The area of the circle described by the blade tips of a rotating
propeller or rotor.
8. DISC LOADING: The ratio of the rotorcraft gross weight to the disc area.
9. CONING: The action of the rotating helicopter rotor blades slanting or lifting
upwards at the tips to form a cone shaped pattern.
10. CONING ANGLE: The average angle between the span wise axis of a blade of
a rotating wing system and a perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
11. BLADE SPAN: The length of a blade from its tip to its root.
12. BLADE TWIST: The variation in the angle of incidence of a blade between
the root and the tip.
13. HOVER: A condition of rotorcraft flight where there is zero horizontal and
vertical motion of the rotorcraft.
14. AUTOROTATION: The condition of flight during which the main rotor is
driven only by aerodynamic forces with no power from the engine.
15. SOLIDITY RATIO: The ratio of the total rotor blade area to the total disc
area.
16. TIP SPEED RATIO: The ratio of the forward speed of the helicopter to the
speed of the rotor blade tip.
17. TIP PATH PLANE: The imaginary circular plane outlined by the rotor blade
tips as they make a cycle of rotation.
18. TRANSLATING TENDANCY: The tendency of the single rotor helicopter to
move laterally during hovering flight.
19. TRANSLATIONAL LIFT: The additional lift obtained when entering into the
forward flight, due to the increased efficiency of the rotor system.
20. VORTEX RING STATE: The flow condition existing on the main rotor in a
vertical descent when the rate of descent is approximately equal to the
induced velocity.
21. GROUND EFFECT: A beneficial gain in lifting power when operating near the
ground surface caused by the rotor downwash field being altered from its free
state by the presence of the ground surface.
22. PITCH ANGLE: The angle between the chord line of the rotor blade and the
reference plane of the main rotor hub or the rotor plane of rotation.
23. SLIP: The controlled flight of a helicopter in a direction not in line with its
fore and aft axis. It is the movement of the helicopter in its lateral axial
direction towards the centre of the turn. During the slip the rate of turn is too
slow for the given angle of bank.
24. SKID: The movement of helicopter in its axial direction away from the centre
of the turn. A flight condition in which the rate of turn is too great for the
given angle of bank.
25. HUNTING: The tendency of the blade to seek a position ahead of or behind
that which would be determined by the centrifugal force alone.
26. TIP SPEED: The rotative speed of the rotor at its blade tips.
27. BLOW BACK: The tendency of the rotor disc to tilt aft in forward flight as a
result of flapping.
28. DISSYMMETRY OF LIFT: The unequal lift across the rotor disc resulting
from the difference in the velocity of air over the advancing blade half and the
retreating blade half of the rotor disc area.
29. FLARE: A maneuver accomplished prior to landing to slow down the
rotorcraft.
30. CORIOLOS EFFECT: The tendency of a rotor blade to increase or decrease
its velocity in its plane of rotation when the centre of mass of the blade moves
closer or farther from the axis of rotation.
31. BLADE TRACK: The relationship of the blade tips in the plane of rotation.
Blades that are in one track will move through the same plane of rotation.
32. BLADE ROOT: The part of the blade that attaches to the blade grip.
33. BLADE STALL: The condition of the rotor blade when it is operating at an
angle of attack greater than the maximum angle of lift.
34. TRIM: The adjustment of stabilizers or tabs on control surfaces
aerodynamically to reduce cockpit flight control pressures.
35. POWER SETTING: The tendency of a helicopter to require more power while
descending in the vortex ring state than to hover.
36. INDUCED VELOCITY: The downward air velocity generated in the process of
generating upward rotor lift.
37. LAP ANGLE: The angle between the span wise axis of a rotor blade and a line
through the centre of rotation and the drag hinge (Lead-lag hinge).
38. GROUND RESONANCE: It is the self-excited vibration occurring whenever
the frequency of oscillation of the rotor blades about the lead-lag axis of an
articulated rotor becomes equal to the natural frequency of the fuselage.
39. LOAD FACTOR: The ratio of a specified load to the total weight of the
helicopter.
40. GYROSCOPIC PRECESSION: An inherent quality of rotating bodies which
causes an applied force to be manifested 90 degrees in the direction of
rotation from the point where the force is applied.
41. CONTROL ADVANCE ANGLE: The horizontal angle measured at the rotor
centre between the span wise axis of a blade and the point of attachment of its
push-pull rods to the swash plate.
42. POWER LOADING: Power loading is the ratio of the All-up weight of the
helicopter to the maximum horse power of the engine.
43. GRIP ANGLE: The angle set on the main rotor head grip to place the rotor
blades at the correct pitch angle.
44. PRE-CONE: A built-in angle in a yoke assembly for the coning angle of the
rotor in flight.
45. SHAFT AXIS: Shaft axis is that axis about which the rotor blades rotate.
46. HUB AXIS: Hub axis is that axis which is perpendicular to the rotor hub.
47. ROTOR AXIS: Rotor axis is that axis that is perpendicular to the tip path
plane of the blades.
48. EXCESS POWER: It is the difference between the power available and the
power required to operate the helicopter.
49. MAIN ROTOR TORQUE: The tendency for the engine to spin the whole
helicopter in the opposite direction to the main rotor is called main rotor
torque.
50. RELATIVE WIND: Relative wind is airflow relative to an airfoil. Movement of
an airfoil through the air creates relative wind. Relative wind moves in a
parallel but opposite direction to movement of the airfoil.
51. ANGLE OF ATTACK: The angle between the chord line of the aerofoil and the
relative airflow.
52. ANGLE OF INCIDENCE: The angle between the chord line of the aerofoil and
the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. It is also the angle between the chord line
of the aerofoil and the horizontal when the aircraft is in rigging position.
53. CENTRE OF PRESSURE: It is a point on the chord line of the aerofoil about
which the total aerodynamic force is said to act.
54. CENTRE OF GRAVITY: It is a point on the chord line of the aerofoil about
which the total weight of the aircraft is said to act.
55. AERODYNAMIC CENTRE: It is a point on the chord line of the aerofoil about
which the aerofoil tends to rotate when the centre of pressure moves forward
and backward when the angle of attack is altered.

AEROFOIL TERMINOLOGY

• The chord line is a straight line connecting the leading and trailing edges of
the airfoil.
• The chord is the length of the chord line from leading edge to trailing edge
and is the characteristic longitudinal dimension of the airfoil.
• The mean camber line is a line drawn halfway between the upper and lower
surfaces. The chord line connects the ends of the mean camber line.
• The shape of the mean camber is important in determining the aerodynamic
characteristics of an airfoil section. Maximum camber (displacement of the
mean camber line from the chord line) and the location of maximum camber
help to define the shape of the mean camber line. These quantities are
expressed as fractions or percentages of the basic chord dimension.
• Thickness and thickness distribution of the profile are important properties
of an airfoil section. The maximum thickness and its location help define the
airfoil shape and are expressed as a percentage of the chord.
• The leading edge radius of the airfoil is the radius of curvature given the
leading edge shape.
 RELATIVE WIND

1. RELATIVE WIND
• Relative wind is airflow relative to an airfoil.
• Movement of an airfoil through the air creates relative wind.
• Relative wind moves in a parallel but opposite direction to movement
of the airfoil.

2. ROTATIONAL RELATIVE WIND

• The rotation of rotor blades as they turn about the mast produces
rotational relative wind.
• Rotational relative wind flows opposite the physical flight path of the
airfoil, striking the blade at 90 degrees to the leading edge and
parallel to the plane of rotation, and is constantly changing in
direction during rotation.
• Rotational relative wind velocity is highest at blade tips, decreasing
uniformly to zero at axis of rotation (center of the mast).
3. RESULTANT RELATIVE WIND
• The resultant relative wind at a hover is rotational relative wind
modified by induced flow.
• This is inclined downward at some angle and opposite the effective
flight path of the airfoil, rather than the physical flight path (rotational
relative wind).
• The resultant relative wind also serves as the reference plane for
development of lift, drag, and total aerodynamic force (TAF) vectors
on the airfoil.
• When the helicopter has horizontal motion, airspeed further modifies
the resultant relative wind.
• The airspeed component of relative wind results from the helicopter
moving through the air.
• This airspeed component is added to, or subtracted from, the
rotational relative wind, depending on whether the blade is advancing
or retreating in relation to helicopter movement.
• Introduction of airspeed relative wind also modifies induced flow.
Generally, the downward velocity of induced flow is reduced.
• The pattern of air circulation through the disk changes when the
aircraft has horizontal motion.
• As the helicopter gains airspeed, the addition of forward velocity
results in decreased induced flow velocity.
• This change results in an improved efficiency (additional lift) being
produced from a given blade pitch setting.
ANGLE OF ATTACK
• Angle of attack is the angle between the chord line of the aerofoil and the
relative airflow.
• Angle of attack is an aerodynamic angle.
• It can change with no change in angle of incidence.
• Several factors may cause rotor blade angle of attack to change. Some are
controlled by the pilot and some occur automatically due to the rotor
system design.
• Pilots are able to adjust angle of attack by moving the cyclic and collective
pitch controls.
• However, even when these controls are held stationery, the angle of attack
constantly changes as the blade moves around the circumference of the
rotor disc.
• Other factors affecting angle of attack, over which the pilot has little control
are blade flapping, blade flexing and gusty wind or turbulent air conditions.
• Angle of attack is one of the primary factors that determines amount of lift
and drag produced by an aerofoil.
• When the angle of attack is increased, the lift co-efficient increases and
hence the resultant lift value is increased.
• Similarly when the angle of attack is decreased, the lift co-efficient
decreases and hence the resultant lift value is decreased.
• Lift increases as the angle of attack increases up to a certain point.
• If the angle of attack becomes too great, airflow over the top of the airfoil
tends to lose its streamlined path and break away from the contoured
surface to form eddies (burbles) near the trailing edge. When this happens,
the airfoil loses its lift, and it stalls.
• The angle of attack at which burbling takes place is called the critical
angle of attack.

ANGLE OF ATTACK
As the angle of attack is increased, the separation point starts near the trailing edge
of the airfoil and progresses forward. Finally, the airfoil loses its lift and a stall
condition occurs.

ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
• Angle of incidence is the angle between the chord line of a main or tail
rotor blade and the rotational relative wind of the rotor system (tip-path
plane).
• It is a mechanical angle rather than an aerodynamic angle and is
sometimes referred to as blade pitch angle.
• In the absence of induced flow, Angle of attack and angle of incidence are
the same.
• Whenever induced flow, up flow (inflow), or airspeed modifies relative
wind, then Angle of attack is different from angle of incidence.
• Collective input and cyclic feathering change angle of incidence.
• A change in angle of incidence changes Angle of attack, which changes
the coefficient of lift, thereby changing the lift produced by the airfoil.

ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
LIFT
MAGNUS EFFECT
• The explanation of lift can best be explained by looking at a cylinder rotating
in an airstream. The local velocity near the cylinder is composed of the
airstream velocity and the cylinder’s rotational velocity, which decreases with
distance from the cylinder.
• On a cylinder, which is rotating in such a way that the top surface area is
rotating in the same direction as the airflow; the local velocity at the surface is
high on top and low on the bottom. As shown in figure , at point “A,” a
stagnation point exists where the airstream line that impinges on the surface
splits; some air goes over and some under. Another stagnation point exists at
“B,” where the two air streams rejoin and resume at identical velocities.
 • We now have up wash ahead of the rotating cylinder and downwash at the
rear.
• The difference in surface velocity accounts for a difference in pressure, with
the pressure being lower on the top than the bottom.
• This low pressure area produces an upward force known as the “Magnus
Effect.”
• This mechanically induced circulation illustrates the relationship between
circulation and lift.
• An airfoil with a positive angle of attack develops air circulation as its sharp
trailing edge forces the rear stagnation point to be aft of the trailing edge,
while the front stagnation point is below the leading edge

MAGNUS EFFECT

BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
• Air flowing over the top surface accelerates.
• The airfoil is now subjected to Bernoulli’s Principle or the “venture effect.”
• As air velocity increases through the constricted portion of a venturi tube, the
pressure decreases.
• Compare the upper surface of an airfoil with the constriction in a venturi tube
that is narrower in the middle than at the ends.
• The upper half of the venturi tube can be replaced by layers of undisturbed
air.
• Thus, as air flows over the upper surface of an airfoil, the camber of the airfoil
causes an increase in the speed of the airflow. The increased speed of airflow
results in a decrease in pressure on the upper surface of the airfoil.
• At the same time, air flows along the lower surface of the airfoil, building up
pressure.
• The combination of decreased pressure on the upper surface and increased
pressure on the lower surface results in an upward force
• As angle of attack is increased, the production of lift is increased.
• More up wash is created ahead of the airfoil as the leading edge stagnation
point moves under the leading edge, and more downwash is created aft of the
trailing edge.
• Total lift now being produced is perpendicular to relative wind.
• In summary, the production of lift is based upon the airfoil creating
circulation in the airstream (Magnus Effect) and creating differential
pressure on the airfoil (Bernoulli’s Principle).

VENTURI EFFECT

BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE APPLIED TO AEROFOILS

 DISTRIBUTION OF LIFT AROUND A WING

The length of each arrow indicates the amount of lift at that point on the wings
surface.
Note that:
• Lift is not distributed evenly around the wing.
• The top surface normally generates more lift than the bottom surface – at
some angles of attack, as much as 80% of the total.
• The greatest amount of lift on the top surface occurs where the surface is
curved the most.
• The greatest effect, on both top and bottom surfaces, is nearer the front edge
of the wing than the rear (that is, about 1/3 of the of the way from the front).
• All lift forces act at 90° to the direction of the airflow - which is the same as
the flight path of the aircraft.

DISTRIBUTION OF LIFT AROUND A WING

ROTOR LIFT
The rotor lift can be controlled by the following two ways.
• Main rotor lift is governed by the following factors:
1. The blade pitch controlled by the pilots.
a. Amplitude of rotor lift is controlled by the collective pitch variation.
b. Directional control of the rotor lift is controlled by the cyclic pitch
variation.
2. The forward speed of the helicopter- The pilot has to maintain a high pitch
setting while hovering than in the forward flight.
3. Increase in the altitude and/or the temperature results in decrease of lift.
Therefore, to maintain a constant lift at increased lift and/or temperature,
pitch has to be increased.
• Since the lift is always perpendicular to the rotors plane of rotation, any
tilting of the rotor plane results in the inclination of lift which will have two
 components namely the vertical lift force and the propulsive force which
causes the forward flight.
• Due to the tilt of the lift vector, the helicopter will attain a nose down
tendency.
• For any given value of the lift force, tilting of the rotor plane results into the
reduction of the vertical lift force indicating that transition to forward flight
results in loss of altitude.
• Therefore, to maintain altitude, the pilot has to increase the pitch in
proportion to the degree of tilt.
• The velocity distribution over the blade is described in terms of tip-speed
ratio which is the ratio of the forward speed of the helicopter to the blade tip
speed. The tip speed ratio during hover is zero.
• Due to constant relative velocity, the blade lift will be also constant for a given
pitch angle.
• The resultant lift will, therefore act at the centre of rotation.
• However, in the forward flight, the blade tip speed is associated with the
forward speed of the helicopter.
• The relative velocity of the air will be equal to the relative blade tip speed
which varies in the blade azimuth.
• When the blade advances in the azimuth, the relative blade tip speed
increases and when it retreats, the relative blade tip speed decreases.
• In the forward flight, the tip speed ratio varies from 0.30 to 0.45.
• The tip speed ratio 0.30 means that the blade over the nose and the tail have
the same velocity distribution as in hover but the retreating blade tip is
moving 30% slower and advancing blade tip 30% faster.
• Consider the helicopter in forward flight, it can be found that at 0° and 180°
azimuth, the relative blade tip speed has the same value.
• However, when the blade retreats its relative blade tip speed decreases and
has the maximum value when the blade is at 90°.
• Thereafter it starts increasing and reaches a maximum value when the blade
is at 270°.
• This speed variation causes variation in the blade lift being minimum at 90°
and maximum at 270°.
• However, the magnitudes of the blade lift at 0° and 180° are the same.
• The rotor lift, therefore, acts at a point away from the centre of rotation
towards the advancing blade side.
• If the blades are rigid in the flapping plane (vertical plane), this lift variation
creates dissymmetry as it generates rolling moment about the centre of
rotation thereby causing the tilting of the rotor.
COLLECTIVE PITCH
• When the collective pitch is varied, the pitch angle on all the rotor blades
changes by the same amount irrespective of their position.
• Due to the change in the pitch angle, the magnitude of the rotor lift varies,
however, it has no effect on the direction.
• The variation in the magnitude of the rotor lift primarily helps in controlling
the altitude of the helicopter.

VERTICAL MOVEMENT LATERAL MOVEMENT

COLLECTIVE PITCH LEVER CYCLIC PITCH STICK

CYCLIC PITCH STICK
• During the directional control of the rotor lift, the angle of attack variation
is produced by the cyclic pitch stick which may be applied in any direction
by the controlled tilting of the swash plate.
• The blades will flap as in the case of the lateral lift dissymmetry so as to
equalize the lift distribution on the advancing and the retreating sides of
the blades.
• The cyclic pitch variation causes the tilting of the rotation plane; however,
it has no effect on the magnitude of the rotor lift.
• In one complete revolution, when the blade flapping is experienced, the
blade rise is accompanied by a decrease in the angle of attack and vice
versa.
• The rotor lift will remain constant and the cyclic lift variation, which is
present for a short duration, results in the tilt of swash plate.
• The cyclic pitch variation is symmetrical in both the opposite azimuth
positions.
• If at any particular position, a point is lowered by some amount, the
opposite point in the azimuth is raised by the same amount.
• Therefore the pitch-increase will be equal to the pitch-decrease at the
opposite position.
• For example, when the pitch increases from the minimum value (90°) to
the maximum value (270°), at 180 degree and 360 degree, the cyclic pitch
variation has no effect. At these two locations, the blade will have the
initial collective pitch value.
• When the swash plate is tilted about the transverse axis, cyclic variations
about the fore and aft axis take place.
• When the swash plate is tilted about the fore and aft axis, cyclic variation
in the lateral direction take place.

o The lift development by the helicopter has to be sufficient to overcome the

weight.
o The heavier the weight, the greater the pitch angle and power requirement to
overcome the weight vs. lift action.
o Also acting on the helicopter will be thrust and drag.
o Thrust is the force moving the helicopter in the desired direction, while drag
is the force which tends to resist thrust.
o Therefore, before any movement may take place thrust must overcome drag
 DRAG
The object of the aerofoil is to keep the airplane in the air by providing the
necessary lift. In order to obtain lift, the airplane wing must be propelled through
air, at a definite velocity and it must be set at a definite angle of attack to the
airflow. We know that we cannot obtain a purely vertical force on the aerofoil
and we can only obtain a lift at the expense of a certain amount of horizontal
force known as DRAG.
This drag must be reduced to the minimum possible, in order to reduce the
power required to pull the aerofoil (in other words to increase the speed.) Drag
increase often occur in flight for reason, which may or may not be under te
control of the pilot.
The total drag on an aircraft in flight is made up of two basic types of drag. They
are: (1) Wing drag and (2) Parasite drag.
WING DRAG
Wing drag is that part of the drag which is caused by the lift producing surfaces
say wing. Wing drag is further divided into two types namely Profile drag and
Induced drag.

PARASITE DRAG
• Parasite drag is defined as all drag that is not associated with the
production of lift.
• Parasite drag varies directly with velocity squared; meaning doubling
speed causes four times the drag.
• Increasing density increases parasite drag.
• Parasite drag is further classified into three types of drags namely
INTERFERENCE DRAG, FORM DRAG and SKIN FRICTION DRAG.

INDUCED DRAG.
• Induced drag is that portion of total drag associated with the production of
lift.
• Induced drag is caused by the parallel component of total lift.
• Induced drag is inversely proportional to the velocity and directly
proportional to the angle of the attack.
• The induced drag is greatest at lower speeds and becomes less as the
speed increases.
• In level flight, the induced drag varies inversely as the square of the
indicated air speed.
 • The principle factor affecting the amount of induced drag is the plan form
of the wing. Greater the wing area greater is the induced drag caused
because of wing tip vortices.
• Induced drag is inversely proportional to aspect ratio.
• Higher the aspect ratio lower the induced drag.
• Induced drag is a force component working in the opposite direction of
movement (relative to the air mass), and thus acts as drag.
• Induced drag only exists when there is induced flow (= flow that solely
exists because of the downwards acceleration of airflow by the rotor
system).

INTERFERENCE DRAG
• When conflicting air flows meet at the point where one component of the
aircraft is attached to the another interference drag is caused.
• Accounts for 5 to 10 percent of drag on an airplane
• The effect of the interference drag can be reduced by fairing the
components into each other by the use of suitably shaped fillets.

FORM DRAG (PROFILE DRAG)

• Form drag, is otherwise known as pressure or profile drag.
• It is caused by the airflow separation from a surface and the wake that is
created by the separation.
• Form drag would be temporarily significant until the aircraft velocity
decreased to match the higher angle of attack
• To reduce form drag, the fuselage, external attachments and other exposed
surfaces are streamlined.
• This kind of drag arises because of the form of the object.
• Form drag increases with the square of indicated airspeed.
• Factors affecting form drag (Profile drag) are Indicated air speed, Shape of
the object, Surface smoothness and surface area.

SKIN FRICTION DRAG

• Skin friction is caused by the resistance which is set up when relative
motion exists between a surface of a body and the air.
• Friction drag is created in the boundary layer, which is produced due to
viscosity
• Friction drag can be reduced by smoothing the exposed surfaces of the
airplane through painting, cleaning, waxing or polishing
 • The amount of drag arising out due to skin friction depends upon the
nature and the thickness of the flow in the boundary layer.
• Skin friction is a major source of drag at high speeds and it is one of the
most difficult to reduce.
• It can never be eliminated completely.

CENTRE OF PRESSURE
• It is a point on the chord line of the aerofoil about which the total aero
dynamic force is said to act.
• The centre of pressure of aerofoil moves between 0.75 % and 0.30 % of
the chord during ordinary flight.
• The center of pressure is the point along the chord where the distributed
lift is effectively concentrated and the sum of the moment is zero.
• The position of centre of pressure and its movement depends totally on
the shape of the aerofoil and the angle of attack at which it meets the
relative airflow.

Movement of centre of pressure

• Pressure plotting experiments show that as the angle of attack is altered,
the distribution of pressure over the aerofoil changes considerably. And
consequently there will be a movement of centre of pressure.
• As the angle of attack is increased up to 16 degrees, the centre of pressure
is seen to move gradually forward until it is less than one-third of the
chord from the leading edge, while above this angle it begins to move
backwards again.
• At the angle of attack for zero lift, which may be about 4 degrees
depending on the amount of camber of aerofoil, the centre of pressure
moves back to a position where the total reaction cannot be shown by a
single force.
• The net effect of forces is to produce a resultant horizontal force with no
lifting force.
• But the vertical forces, even though they are same in magnitude and
opposite in directions, as their points of application are different produce
a couple causing pitching movement.
Unstable movement of centre of pressure
• The forward movement of centre of pressure on the aerofoil as the angle
of attack is increased will tend to drop the trailing edge still more thus
increasing the angle of attack still further: and this causes the centre of
pressure to move further more forward and so on. This is called the
“Instability” of the centre of pressure

Stable movement of centre of pressure

• In the case of a flat plate, the increase of angle of attack over the same
angle causes the centre of pressure to move backwards. This tends to dip
the nose of the plate back again to its original position and it makes the flat
plate “stable”.

Stationary centre of pressure

• The unstable movement of centre of pressure is a definite disadvantage of
the ordinary curved aerofoil. This is overcome generally by using an
aerofoil with a convex undersurface instead of concave and also a reflex
curvature towards the trailing edge.
• These features make the centre of pressure of an aerofoil to remain
practically stationary over the angles of attack used in ordinary flight.

CENTRE OF PRESSURE ON SYMMETRICAL AEROFOIL

• On symmetrical airfoils, it is co-located with the aerodynamic center.
• The center of pressure of the upper and lower surfaces of a symmetrical
airfoil act directly opposite each other.
• The aerodynamic center and center of pressure are co-located; therefore, no
moment is produced even though the total lift force changes with change in
angle of attack.
• On symmetrical aerofoil, the centre of pressure is more or less fixed.
CENTRE OF PRESSURE ON NON-SYMMETRICAL (CAMBERED) AEROFOIL
• On nonsymmetrical airfoils, the center of pressure of upper and lower
surfaces does not act directly opposite each other, and a pitching moment is
produced.
• On non-symmetrical aerofoil, a substantial amount of movement of centre of
pressure is achieved with the changes in the angle of attack.
• As the angle of attack changes, the location of the distributed pressures on the
airfoil also changes.
• The net center of pressure (sum of upper and lower) moves forward as angle
of attack increases and aft as angle of attack decreases, producing pitching
moments.
• This characteristic makes the center of pressure difficult to use in
aerodynamic analysis.
• Since the moment produced about the aerodynamic center remains constant
for pre-stall angle of attack, it is used to analyze airfoil performance with lift
and drag coefficients.
 FORCES ACTING ON ROTORS
• Since the rotor system of a helicopter provides both lift and thrust, it is
exposed to all of the forces that act on aircraft wings and propellers.
• When applied to rotor blades, the thrust-bending force that acts on propellers
is called coning.
• Because of the large mass and weight of the rotating heads, the amount of
• Centrifugal force that acts on the rotor blades must be considered.
• The helicopter main rotor also experiences the following forces during the
course of its rotational movement.
1. Centrifugal force
2. Centripetal force
3. Its own lift force
4. Its own weight
5. The alternating inertia force (Coriolis forces)
• As compared to its own weight, the other forces which act on the main rotor
are of very high amplitude.
• The centrifugal force is about 20 to 25 times the lift force.
• The lift force produces an upward bending moment at the root end and to
cancel this, the blades are hinged in the vertical plane.
• It permits the blade motion in the vertical plane under the action of resultant
of lift and centrifugal force.

RETREATING BLADE STALL

• A tendency for the retreating blade to stall in forward flight is
inherent in all present day helicopters and is a major factor in
limiting their forward speed.
• Just as the stall of an airplane wing limits the low speed
possibilities of the airplane, the stall of a rotor blade limits the high
speed potential of a helicopter.
• The airspeed of the retreating blade (the blade moving away from
the direction of flight) slows down as forward speed increases.
• The retreating blade must, however, produce an amount of lift
equal to that of the advancing blade.
• Therefore, as the airspeed of the retreating blade decreases with
forward aircraft speed, the blade angle of attack must be increased
to equalize lift throughout the rotor disk area.
• As this angle increase is continued, the blade will stall at some high
forward speed.
• As forward airspeed increases, the "no lift" areas move left of center,
covering more of the retreating blade sectors:
• This requires more lift at the outer retreating blade portions to
compensate for the loss of lift of the inboard retreating sections.
• The no-lift area, when moving towards left, has three distinguished
regions namely Negative lift area, Negative stall area and Reversed
flow area.
• In the area of reversed flow, the rotational velocity of this blade
section is slower than the aircraft airspeed; therefore, the air flows
from the trailing to leading edge of the airfoil.
• 10. In the negative stall area, the rotational velocity of the airfoil
(blade section) is faster than the aircraft airspeed; therefore air
flows from leading to trailing edge of the blade.
• However due to the relative arm and induced flow, blade flapping is
not sufficient to produce a positive angle of attack.
• Blade flapping and rotational velocity in the negative lift area are
sufficient to produce a positive angle of attack, but not to a degree
that produces appreciable lift.
• Upon entry into blade stall, the first effect is generally a noticeable
vibration of the helicopter.
• In addition to vibration, the helicopter also experiences a rolling
tendency and a tendency for the nose to pitch up.
• The tendency to pitch up may be relatively insignificant for
helicopters with semi rigid rotor systems due to pendulum action.
• Although the blades are twisted and have less pitch at the tip than
at the root, angle of attack is higher at the tip because of induced
airflow.
• If the cyclic stick is held forward and collective pitch is not reduced
or is increased, this condition becomes aggravated; the vibration
greatly increases, and control may be lost.
• By being familiar with the conditions which lead to blade stall, the
pilot should realize when his is flying under such circumstances
and should take corrective action.
• The major warnings of approaching retreating blade stall conditions are:
1. Abnormal vibration
2. Pitch up of the nose
3. Tendency for the helicopter to roll in the direction of the stalled side.
• When operating at high forward airspeeds, the following conditions are most
likely to produce blade stall:

High blade loading (high gross weight)

Low rotor RPM

High density altitude

Steep or abrupt turns

Turbulent air
• An abrupt maneuver such as a steep turn or pull up may result in dangerously
severe blade stall.
• Blade stall normally occurs when airspeed is high.
• To prevent blade stall, the pilot must fly slower than normal when:
o The density altitude is much higher than standard
o Carrying maximum weight loads
o Flying high drag configurations such as floats, external stores, weapons,
speakers, floodlights, sling loads, etc.
o The air is turbulent
• When the pilot suspects blade stall, he can possibly prevent it from occurring
by sequentially:
1. Reducing power (collective pitch)
2. Reducing airspeed
3. Reducing "G" loads during maneuvering
4. Increasing RPM to upper allowable limit
5. Checking pedal trim
• In severe blade stall, the pilot loses control. The helicopter will pitch up
violently and roll to the left.
• The only corrective action then is to accomplish procedures as indicated
previously to shorten the duration of the stall and regain control.
 TORQUE AND ANTI-TORQUE SYSTEM

• In accordance with Newton’s law of action and reaction, the

helicopter fuselage tends to rotate in the direction opposite to the
rotor blades. This effect is called torque.
• Torque must be counteracted and or controlled before flight is
possible.
• In tandem rotor and coaxial helicopter designs, the rotors turn in
opposite directions to neutralize or eliminate torque effects.
• The torque problem is more important in single main rotor
helicopter with a fuselage mounted power source.
• The torque effect on the fuselage is a direct result of the work or
resistance of the main rotor.
• Therefore torque is at the geometric center of the main rotor.
• Torque results from the rotor being driven by the engine power
output.
• Any change in engine power output brings about a corresponding
change in torque effect.
• Power varies with the flight maneuvers and results in a variable
torque effect that must be continually corrected.
• No torque is produced by the main rotor during autorotative flight
or when the engine ceases to produce power.
• Hence an anti-torque system becomes necessary to counteract this
torque effect.
• The anti-torque system must generate enough thrust to counteract
main rotor torque in climbs, directional control at this high power
setting, and sufficient directional control in autorotation and low
speed flights.
• Some of the methods employed to counteract main rotor torque are:
a. Co-axial rotor
b. Intermeshing rotor or synchro rotor
c. Tandem rotor
d. Fenestron
e. NOTAR
f. Tail rotor
• In the co-axial design, the rotors are mounted on top of each other
at the top of the fuselage and share a common main axle complex.
In this design, the two main rotors rotate in opposite, so that the
torques from each other cancel each other.
 TANDEM ROTOR CO-AXIAL CONTRA ROTATING ROTORS
• In the intermeshing rotor system, two main rotors are mounted on
two separate obliquely mounted masts. These rotors rotate in
opposite direction, so that the torques from each other cancels each
other.
• In the tandem rotor system, two rotors are mounted on the fuselage
one at one extremity and the other at other extremity.
• Another form of anti-torque system is fenestron or fan-in-tail
design. This system uses a series of rotating blades shrouded
within a vertical tail.

FENESTRON NOTAR ANTI-TORQUE TAIL ROTOR

• NOTAR system is also an another form of anti-torque system. The

NOTAR system eliminates the tail rotor by conducting high velocity
air through the tail boom using the Coanda effect to produce forces
to counter the torque.
• The tail rotor system also produces thrust and compensates for the
torque produced by the main rotor.
• In tip-jet helicopters, power originates at the blade tip and equal
and opposite reaction is against the air; there is no torque between
the rotor and the fuselage.
ANTITORQUE TAIL ROTOR
• Compensation for torque in the single main rotor helicopter is
accomplished by means of a variable pitch ant torque rotor (tail
rotor) located on the end of a tail boom extension at the rear of the
fuselage.
• Driven by the main rotor at a constant ratio, the tail rotor produces
thrust in a horizontal plane opposite to torque reaction developed
by the main rotor.
• Since torque effect varies during flight when power changes are
made, it is necessary to vary the thrust of the tail rotor.
• Anti-torque pedals enable the pilot to compensate for torque
variance.
• A significant part of the engine power is required to drive the tail
rotor, especially during operations when maximum power is used.
• From 5 to 30 percent of the available engine power may be needed
to drive the tail rotor depending on helicopter size and design.
• Normally, larger helicopters use a higher percent of engine power to
counteract torque than do smaller aircraft.
• A helicopter with 9,500 horsepower might require 1,200
horsepower to drive the tail rotor, while a 200 horsepower aircraft
might require only 10 horse power for torque correction.

ANTI-TORQUE TAIL ROTOR

HELICOPTER HEADING CONTROL

• In addition to counteracting torque, the tail rotor and its control
linkage also permit control of the helicopter heading during flight.
• Application of more control than is necessary to counteract torque
will cause the nose of the helicopter to swing in the direction of
pedal movement.
• In forward flight, the pedals are not used to control the heading of
the helicopter (except during the portions of cross wind take-off and
approach). They are used to compensate for torque to put the
 helicopter in longitudinal trim so that co-ordinate flight can be
maintained.
• To maintain a constant heading at a hover or during takeoff or
approach, the pilot must use anti-torque pedals to apply just
enough pitch on the tail rotor to neutralize torque and hold a slip if
necessary.

CYCLIC PITCH ANTI-TORQUE PEDALS

• Heading control in forward trimmed flight is normally accomplished

with cyclic control, using a coordinated bank and turn to the
desired heading.
• Application of anti-torque pedals will be required when power
changes are made.
• During autorotation, some degree of right pedal is required to
maintain correct trim.
• When torque is not present, mast thrust bearing friction tends to
turn the fuselage in the same direction as main rotor rotation.
• To counteract this friction, the tail rotor thrust is applied in an
opposite direction to counter the frictional forces.
 GYROSCOPIC PRECESSION

• Gyroscopic precession is a phenomenon occurring in rotating

bodies in which an applied force is manifested 90 degrees later in
the direction of rotation from where the force was applied.
• Although precession is not a dominant force in rotary-wing aero
dynamics, it must be reckoned with because turning rotor systems
exhibit some of the characteristics of a gyro. This diagram shows
how precession affects the rotor disk when force is applied at a
given point:

GYROSCOPIC PRECESSION

OFFSET CONTROL LINKAGE GYROSCOPIC PRECESSION

• For example, if a downward force is applied at 9o clock position, the

resultant appears at 6o clock position. This will make the 12o clock
position to tilt up an equal amount in the opposite direction.
• Hence it is essential to employ offset control linkage in a helicopter
to enable the pilot to tilt the main rotor disc in the direction he
wants to go.
• If such a linkage were not used the pilot would have to move the
cyclic stick 90o out of phase or to the right of the direction desired.
• The offset control linkage is attached to a lever extending 90o in the
direction of rotation from the main rotor blade.

• The spinning of main rotor of a helicopter acts like a gyroscope.

• Through the use of the gyroscopic precession principle, the tip path
plane of the main rotor may be tilted from the horizontal.
• Because of this gyroscopic precession, the helicopter behaves
differently when rolling into a right turn than when rolling into a
left turn.
• During roll into a left turn, the pilot will have to correct for a nose
down tendency in order to maintain altitude.
• This correction is required because gyroscopic precession causes a
nose down tendency and because the tilted disk produces less
vertical lift to counteract gravity.
• Conversely, during a roll into a right turn, precession will cause a
nose up tendency while the tilted disk will produce less vertical lift.
• During the roll into a right turn, the pilot will have to correct for a
nose up tendency in order to maintain altitude.
• This correction is required because gyroscopic precession causes a
nose up tendency and because the tilted disk produces less vertical
lift to counter act gravity.
• The pilot input required to maintain altitude is significantly different
during a right turn than during a left turn, because gyroscopic
precession acts in opposite directions for each.
• To accomplish gyroscopic precession principle, a device known as
swash plate assembly or star assembly is used to place the input of
the cyclic to main rotor at the location required for the movement of
the helicopter in the desired direction.

SWASH PLATE ASSEMBLY FOR ACCOMPLISHING GYROSCOPIC PRECESSION PRINCIPLE

 DISSYMMETRY OF LIFT (MAIN ROTOR)
• Dissymmetry of lift is the difference in lift that exists between the
advancing half of the rotor disc and the retreating half.
• It is caused by the fact that in directional flight the aircraft relative
wind is added to the rotational relative wind on the advancing
blade, and subtracted on the retreating blade.
• Dissymmetry of lift is caused by the horizontal movement of the
helicopter in forward flight.
• The advancing blade has the combined speed of the blade velocity
plus the speed of the helicopter.
• The retreating blade looses speed in proportion to the forward
speed of the helicopter.
• When hovering in still air, the lift created by the rotor blades at all
parts of the disc area is equal and hence there is no dissymmetry of
lift.
• The difference between the air velocities over the advancing blades
and retreating blades creates the lift variation on either side.
• The blade passing the tail and advancing around the right side of
the helicopter has an increasing airspeed which reaches maximum
at the 3o clock position.
• As the blade continues, the airspeed reduces to essentially
rotational airspeed over the nose of the helicopter.
• Leaving the nose, the blade airspeed progressively decreases and
reaches minimum airspeed at the 9o clock position.
• The blade airspeed then increases progressively and again reaches
rotational airspeed as it passes over the tail.
COMPENSATION METHODS
• Angle of attack remains as the one variable that may be used by
the pilot to compensate for dissymmetry of lift.
• The pitch angle of the rotor blades can be varied from the flat pitch
to the stalling pitch angle, to change the angle of attack and to
compensate
sate for the lift differential.
• The changes in the blade pitch or the angle of attack are
introduced either through the blade feathering mechanism or blade
flapping.
• When the changes are made with the blade feathering mechanism,
the changes are called cycl
cyclic feathering.

DISSYMMETRY OF LIFT (TAIL ROTOR)

• The tail rotor experiences dissymmetry of lift during forward flight,
because it also has advancing and retreating blades.
• Dissymmetry is corrected for by a flapping hinge action.
• Two basic types of flapping hinges, the delta and the offset hinge,
are used on most contemporary helicopters.
• The delta hinge is not oriented parallel to the blade chord.
• It is designed so that flapping automatically introduces cyclic
feathering which corrects
rrects for dissymmetry of lift.

FLAPPING HINGES OFFSET FLAPPING HINGE

• The offset hinge is located outboard from the hub

• The offset hinge uses centrifugal force to produce substantial forces
that act on the hub.
• One important advantage of offset hinges is the presence of control
regardless of lift condition, since centrifugal force is independent of
lift.
 BLADE FLAPPING

• When blade flapping compensates for dissymmetry of lift, the upward and
downward flapping motion changes induced flow velocity.
• This changes angle of attack on the advancing and retreating blades.
ADVANCING BLADE
• As the relative wind speed of the advancing blade increases, the blade gains
lift and begin to flap up.
• It reaches its maximum up flap velocity at the 3-o’clock position, where the
wind velocity is the greatest.
• This up flap creates a downward flow of air and has the same effect as
increasing the induced flow velocity by imposing a downward vertical
velocity vector to the relative wind. This decreases the angle of attack

FLAPPING (ADVANCING BLADE 3° CLOCK POSITION)

RETREATING BLADE
• As relative wind speed of the retreating blade decreases, the blade loses lift
and begins to flap down.
• It reaches its maximum down flap velocity at the 9 o’clock position, where
wind velocity is the least.
• This down flap creates an upward flow of air and has the same effect as
decreasing the induced flow velocity by imposing an upward velocity vertical
vector to the relative wind. This increases angle of attack.

FLAPPING (RETREATING BLADE 9° CLOCK POSITION)

OVER THE AIRCRAFT NOSE AND TAIL
• Blade flapping over the nose and tail of the helicopter are essentially equal.
• The net result is an equalization, or symmetry, of lift across the rotor system.
Up flapping and down flapping do not change the total amount of lift
produced by the rotor blades.
• When blade flapping has compensated for dissymmetry of lift, the rotor disk
is tilted to the rear, called blowback.
• The maximum up flap occurring over the nose and the maximum down flap
occurring over the tail cause blowback.
• This would cause airspeed to decrease. The aviator uses cyclic feathering to
compensate for dissymmetry of lift allowing him or her to control the attitude
of the rotor disk.

CONING OF BLADES
• In order for a helicopter to generate lift, the rotor blades must be turning.
• This creates a relative wind that is opposite the direction of rotor system
rotation.
• The rotation of the rotor system creates centrifugal force (inertia), which
tends to pull the blades straight outward from the main rotor hub.
• The faster the rotation, the greater the centrifugal force.
• This force gives the rotor blades their rigidity and, in turn, the strength to
support the weight of the helicopter.
• The centrifugal force generated determines the maximum operating rotor
RPM . due to structural limitations on the main rotor system.
• As a vertical takeoff is made, two major forces are acting at the same time—
centrifugal force acting outward and perpendicular to the rotor mast, and
lift acting upward and parallel to the mast.
• The result of these two forces is that the blades assume a conical path instead
of remaining in the plane perpendicular to the mast.
 CORIOLIS EFFECT
• Coriolis Effect is purely based on the law of conservation of angular
momentum.
• When a rotor blade flaps upwards, the centre of mass of that rotor blade
moves closer to the axis of rotation and blade acceleration takes place in
order to conserve the angular momentum.
• When a rotor blade flaps downwards, the centre of mass of that rotor blade
moves away from the axis of rotation and blade deceleration takes place in
order to conserve the angular momentum.
• The acceleration and deceleration actions of the rotor blades are absorbed
either by dampers or the blade structure depends upon the design of the
rotor structure.
• The tendency of a rotor blade to increase or decrease its velocity in its plane
of rotation due to the movement of its centre of mass is known as Coriolis
effect.
• If a two bladed rotor system is not under slung, it will be subject to Coriolis
effect comparable to that of a fully articulated rotor system.
• The coriolis forces are overcome by providing a drag hinge in the plane of
rotation which permits oscillation of the rotor blades in the plane of rotation
thereby cancelling the effect of Coriolis effect.
• Two bladed rotor systems are normally subjected to coriolis effect to a much
lesser degree than the fully articulated rotor system because,
• The blades are generally under slung with respect to the rotor hub.
• The change in the distance of the centre of mass of the blade from the axis
of rotation is small.
 TRANSLATIONAL LIFT

• Improved rotor efficiency resulting from directional flight is translational lift.

• The efficiency of the hovering rotor system is improved with each knot of
incoming wind gained by horizontal movement or surface wind.
• As the incoming wind enters the rotor system, turbulence and vortexes are
left behind and the flow of air becomes more horizontal. In addition, the tail
rotor becomes more aerodynamically efficient during the transition from
hover to forward flight.
• As the tail rotor works in progressively less turbulent air, this improved
efficiency produces more thrust, causing the nose of the aircraft to yaw left
(with a main rotor turning counterclockwise) and forces the aviator to apply
right pedal (decreasing the angle of attack in the tail rotor blades) in
response.

• Translational lift is present with any horizontal flow of air across the rotor.
• This increased flow is most noticeable when the airspeed reaches
approximately 16 to 24 knots.
• As the helicopter accelerates through this speed, the rotor moves out of its
vortices and is in relatively undisturbed air.
• The airflow is also now more horizontal, which reduces induced flow and
drag with a corresponding increase in angle of attack and lift.
• The additional lift available at this speed is referred to as “effective
translational lift” (ETL).
• When a single-rotor helicopter flies through translational lift, the air flowing
through the main rotor and over the tail rotor becomes less turbulent and
more aerodynamically efficient.
• As the tail rotor efficiency improves, more thrust is produced causing the
aircraft to yaw left in a counterclockwise rotor system.
• It will be necessary to use right torque pedal to correct for this tendency on
takeoff.
• Also, if no corrections are made, the nose rises or pitches up, and rolls to the
right.
• This is caused by combined effects of dissymmetry of lift and transverse flow
effect, and is corrected with cyclic control.
• Translational lift is also present in a stationary hover if the wind speed is
approximately 16 to 24 knots.
• In normal operations, always utilize the benefit of translational lift, especially
if maximum performance is needed.

GROUND EFFECT
• Ground effect is a condition of improved performance encountered when
operating near the ground.
• Ground effect is the result of the interference of the surface with the airflow
pattern of the rotor system, and it is more pronounced near the ground i.e.,
within half rotor diameter from the ground.
• The efficiency of the main rotor blades increases while the helicopter is
operating in in-ground effect, due to two separate and distinct phenomenons.
1. Reduction of the velocity of the induced flow.
2. Reduction of the rotor tip vortex.
• The ground interrupts the airflow under the helicopter and the entire flow is
altered.
• The alteration of the entire airflow reduces the downward velocity of the
induced flow.
• The alteration of the entire airflow also results in less induced drag and a
more vertical lift vector.
• The lift needed to sustain a hover can be produced with a reduced angle of
attack and less power because of the more vertical lift vector.
• When operating in in-ground effect, the downward and outward airflow
pattern tends to restrict vortex generation.
• When operating in in-ground effect, the outboard portion of the main rotor
blade becomes more efficient and reduces overall system turbulence caused
by ingestion and re-circulation of the vortex swirls.
• The main rotor efficiency is increased by the ground effect up to a height of
about one rotor diameter for most helicopters.
• At a rotor height at one-half rotor diameter, the thrust is increased by about
seven percent.
• At rotor heights above one rotor diameter, the thrust increase is small and
decreases to zero at a height of about 1.25 rotor diameter.
• Maximum ground effect is accomplished when hovering over smooth paved
surfaces.
• While hovering over tall grasses, rough terrain, revetments or water, ground
effect may be seriously reduced.
• The aerofoil that is operating in in-ground effect is more efficient because it
operates at a large angle of attack and produces a more vertical lift vector.
• The increased efficiency of an aerofoil that is operating in in-ground effect,
results in a smaller downward induced wind velocity which increases angle
of attack.
• The aerofoil operating out-of-ground effect is less efficient because of
increased induced wind velocity which reduces angle of attack.

• If a helicopter hovering out-of-ground effect, descends into a ground effect

hover, blade efficiency increases because of the more favorable induced flow.
• As efficiency of the rotor system increases, the pilot reduces the blade pitch
angle to remain in in-ground effect hover.
• Less power is required to maintain hover in in-ground effect than for the out-
of-ground effect hover.
 AUTOROTATION (GENERAL)
• Autorotation is a term used for the flight condition during which no engine
power is supplied and the main rotor is driven only by the action of the
relative wind.
• The helicopter transmission or power train is designed so that the engine,
when it stops, is automatically disengaged from the main rotor to rotate freely
in its original direction.
• The most common reason for an autorotation is engine failure, but
autorotation can also be performed in the event of a complete tail rotor
failure, since there is virtually no torque produced in an autorotation.
• If altitude permits, the phenomenon autorotation can also be used to recover
from settling with power.
• If the engine fails, the freewheeling unit automatically disengages the engine
from the main rotor allowing the main rotor to rotate freely.
• The freewheeling unit disengages anytime the engine RPM is less than the
rotor RPM.
• At the moment when the engine fails, the main rotor blades are producing lift
and thrust from their angles of attack and velocity.
• By immediately lowering the collective pitch, which must be done in case of
an engine failure, lift and drag are reduced and the helicopter begins an
immediate descent, thus producing an upward flow of air through the rotor
system.
• This upward flow of air through the rotor provides sufficient thrust to
maintain rotor RPM throughout descent.
• Since the tail rotor is driven by the main rotor transmission during
autorotation, heading control is maintained as in normal flight.
• Several factors affect the rate of descent in autorotation. They are: (1) Density
Altitude (2) Gross weight of the helicopter (3) Main rotor RPM and (4)
Airspeed.
• The primary control of the rate of descent is Airspeed.
• Higher or lower airspeeds are obtained with the cyclic pitch control just as in
normal flight.
• Usually during autorotation, the angle of descent is varied from a vertical
descent to maximum range, which is the minimum angle of descent.
• Rate of descent is high at zero airspeed and decreases to a minimum at
approximately 50 to 60 knots, depending upon the type of helicopter and the
factors that govern autorotation.
• As the airspeed increases beyond that which gives minimum rate of descent,
the rate of descent increases again.
• The helicopter has potential energy by virtue of its altitude.
• As the altitude decreases, potential energy is converted into kinetic energy
and stored in the turning rotor.
• During autorotation, the pilot uses this kinetic energy to cushion the
touchdown when the helicopter lands.
• Most autorotation are performed with forward airspeed.
• The specific airspeed for autorotation is established for each type of aircraft
or helicopter, on the basis of average weather, wind condition and normal
loading.
• Use of anti-torque pedals to assist or speed the turn causes loss of airspeed
and results in downward pitching of the nose.
• During autorotation, the collective pitch control is used to maintain main
rotor RPM.
• It is mandatory to maintain the main rotor RPM within the established range
during autorotation.

AUTOROTATION (VERTICAL FLIGHT)

• During autorotation when the helicopter descends vertically there is no
forward air speed.
• The forces that cause the blades to turn are similar for all blades regardless of
their position in the plane of rotation.
• During vertical autorotation, the rotor disc is divided into three regions
namely Driven region (Propeller region), Driving region (Autorotative
region) and Stall region.

DRIVEN REGION (PROPELLER REGION)

• The driven region lies nearest to the blade tips.
• The driven region usually occupies 30 percent of the main rotor blade
radius.
• In the driven region, the total aerodynamic force is inclined slightly behind
the axis of rotation.
• In the driven region, the inclination of the aerodynamic force slightly
behind the rotor axis results in a drag force which tends to slow down the
rotation of the blade.
• The driven region produces lift but it also opposes rotation and
continually tends to decelerate the blade.
• The size of the driven region varies with the blade pitch setting, rate of
descent and the main rotor RPM.
• With the changes in the autorotative RPM, blade pitch or rate of descent,
the size of the driven region is also changed in relation to the other region.

DRIVING REGION (AUTOROTATIVE REGION)

• The driving region or the autorotative region lies between 25 to 70
percent of the main rotor blade radius.
• In the driving region, the total aerodynamic force is inclined slightly
forward of the axis of rotation.
• In the driving region, the inclination of the aerodynamic force slightly
forward of the axis of rotation, results in the production of the thrust
which tends to accelerate the rotation of the blade.
• The driving region of the main rotor blade produces the forces needed to
turn the blades during autorotation.
• Driving region size varies with the blade pitch setting, rate of descent and
main rotor RPM.
• With the changes in the autorotative RPM, blade pitch or rate of descent,
the size of the driving region is also changed in relation to the other
region.
• When the collective pitch lever is raised, the entire driving region also
moves towards the blade tip.

POINT OF EQUILIBRIUM
• Between the driven region and the driving region is the point of
equilibrium.
• At the point of equilibrium, on the main rotor blade, the total aerodynamic
force is aligned with the axis of rotation.
• At the point of equilibrium, on the main rotor blade, lift and drag are
produced but the total effect produces neither acceleration nor
deceleration of the main rotor RPM.
• When the collective pitch lever is raised, the pitch angle of all the blades
increases simultaneously and the point of equilibrium moves towards the
blade tip, decreasing the size of the driven region.

STALL REGION
• The stall region includes the inboard 25 percent of the blade radius.
• The stall region always operates above the stall angle of attack.
• The stall region creates drag which tends to slow down the rotation of the
main rotor blades.
• When the collective pitch lever is raised, the stall region becomes larger
and the total blade drag is increased causing the main rotor RPM to
decrease.

STABILIZATION
• A constant main rotor RPM is achieved by adjusting the collective pitch
control so blade acceleration forces from the driving region are balanced
with the deceleration forces from the driven and stall regions.
• The main rotor RPM stabilizes when the autorotative force and anti-
autorotative force are equal.

REGIONS OF BLADES DURING VERTICAL FLIGHT AUTOROTATION

 AUTOROTATION (FORWARD FLIGHT)
• Autorotative force is forward flight is produced in exactly the same
manner as when the helicopter is descending vertically in still air.
• During the forward flight, the forward speed changes the inflow of air
up through the rotor disc, the driving region and stall region moves
through the retreating side of the disc when the angle of attack is
larger.
• During the forward flight, on the retreating side blade, more of the
blade is in the stall region, and a small section near the root
experiences the reversed flow.
• During the forward flight on autorotation mode, the size of the driven
region on the retreating side is reduced.
• Autorotation in forward flight may be divided into three distinct phases
namely (1) The Entry (2) The Steady state flight (3) The deceleration
and touchdown.
• Each of these phases is aerodynamically different from each other.
• Entry into autorotation is performed following loss of engine power.
• During autorotation, the loss of engine power is indicated by a decay in
the main rotor RPM and an out-of-trim condition.
• Rate of RPM decay is most rapid when the helicopter is at high
collective pitch setting.
• Lowering the collective pitch will prevent excessive RPM decay.
• A cyclic flare will help prevent excessive decay if the failure occurs at
high speed.
• During entry into autorotation, the collective pitch is to be lowered.
• Till such time that the helicopter has not started to descend, the lift and
drag are reduced and the total aerodynamic forces are inclined further
forward than it was in the powered flight.
• As the helicopter begins to descend, the airflow changes. This causes
the total aerodynamic force to incline further forward. It will reach an
equilibrium that maintains a safe operating RPM.
• During the steady state descent, the airflow is now upward through the
rotor disc.
• Changed airflow creates a larger angle of attack although the blade
pitch angle is the same as it was before the descent.
• The total aerodynamic force is increased and inclined forward, so
equilibrium is established.
• Rate of descent and rotor RPM are stabilized and the helicopter is
descending at a constant angle.
• Angle of descent is normally 17 degrees to 20 degrees, depending on
airspeed, density altitude, wind, the particular helicopter design and
other variables.
• To successfully perform an autorotative landing, the airspeed and the
rate of descent has to be reduced just before touchdown.
• The cyclic pitch control should be moved to the rear to change the
attitude of the rotor disc with relation to the relative wind. This action
results in a reduction in airspeed and a reduction in rate of descent.
• The attitude change inclines the total force of the rotor disc to the rear
and slows the forward speed.
• The attitude change also increases angle of attack on all blades by
changing the inflow of air.
• The total rotor lifting force is increased, the rate of descent is
decreased, main rotor RPM is increased and thus the helicopter
experiences cushioning effect at the time of touchdown.
• After forward speed is reduced to a safe landing speed, the helicopter is
placed in a landing attitude as collective pitch is applied to cushion the
touchdown.
 BLADE AREAS IN FORWARD FLIGHT AUTOROTATION

ROTOR SYSTEM
• The rotor system includes a rotor head, rotor blades, and control systems that
drive and control the pitch angles of the blade.
• The rotor head is the main assembly of the rotor system; it contains the rotor
hub, blade attachment fittings, and blade controlling mechanisms.
• Currently, all helicopters in the Aviation sector use a hub drive system as
shown in the figure.
• In the hub drive, blades are attached to a rotor hub that is splined to the mast,
which, in turn, rotates the rotor hub and blades.
 MAIN ROTOR HEAD
• The main rotor head assembly is attached to and supported by the main gear
box shaft (Mast)
• The main rotor head supports the main rotor blades and is rotated by torque
from the main gear box.
• The main rotor head provides the means of transmitting the movements of
the flight controls to the main rotor blades.
• The most important part of the rotor system is the hub, which is located at the
centre.
• The following forces are concentrated on the main rotor hub.
1. All the forces generated by the movement of the blades through the air.
2. Aerodynamic loads
3. Centrifugal forces
4. Centripetal forces
5. Inertia forces those are responsible for pulling the blades upwards and
outwards.
• The main rotor head is designed to accommodate and control the forces
automatically.
• The main rotor heads are broadly classified into three basic types namely
1. Rigid Rotor system
2. Semi-rigid rotor system
3. Fully articulated rotor system.

RIGID ROTOR SYSTEM

• The term rigid as applied to rotor systems is generally misleading due to the
considerable flexibility in the systems. "Hingeless" may be a better
description in most cases.
• The hub itself bends and twists in order to provide for flapping, lead-lag, and
pitch control.
• In rigid rotor system, the main rotor blades, hub and the mast are rigid with
respect to each other.
• In the rigid rotor system, the rotor blades are allowed to feather to provide
cyclic and collective control.
• In the rigid rotor system, there are no flapping hinges, no lead-lag hinges and
there are no dampeners.
• The rigid rotor system is mechanically simple, but structurally complex
because the operating loads must be absorbed in bending rather than through
hinges.
 • Control loads are very high in the rigid rotor system.
• In the rigid rotor system, it is difficult to achieve stability.

SEMI-RIGID ROTOR SYSTEM

• The semi rigid rotor head gets its name from the fact that the two blades are
rigidly interconnected and pivoted about a point slightly above their center.
• Since the blades are interconnected, when one blade moves upward the other
moves downward a corresponding distance.
• The semi-rigid rotor system use two rotor blades and incorporates a
horizontal hinge pin only for flapping.
• The semi-rigid rotor system allows the blades to flap and feather.
• The semi-rigid rotor system usually employs a teetering hinge which allows
the blades to flap as a unit.
• The semi-rigid rotor system usually utilizes under slinging.
• The under slung mounting is designed to align the blade’s centre of mass
with a common flapping hinge so that both blade’s centre of mass vary
equally in distance from the centre of rotation during flapping and
compensates for the geometric imbalance.
• The main rotor hub is of a semi rigid, under slung design consisting basically
of the —
1. Yoke (2) Trunnion (3) Elastomeric bearing (-) Yoke extensions.
4. Pitch horns (5) Drag braces (6)Grips
 • The yoke is mounted to the trunnion by elastomeric bearings which permit
rotor flapping.
• Cyclic and collective pitch-change inputs are received through pitch horns
mounted on the trailing edge of the grips.
• The grips in turn are permitted to rotate about the yoke extensions on
Teflon-impregnated fabric friction bearings, resulting in the desired blade
pitch.
• Adjustable drag braces are attached to the grips and main rotor blades to
maintain alignment.
• Blade centrifugal loads are transferred from the blade grips to the extensions
by wire-wound, urethane-coated, tension-torsion straps.

FULLY ARTICULATED ROTOR SYSTEM

• A fully articulated rotor system usually consists of three or more rotor blades.
• In the fully articulated rotor system, the blades are allowed to flap, feather
and lead or lag either individually or collectively with respect to each other.
• Each rotor blade is attached to the rotor hub by a horizontal hinge called the
flapping hinge, which permits the blades to flap up and down.
• The flapping hinge may be located at varying distance from the rotor hub, and
there may be more than one.
• The position of the flapping hinge is chosen by the manufacturer, and it
mainly depends on the stability and control of the helicopter.
• Each rotor blade is also attached to the main rotor hub by a vertical hinge,
called a drag hinge or lead-lag hinge.
• Dampeners are normally incorporated in the design of this type of rotor
systems to prevent excessive motion about the drag hinge.
• The main purpose of the drag hinge and the dampeners is to absorb the
acceleration and deceleration forces of the main rotor blades caused by
Coriolis Effect.
• Location of drag hinge is selected to control maximum vibration.
FULLY ARTICULATED ROTOR HINGES LEAD AND LAG

FULLY ARTICULATED ROTOR FLAPPING (ARTICULATED ROTOR)

FLAPPING (SEMI-RIGID ROTOR) FEATHERING ACTION OF A BLADE

 MAIN ROTOR BLADES
• The rotor blade is an airfoil designed to rotate about a common axis to
produce lift and provide directional control for a helicopter.
• It is often referred to as a rotary wing.
• The design and construction of a rotor blade vary with the manufacturer,
although they all strive to manufacture the most efficient and economical
lifting device.
• Most rotor blades are designed as symmetrical airfoils to produce a stable
aerodynamic pitching characteristic.
• The unsymmetrical airfoil blade is capable of producing greater lift than a
symmetrical airfoil blade of similar dimensions.
• Aerodynamic stability is achieved when the center of gravity, center of
pressure, and blade-feathering axis all act at the same point.
• The blade is more stable in flight because these forces continue to act at
almost the same point as the blade.
• Aerodynamic stability is achieved by building a 3° upward angle into the
trailing edge section of the blade.
• This prevents excessive center-of pressure travel when the rotor blade angle
of attack is changed.
• A variety of material is used in the construction of rotor blades; aluminum,
steel, brass, and fiberglass are most common.

MAIN ROTOR BLADES-WOODEN

• Wooden main rotor blades are usually made of Birch, Spruce and Balsa.
• In order to obtain strength in the wooden main rotor blades, a steel core is
placed within the wood lamination near the leading edge of the blade.
• In the wooden rotor blades, the steel core acts as a mass balance in the blades.
• The external portion of the blade is covered with the resin impregnated
fiberglass cloth.
• Approximately two-thirds of the outboard portion of the leading edge of the
blade is protected with a stainless steel cap for anti-abrasion purpose.
• The stainless steel cap is placed flush with the contour of the blade leading
edge.
• Located on the upper surface are tow pins, tacks with the heads protruding
for the centre of gravity and centre of pressure locations.
• The points for the centre of gravity and centre of pressure are the main
reference points for maintenance purpose.
• On the outboard trailing edge is the trim tab riveted through the wood.
• The trim tab is used to adjust each blade for “track” by bending it.
• At the tip of the blade is a tip pocket used for span wise balance.
• Due to variations of the wood, most blades are used in matched pairs.
• The wooden blade has a disadvantage which is the effect of moisture on the
blade.
• The wooden blades have an advantage which is its life time.
• The use of wooden blades depends on its condition.
• The wooden blades are usually subjected to deterioration and damage.
MAIN ROTOR BLADES-METAL
• The rotor blade is an aerofoil designed to rotate about a common axis to
produce lift.
• Main rotor blades are designed as symmetrical aerofoil to produce stable
aerodynamic pitching characteristics.
• A variety of materials is used in the construction of rotor blades-Aluminium,
Steel, Brass and Fiberglass are most common.
• A typical main rotor blade has a hollow, extruded aluminium spar which
forms the leading edge of the blade.

SINGLE POCKET CONSTRUCTION MULTIPLE POCKET CONSTRUCTION

• Aluminium pockets are bonded to the trailing edge of the spar assembly
provides streamlining.
• The tip of the main rotor blade is usually detachable and is fastened with
screws to the spar and tip pocket.
• A steel cuff bolted to the root end of the spar provides a means of attaching
the blades to the main rotor head.
• A stainless steel abrasion strip is adhesive bonded to the leading edge of the
blade, for protection against erosion by sand or dust.
• Main rotor blades may have single pocket or multiple pockets.
• The root end of the blades is usually heavier and thicker than the rest of the
blade to resist centrifugal forces.
• Doublers are the flat plates that are bonded to both sides of the root end of
some rotor blades to provide more strength.
• The blade tip cap also has a means for attaching balance weights.
• The trailing edge of the blade is strengthened to resist damage which most
happens during ground handling.
• Spars of the main rotor blades are the main supporting member of the blade.
• Spars are usually made of aluminium or steel.
• Spars always extend along the span line of the rotor blade.
• Spars are made of different shapes and are usually made in D-shape.
• The trim tab is usually located on the trailing edge near the tip of the rotor
blade where the speed is greatest enough to get the needed aerodynamic
reaction.
 BLADE SPAR

BLADE TRAILING EDGE BLADE LEADING EDGE

TRIM TAB
 MAIN ROTOR BLADE-COMPOSITE
• The most common material used in the construction of main rotor blade is
fiberglass.
• A fiberglass blade makes use of a pre-cured roving spar.
• A roving is a string or strip of glass material.
• The rovings are impregnated with epoxy resin.
• The skin of the composite material blade is pre-impregnated with glass cloth.
• The root end of the blade is provided with plates for additional reinforcement.
• Roving strips form the trailing edge of the rotor blade.
• The leading edge of the blade is protected with a stainless steel strip covering
the span of the leading edge.
• For additional protection, poly-methane is incorporated in the blade profile
on the lower face aft of the stainless steel leading edge strip.
• The balance weight is added to the tip of the blade.
• Many other materials are also used in the construction of the main rotor
blades such as carbon fiber, Kevlar with titanium leading edges and
honeycomb fillers.
• One of the advantages of using fiberglass for the construction of the main
rotor blade is its life span.
• Fiberglass blades are less susceptible to notch damage due to the threads of
the roving.
• Corrosion of fiberglass is non-existent.
• Fiberglass blades are subjected to delamination problem and often repaired
by epoxy resin injection method
 COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION

ROUTINE MAINTENANCE
MAIN ROTOR HEAD
• The important servicing carried out on helicopter main rotor head is its
lubrication.
• Lubrication of main rotor head is done either with grease or with the
lubrication oil or with the both.
• The lubricant to be used for lubricating main rotor head is specified by the
manufacturer.
• A list of lubricants to be used is at various places in the helicopter is given in
helicopter maintenance manual along with the details regarding the
frequency of application and the method of its application.
• The helicopter main rotor head should be checked for any leakage of the
lubricant.
• The routine maintenance works includes removal and installation of rotor
hub from the mast, Drag hinge Damper hinge setting, Drag damper bleeding,
Blade spacing and Rigging of helicopter main rotor.
• Always refer the concerned helicopter maintenance manual before the
assigned task is undertaken.
DRAG HINGE DAMPER SETTING
• The drag hinge damper may be friction or hydraulic in operation.
• The hydraulic dampers may be adjustable and may be adjusted off the
aircraft.
• The friction type dampers must be adjusted on the aircraft as follows:
a. Isolate each blade, put snubber struts out of action with clamps.
b. Select a blade and hold the other blades away from it. Move the blades
forward and backward on its drag hinge to ensure free movement.
c. With a spring balance of suitable range and a strap over the blade tip, pull
the blade
from its front stop to its rear stop, ensuring the plane of movement is
correct. Note spring balance reading.
d. Adjust damper to give spring balance reading as laid down in the
maintenance manual.
e. Repeat on the other blades. Note and record the spring balance readings.
f. Release snubber clamps and replace locking as required.

BLADE SPACING
• Each helicopter will have some means of maintaining blade spacing; snubber
struts, cables or stops are used.
• These are usually adjustable.
• The following is the procedure normally followed and is given in general.
a. Tie-down the helicopter at some suitable mooring point.
b. The engine must be run with rotors turning. (As exterior forces will affect
the reading, the wind speed must be low. Not more than 5mph).
c. The engine must be run at a set speed with the collective pitch lever in a
position as specified in maintenance manual.
d. When the speed is steady the engine is shut down and the rotor allowed to
come to rest without applying the rotor brake.
e. When stationary the distance from ‘blade tip to blade tip’ is measured.
f. If the measurement exceeds the limits laid down then the snubber struts,
cables, stops etc., must be adjusted.
g. Note that incorrect damper setting may affect blade spacing.

DRAG HINGE HYDRAULIC DAMPERS

• Hydraulic dampers replaced the friction type drag hinge dampers fitted to
older rotor heads.
• Each hydraulic damper is a self-contained unit.
• The hydraulic damper is filled with hydraulic fluid and is pressurized.
• Normally, any adjustment or servicing is not permitted in hydraulic dampers.
 • Indication of serviceability may be provided by a tell-tale indicator
incorporated in the damper reservoir cap.
• Before and after flight inspections of drag hinge hydraulic dampers includes:
a. Examine the dampers for evidence of leaks.
b. Check that the projection of each tell-tale indicator above its damper
reservoir cap surface is more than the laid down dimension.
c. Examine for security of attachment, damage and corrosion.

MAIN ROTOR RIGGING

The complete rigging of the main rotor controls is split into five operations,
which must be followed in sequence. They are:
(1) Rig the collective flying control system from collective pitch lever to swash
plate assembly.
(2) Rig the cyclic flying control system from cyclic pitch stick to swash plate
assembly.
(3) Set the servos (PFCUs) and check hydraulic/electrical (external) supplies.
(4) Establish collective pitch for freedom of movement, basic angle and range.
(5) Establish cyclic pitch for freedom of movement, basic angle and range.

MAIN ROTOR BLADE ALIGNMENT

• Main rotor blade alignment is the centering of the mass (distribution of
weight) of the main rotor assembly across the center of rotation to balance it.
• The alignment of the rotor system has a distinct effect on balance because of
the great weight and long aim involved.
• A greater weight on one side of the center of rotation will cause a lateral
vibration.
• The requirement for manually aligning the main rotor blades applies to rigid
and semi rigid rotor systems only.
• The fully articulated rotor system automatically aligns itself as centrifugal
force increases and pulls the blades into a pure radial position.
• The most common method of manually aligning main rotor blades is the
telescope method.
• A small bore rifle telescope is the basic tool used to align the main rotor
assembly.
• A fixture to hold the telescope is fitted onto the hub directly over the center of
rotation. A repairer should be concerned with the vertical cross hair only.
Ignore the horizontal cross hair.
• Place a zeroed telescope in the holding fixture and sight the vertical cross hair
on a reference point of the blade.
• The reference point normally used is a rivet in the skin at the tip of the blade
in line with the feathering axis. Adjust a misaligned rivet by moving the blade
in the hub to bring the rivet into alignment.
• Align the other (opposite) blade using the same procedure.
• Alignment of the main rotor assembly has been achieved when both blades
have been adjusted so that the vertical cross hair of the telescope is
positioned at the center of both rivets
• Main rotor blade alignment is necessary on semi-rigid rotors.
• The method of blade alignment involves moving the blade about its lead-lag
axis.
• This movement is for the specific purpose of placing the blades in correct
relationship with the main rotor hub.
• This relationship places the centre of gravity and the centre of pressure in
perspective.
• The stability of the main rotor blade will be destroyed if this relationship is
incorrect.
• The points to be used in blade alignment are marked on the blade by the
manufacturer.
• On metal blades only one point exists, for alignment purpose.
• The alignment point on the metal blade is located very close to the tip of the
blade.
• During the blade alignment process, the blades are held at a pre-cone angle
and are usually supported towards the tip of the blade by a roller mechanism
so that the blades may be moved about the lead-lag axis as the drag brace is
adjusted.
• A string is placed from the alignment point on one blade to the alignment
point on the other blade.
• The string must be stiff enough while the blade alignment process is in
progress.
• Adjust the drag braces of the blade so that the string passes over the
reference points on both grips.
 ROTOR BLADE ALIGNMENT
Methods used to align rotor blades are described in the following paragraphs.
a. TELESCOPIC METHOD.
• The telescopic method of blade alignment is done with the rotor hub
and blade assembly removed from the helicopter.
• The main rotor hub and blade assembly is placed on stands which will
allow a blade to move horizontally if it needs to be adjusted.
• An alignment scope is positioned on the hub and is used to sight on
the alignment screw on the blade tip.
• Alignment adjustments are made by adjusting the drag brace.
• Consult the applicable maintenance manual for detailed instructions.
b. STRING METHOD.
• This method has been used for about 25 years and is considered good
and accurate.
• A string is stretched between the alignment screws at the blade tips.
 • The string should cross the rotor hub at the center of rotation.
• Consult the applicable maintenance manual for detailed guidance.

BALANCING OF ROTOR BLADES-STATIC BALANCING

• It is essential to balance the helicopter rotor blades for smooth and trouble
free operation of the helicopter.
• An unbalanced rotor system causes the most problems in the field. The
trouble that results is called lateral vibration.
• A few indicators of lateral vibration are worn parts and bearings, broken
parts and bearings, loose parts and fittings, and cracked parts and fittings.
• The repairer must determine if the unbalanced condition is caused by chord
wise or span wise torque before it can be corrected.
• Balancing of the rotor blades are usually carried out in two ways. They are:
(1) Static balancing and (2) Dynamic balancing.
• Balancing of the rotor blades is carried out in a clean room environment.
• Balancing of the rotor blades are usually carried out in two directions. They
are: (1) Span wise balancing and (2) Chord wise balancing.
• Static balancing of the rotor system is more complex than the dynamic
balancing.
• On some helicopters, the main rotor head is balanced separately from the
blades, while on the other helicopters the head and the blades are balanced
together as a unit.
• The determining factor as to what method will be used is dictated by the size
of the rotor head and its complexity.
• Complex main rotor heads are balanced separately while the smaller less
complex rotor heads are balanced as a unit.
• When the head and the rotor blades are balanced as a unit, the chord wise
balance must be established first.
• Weight is added or removed to/from the rotor blades in order to balance it
properly. (Tip pocket of the blade/On spar either side)
• Static balancing of the blades is usually carried out on stands provided for this
purpose.
• Mass balance weights (bars) are placed into the leading edge of a blade while
the blade is being made. This is to ensure that correct chord wise balance is
about 25 percent of chord.
• The type of metal and its shape and location vary with the manufacturer. The
maintenance personnel are not allowed to move the weights in most of the
helicopter blades.
• When moving of weights is allowed, however, the maintenance personnel
must remember that changing weights will move the center of gravity
forward or backward.
• Span wise balance weights are at the tip of the blade, usually where they can
be attached securely to the spar.
• They are normally installed in the blade during manufacture.
• The maintenance personnel is not always permitted to move these weights.
• When movement is necessary, the maintenance personnel should always
remember that adding span wise weight moves the center of gravity outward.
• Subtracting weight moves the center of gravity inward.
• When moving the span wise weight is permitted, the weight change is
computed by the maintenance personnel mathematically after the blade has
been weighed.

BLADE BALANE WEIGHTS MASS BALANCE WEIGHTS

SPANWISE BALANCE WEIGHTS

 BALANCING OF ROTOR BLADES-
DYNAMIC BALANCING
• It is essential to carry out track check before carrying out dynamic balancing
of the rotor blades.
• The common method used for dynamic balancing is tapping the blades and
feeling the result of added weight.
• The process of dynamic balancing involves many number of starts and stops
of the rotor system.
• After taping the rotor blades, run the helicopter.
• If the vibration level increases, remove the tape and tape it in the opposite
blade.
• When the lowest vibration level is reached, the weight of the tape is added to
the blade either to the tip pocket or the blade retaining nuts.
TRACKING OF HELICOPTER ROTOR BLADES-MAIN ROTOR BLADES
• Tracking is a procedure used to check that all the rotor blades are travelling
within the same tip path plane.
• If a blade is out-of-track, the helicopter will have a 1:1 vertical vibration.
• The helicopter requires tracking whenever the main rotor blades, main rotor
heads or pitch change components of the rotor heads are replaced.
• Tracking of helicopter rotor blades is usually performed by the following
methods. They are:
1. Stick method 3. Flag method 5. Pre-track method
2. Light reflector method 4. Electronic (Strobe) method
• Tracking of helicopter rotor blades is done at slow speeds and at high speeds.
• On some helicopters tracking can also be done during flight.
• In flight tracking is done during hovering and at various airspeeds.

STICK METHOD
• Stick method of blade tracking is done only when the helicopter is on the
ground.
 • In this method, a rubber wick of 2 to 4 inches is placed on a stick of sufficient
length to touch the rotor.
• The wick portion is coated with a substance with a colour.
• With the helicopter operating at the specified RPM, the wick attached to the
stick is placed in contact with the rotor blades.
• When the contact is made, the stick is removed.
• After shutting down the engines, the blades are checked for the mark left by
the wick.
• The disadvantage of this system is that the process may have to be repeated
several times before the track can be adjusted.

LIGHT REFLECTOR METHOD

• Light reflector method of blade tracking can be done when the helicopter is
on the ground or when it is on the air.
• In this method, reflectors are placed on the blade tips of the helicopter facing
inboard towards the cabin.
• One of these reflectors is plain while others have a strip placed across the
middle.
• The helicopter is run at the specified RPM, and a light from the portable light
source is focused on the reflector.
• The image seen on the reflector during tracking by this focused light is
analyzed for adjustment.
FLAG METHOD
• Flag method of tracking is also done when the helicopter is on the ground.
• In this method, a flag consisting of a frame is brought near to the tip path
plane of the rotor, so that the colours marked on the blades is registered on
the flag.
• After shutting down the engines, the blades are checked for the marks left on
the flag.
• Flag method has an advantage over stick method is that the distance of the tip
path plane is clearly indicated on the flag and the adjustments are made
accordingly.
ELECTRONIC (STROBE) METHOD
• Electronic strobe method of blade tracking can be done when the helicopter is
on the ground or when it is on the air.
• The reflectors use a stripe system to identify the blades.
• In this method, an interrupter and a pick-up is mounted on the swash plate
assembly.
• The interrupter is triggered when the swash plate assembly rotates and the
interrupter allows the strobe light to be flashed each time when the main
rotor blade passes a certain point.
• An electronic device called “Vibrex” records all the flashes and the position of
the blades during the revolution of the rotor.
• The Vibrex analyses and instructs the necessary adjustments to be made.
 VIBREX ANALYZER KIT

TRACKING OF TAIL ROTOR BLADES

• Tracking of tail rotor blades may be done by either manually or electronically.
• Manually carried out tail rotor tracking is done by stick method.
• In this method, a stick with a sponge rubber tip is applied with Prussian blue
is made to come in contact with the rotating rotor and the track of the rotor is
registered.
• After shutting down the engine, the track is adjusted.
• Electronic method of tracking require Vibrex analyzer which when installed
records the track and instructs the necessary adjustments to be made.
 BLADE SWEEPING
• Blade sweeping is a procedure used after installation of new blade, or major
components of the main rotor head.
• Blade sweeping procedure is usually carried out on semi-rigid rotor system
and only after the blade alignment process is over.
• Sweeping of helicopter rotor blades is done to obtain chord wise dynamic
balance and is not always necessary after obtaining static balance.
• The indication of the need for sweeping is very similar to that of span wise
balance.
• A 1; 1 lateral vibration from the main rotor is always an indication of an
unbalanced condition.
• The procedure for sweeping of helicopter main rotor blades is very simple.
• It involves moving one or both of the rotor blades aft about the lead-lag axis,
which is held stationary by the drag brace, depending upon the type of rotor
head, to obtain chord wise balance.
• Once the initial alignment is achieved, the rotor blades may be moved only in
the aft direction without affecting the stability of the helicopter.
• All movement in the sweeping process should be slight because the
movement at the drag brace is multiplied several times at the blade tip.
 HELICOPTER MAIN ROTOR MAST
• The mast is the attachment point of the main rotor.
• The main rotor is attached to the mast assembly.
• A mast is a tube that is attached to the helicopters transmission.
• The mast absorbs torsion and tension loads received from engine torque and
the weight of the helicopter in flight. The mast is a critical item and in some
instances has a finite life.

CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES
SOLID MAST
• The construction of the mast assembly varies considerably from one
manufacturer to another.
• Some masts only support the head, while others also may support the
stabilizer bar assembly.
• The mast also drives the swash plate assembly (star assembly) through which
the flight controls operate.
• The rotor mast is usually mounted in and driven by the transmission (Main
gear box), drives the flight control units and main
rotor.
• The rotor mast is usually equipped with five or
several sets of spines used as attaching points for
the following items:
1. Main Rotor
2. Stabilizer bar, if fitted
3. Dampener bracket, if fitted
4. Swash plate assembly
5. Main gear box.
• Thread portions are provided for the mast nut at
the top, and the mast bearing on the lower end.
• The mast bearing is a split inner race thrust
bearing.
• The outer race is supported and held in place by a
cap on top of the transmission.
• The inner race, locked to the flange of the mast by
a nut assembly rotates with the mast.
• This is the main support for the mast and provides
the primary point of rotation and thrust.
• The mast bearing is one of the more critical
bearing used in a helicopter.
• The mast also has grooves to accommodate snap rings which is used to hold
flight components.
• Some masts have a cork placed in the bottom, preventing transmission oil
from entering the mast.
• In addition, an aluminium plug is placed in the top of the hollow mast,
preventing distortion of the mast due to torque applied to the rotor head
retaining nut.
• The rotor head is supported on a set of split cones at the rotor head trunnion.
• The trunnion is splined to accept the first set of splines.
• On top of the rotor are placed the stops for the rotor.
• The nut is threaded down on the mast, and secured with a locking retainer.

HOLLOW MAST
• Some masts are built hollow which remains stationary. The obvious
advantage of this type of hollow mast is that the mast may be built lighter
because it is not stressed in the same manner as the rotating mast.
• The rotating mast must not only support and turn the main rotor, but also
absorb the flight loads.
• The static mast is attached to the structure of the airframe, eliminating the
stresses that would normally be placed on the transmission.
• Passing through the centre of the mast is the drive shaft used to power the
rotor.
• This drive shaft is splined to the transmission and has a flange on top which
bolts to the rotor head, transferring power to the rotor.
• The rotor head is connected to the static mast and supported by two opposing
taper bearings.
• Some twin engine helicopters in use today use a mast with a torque meter
installed.
• The torque meter is a device which measures twist in the mast itself by use of
a sensor located in the bottom of the transmission.
• All masts are made of machined steel forgings, making them susceptible to
corrosion, stresses, scratches, and other damage associated with steel parts.
• Masts are cadmium plated to prevent corrosion.
• Masts used on semi-rigid rotors are most susceptible to damage from mast
bumping, due to the under slung head striking the mast.
 TOTAL ROTOR THRUST
• Thrust, like lift, is generated by the rotation of the main rotor system.
• In a helicopter, thrust can be forward, rearward, sideward, or vertical.
• The resultant of lift and thrust determines the direction of movement of the
helicopter.
• The solidity ratio is the ratio of the total rotor blade area, which is the
combined area of all the main rotor blades, to the total rotor disc area.
• This ratio provides a means to measure the potential for a rotor system to
provide thrust.
• The tail rotor also produces thrust. The amount of thrust is variable through
the use of the anti torque pedals and is used to control the helicopter’s yaw.

• Thrust is obtained by movement of the tip path plane of the rotor or rotor
disc.
• If the helicopter is ascending vertically or at a hover, lift and thrust are both in
the same direction, vertical.
• However, in order to obtain forward, backward, or sideward directional flight,
the rotor disc will be tilted in the direction of the movement desired.
• This will result in lift and thrust being perpendicular to each other, giving the
helicopter the ability to maintain flight and move directionally
 SPECIAL INSPECTIONS ON MAIN ROTOR
• The inspections necessary on helicopters following unusual occurrences are
normally specified in the aircraft maintenance manual.
• The areas that are usually checked for their condition are main rotor blades,
head and shaft, tail rotor and transmission, following heavy landings or flight
through severe turbulence.
• Inspections are also required following over speeding of the rotors. The
inspections outlined below are typical.
MAIN ROTOR BLADES
• Remove the rotor blades and examine them for twisting and distortion.
• Check the surface for cracks, wrinkles, or other damage and check the
security of the skin attachment rivets or structural bonding.
• If the main rotor blades are badly damaged through impact with the tail boom
or ground, certain components in the transmission may be shock-loaded and
it is sometimes specified that, for example, the main rotor shaft, pitch change
rods and main gearbox mounting bolts, should also be removed for
inspection.
MAIN ROTOR HEAD
• Disconnect pitch change rods and dampers and check that the flapping hinges,
drag hinges and blade sleeves move freely, without signs of binding or
roughness.
• Examine the rotor head and blade stops for cracks or other damage and the
dampers for signs of fluid leaks.
• Damage in this area may be an indication of further damage inside the main
gearbox.
ROTOR OVER-SPEEDING
• The extent of the inspection will normally depend on the degree of over
speeding.
• Over speeding below a specified limit will usually entail checking the rotor
blades for distortion and damage and the rotor head for cracks and smooth
operation, but, if this limit is exceeded it is usually specified that both the
main rotor head and tail rotor head should be removed for overhaul.
• If damage has occurred to the main rotor blades, the rotor head, shaft, pitch
control rods, tail rotor and transmission should also be removed for overhaul
and the gearbox attachments should be inspected for damage.
 STABILIZER BAR

• The stabilizer bar is the most common method used to obtain dynamic
stability on semi-rigid
rigid rotors.
• A stabilizer bar which is fitted on some helicopters acts as a gyroscope with
the property of gyroscopic rigidity.
• Once the object is in motion, it tends to stay in its same plane of rotation.
• Control levers from the cyclic pitch lever are attached to the stabilizer bar,
with mixing levers attached to the pitch change of the main rotor head.
• By using the stabilizer bar the rotor remains independent of the mast.
• Any tilt of the rotor head is automatically corrected by the mixing levers of
the stabilizer bar and any movement of the fuselage is not transmitted to the
rotor.

DAMPENERS

• The main purpose of the drag dampeners is to control the rate of lead-lag
lead of
the helicopter rotor blades.
• A drag damper is fitted to each main rotor blade to reduce the rate of
dragging which may otherwise be excessive especially at low rotor speeds,
when the centrifugal force developed is insufficient to hold the blades in their
normal station.
• The drag dampeners are available in three basic types namely
1. Hydraulic dampeners
2. Multiple disc dampeners
3. Elastomeric dampeners
• The hydraulic dampener makes use of a cylinder and a piston with hydraulic
fluid passing through a controlled orifice.
• The hydraulic drag dampeners are of adjustable type and so the rate of
dampening can vary.
• The multiple disc dampener mainly consists of a splined shaft.
• The discs are submerged in the hydraulic fluid for cooling and lubrication.
• Passing through the centre of the cylinder and discs is a splined shaft.
• Over the stacks of the discs and plates is provided with a set of springs.
• When the main rotor blades move about the lead-lag axis, the vibrations are
absorbed by the plates, discs and the springs.
• Elastomeric dampener is of bonded rubber and metal construction.
• The elastomeric dampener mainly consists of a cylinder filled with a rubber
like material.
• The elastomeric dampener works on the principle of hysteresis.
• When the rubber material is compressed or a shear load is applied the shape
is changed and it slowly returns to its original shape.
• Elastomeric dampener does not require any maintenance work.

SWASH PLATE ASSEMBLY

• To accomplish gyroscopic precession principle, a device called swash plate
assembly or star assembly is used to place the input of the cyclic to main rotor
at the location required for the movement of the helicopter in the desired
direction.
• The purpose of the swash plate assembly is to transmit control inputs from
the collective and cyclic controls to the main rotor blades.
• It mainly consists of two parts namely stationary part and rotating part.
• The stationary part is mounted around the main rotor mast and is connected
to the cyclic and collective control by a series of push-pull rods.
• The stationary part of the swash plate assembly is restrained from rotating
but is able to tilt in all directions and move vertically.
• The rotating swash plate is mounted on the stationary swash plate by means
of bearings and is allowed to rotate with the main rotor mast.
• Both swash plates tilt and slide up and down as one unit.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT CONTROL-CYCLIC PITCH CONTROL

• The cyclic pitch stick is normally mounted vertically in front of the pilot seat
between the pilot knees or on a teetering bar from a single cyclic located in
the centre of the helicopter.
• The cyclic pitch stick can pivot in all directions.
• The purpose of the cyclic pitch control is to tilt the tip path plane in the
direction that horizontal direction is desired.
• The cyclic pitch control changes the direction of the thrust force, thus
controlling the attitude and airspeed of the helicopter.
• The rotor disc tilts in the same direction of the cyclic stick was moved.
• If the cyclic pitch stick is moved forward, the angle of attack decreases as the
rotor blades passes the right side of the helicopter and increases on the left
side.
• If the cyclic stick is moved forward, maximum downward deflection of the
rotor blade in front of the helicopter and maximum upward deflection behind
it, causing the rotor disc to tilt forward.
• The cyclic pitch control is very sensitive.
• The cyclic pitch control is not of self-centering type.
• The cyclic pitch control always lags between input and its effects.
 TEETERING BAR CYCLIC CONTROL

• In order to maintain cruise flight the cyclic pitch control requires some right
and forward pressure during the flight.
• Fine adjustment of the cyclic trim may be achieved by use of the adjustment
knob.
• Forward movement of the cyclic pitch stick causes
1. Its nose to pitch down
2. An increase in airspeed of the helicopter
3. Loss of height.
• Aft movement of the cyclic pitch stick causes
1. Its nose to pitch up
2. Decrease in airspeed of the helicopter
3. Gain in height.
• The cyclic stick accommodates radio switch, trim switch and cargo release
switch depending upon the requirement of the helicopter.
• A device called a swash plate assembly or star assembly is used to place the
input of the cyclic to maintain rotor at the location required for the movement
of the helicopter in the desired direction.
• An important function of the cyclic control system is that it allows the pilot to
correct for dissymmetry of lift.
• Cyclic feathering changes the angle of incidence differentially around the
rotor system, and compensates for dissymmetry of lift.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT CONTROL-COLLECTIVE PITCH CONTROL

• Collective pitch control lever is located to the left side of the pilot seat, and
mounted on a pivot so that the pilot can ease it up and down with his left
hand.
• When the collective pitch lever is raised, the pitch angle of all the blades
increases simultaneously.
• When the collective pitch lever is raised, the entire swash plate assembly is
also raised and increases the angle of attack of the all the blades and thus
results more lift.
• The amount of movement of the collective pitch lever up or down determines
the amount of blade pitch change.
• The collective pitch control is the primary altitude control of the helicopter.
• The collective pitch lever accommodates throttle control on its forward end in
the form of a motorcycle type twist grip.
• The function of the throttle is to regulate the main rotor RPM.
• Any change in the collective pitch, the main rotor RPM will remain constant.
• Twisting the throttle outboard increases the main rotor RPM while twisting
the throttle inboard causes a decrease in RPM.
• The throttle movement is co-ordinated with the collective pitch through the
collective pitch-throttle synchronization unit.
• The collective pitch lever is connected to the engine via, the Correlator and
the governor and thus the engine power is controlled.
• The feel obtained on the collective pitch lever is directly proportional to the
friction applied.
• Simultaneously increasing the collective and adding power with throttle
causes the helicopter to rise.
• Changes in the collective causes changes in the total rotor thrust but they do
not alter the total rotor thrust orientation.
 HELICOPTER FLIGHT CONTROL-YAW CONTROL

• In addition to counteracting torque, the tail rotor and its control linkage also
permit control of the helicopter heading during flight.
• Application of more control than is necessary to counteract torque will cause
the nose of the helicopter to turn in the direction of the pedal movement.

• In forward flight, the pedals are not used to control the heading of the
helicopter.(Except during the portions of cross-wind take-off and approach)
• In forward flight, the pedals are used to compensate for the torque to put the
helicopter in longitudinal trim so that co-ordinate flight can be maintained.
• The thrust of the tail rotor depend upon the pitch angle of the tail rotor
blades.
• The tail rotor may have a positive pitch angle or it may have a negative pitch
angle which to push the tail to the right or pull the tail to the left.
• With the right pedal pressed or moved forward of the neutral position, will
cause the tail rotor blades to change the pitch angle and the nose of the
helicopter will yaw to the right.
• With the left pedal pressed or moved forward of the neutral position will
cause the tail rotor blades to change the pitch angle and the nose of the
helicopter will yaw to the left.
• The pitch angle of the tail rotor blade can be positive, negative or zero.
• A positive pitch angle tends to move the tail to the right.
• A negative pitch angle tends to move the tail to the left.
• With a zero pitch angle, the tail rotor does not produce thrust.
• With the right pedal moved forward of the neutral position, the tail rotor
either has a negative pitch angle or a small positive pitch angle.
• When the right pedal is moved forward, the negative pitch angle of the tail
rotor blade increases.
• When the left pedal is moved forward, the positive pitch angle of the tail rotor
blade increases.
• If the tail rotor has a negative pitch angle, the tail rotor thrust is working in
the same directions as the torque of the main rotor.
• With a small positive pitch angle, the tail rotor does not produce sufficient
thrust to overcome the torque effect of the main rotor during the cruise flight.
• With the anti-torque pedals in the neutral position, the tail rotor has a
medium positive pitch angle.
• In the medium positive pitch, the tail rotor thrust approximately equals the
torque of the main rotor during cruise flight, so the helicopter maintains a
constant heading in level flight.
• If the left pedal is in the forward position, the tail rotor has a high positive
pitch angle.
• The maximum positive pitch angle of the tail rotor is generally somewhat
greater than the maximum negative pitch angle available.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT CONTROL-THROTTLE CONTROL

• The function of the throttle is to regulate engine RPM.

• If the correlator or governor system does not maintain the desired RPM when
the collective is raised or lowered, or if those systems are not installed, the
 throttle has to be moved manually with the twist grip in order to maintain
RPM.
• Twisting the throttle outboard increases RPM while twisting it inboard
decreases RPM

COLLECTIVE PITCH/THROTTLE COORDINATION

• When the collective pitch is raised, the load on the engine is increased in
order to maintain desired RPM.
• The load is measured by a manifold pressure gauge in piston helicopters or by
a torque gauge in turbine helicopters.
• In piston helicopters, the collective pitch is the primary control for manifold
pressure, and the throttle is the primary control for RPM.
• However, the collective pitch control also influences RPM., and the throttle
also influences manifold pressure; therefore, each is considered to be a
secondary control of the other’s function.
• Both the tachometer (RPM. indicator) and the manifold pressure gauge must
be analyzed to determine which control to use.

CORRELATOR/GOVERNOR
• A correlator is a mechanical connection between the collective lever and the
engine throttle.
• When the collective lever is raised, power is automatically increased and
when lowered, power is decreased.
• This system maintains RPM close to the desired value, but still requires
adjustment of the throttle for fine tuning.
• A governor is a sensing device that senses rotor and engine RPM and makes
the necessary adjustments in order to keep rotor RPM constant.
• In normal operations, once the rotor RPM is set, the governor keeps the RPM
constant, and there is no need to make any throttle adjustments.
• Governors are common on all turbine helicopters and used on some piston
powered helicopters.
• Some helicopters do not have correlators or governors and require
coordination of all collective and throttle movements.
• When the collective is raised, the throttle must be increased; when the
collective is lowered, the throttle must be decreased.
• As with any aircraft control, large adjustments of either collective pitch or
throttle should be avoided. All corrections should be made through the use of
smooth pressure.
 MAINTENANCE OF HELICOPTER CONTROLS

• It is necessary to keep the control system components and its entire layout
Very neat and clean.
• It is necessary to ensure that the hydraulic system, if used in the helicopter
control system is properly serviced.
• All actuators and filters used in the helicopter control system should be
thoroughly cleaned periodically to remove any foreign matter from the
actuator rods and filters etc.,
• Ensure that the push-pull rods, cables etc., are properly fitted. Any loose
fittings may be tightened and secured properly.
• Wire locking, use of lock washers etc., should be done wherever required
during maintenance of the system.
• Maintenance of components of helicopter control system is usually limited to
removal and replacements of tubing, hoses, valves and pumps.
• Whenever any hydraulic component is removed for any reason, it is
mandatory to carry out bleeding process in order to remove any trapped air
from the system.
• Maintenance activity in a helicopter control system includes removal and
replacement of life component, if any before it expires its designated life.
• Flight controls require periodic lubrication either in the form of oil or in the
form of grease.
• Tension check of helicopter control cables and its adjustments forms the part
of maintenance activity.
• The control system should be properly rigged so that the desired flight
movement is achieved.
 INSPECTION OF HELICOPTER CONTROL SYSTEM
• Inspect the control system components and its layout for cleanliness.
• Inspect the control cable for its proper routing. This is to ensure that the
control cable is not butting to the helicopter structure or getting twisted
anywhere in its run.
• Inspect the control cables for any broken strands and for any physical
damage.
• Inspect the hydraulic system tank meant for control system for its condition
and the hydraulic fluid level.
• Inspect the control system components for its proper fitment and attachment.
• Inspect the control system components for any corrosion.
• Operate the control system thoroughly and inspect them for its proper
movement.
• Inspect the push-pull rods and control cables for its condition.

HELICOPTER MAIN ROTOR SYSTEM RIGGING

• Rigging of main rotor usually involves the adjustments made on the collective
and cyclic, so that correct amount of pitch is present and is within the
tolerance.
• Rigging of main rotor system is accomplished with the use of special tools
such as rig pins, holding fixtures, measuring scale, and universal propeller
protractor and jigs to position the controls while rigging.
• Other items of the helicopter such as mast alignment, which would adversely
affect the rigging often require checks.
• It may be necessary on some helicopter to jack-up and level the helicopter for
rigging.
• Using the rig pins, the controls are locked in the specific positions such as
neutral/extreme position, the pitch of the main rotor is measured.
• If the pitch is not within the limits, adjustments are made in the connecting
rods to a set length.
• The cyclic pitch is used to rig the main rotor in lateral and longitudinal
directions.
CYCLIC CONTROL RIGGING
• The lateral cyclic is rigged by moving the cyclic pitch stick in lateral directions
i.e., extreme left and extreme right via neutral position.
• First keep the cyclic pitch in neutral setting and check for the position of the
swash plate assembly. It should be in the position as prescribed in the
maintenance manual.
• Now move the cyclic pitch stick to one of the extremities say extreme left.
Now note the tilt of the swash plate assembly. It should be in the position as
defined in the maintenance manual. If not, adjust the control in such a way
that the desired tilt is achieved. The tilt of the swash plate assembly basically
decides the pitch angle of the blades.
• Now repeat the same process with the cyclic pitch stick in the extreme right
position.
• Now repeat the same process with the cyclic pitch stick in the extreme
forward and rearward position.

COLLECTIVE PITCH CONTROL RIGGING

• Set the collective pitch lever in the neutral position and check the swash
plate assembly for its position.
• If, it is not in position, adjust the control system (Collective) in such a way that
the swash plate assembly takes up the designated position.
• Now lower the collective pitch lever to fully down position and check the
swash plate for its position.
• If, it is not in position, adjust the control system (Collective) in such a way that
the swash plate assembly takes up the designated position.
• Now raise the collective pitch lever to fully up position and check the swash
plate for its position.
• If, it is not in position, adjust the control system (Collective) in such a way that
the swash plate assembly takes up the designated position.

TAIL ROTOR DRIVE SHAFT

• The main purpose of tail drive shaft is to transmit the torque from the main
gear box to the helicopter tail rotor.
• The tail rotor drive shaft passes through/over the tail boom.
• The tail boom is usually made of different pieces joined together to form a
single shaft.
• The tail drive shaft is supported in sections with universal joints connecting
the sections or it may be a continuous member with bearing supports at
intervals.
• The spacing between the support bearings is determined by the natural
bending vibration frequency of the shaft.
• When different pieces are joined, they are attached to each other either by a
rigid joint(using nut and bolt) or by a flexible joint(Splined or universal).
• Flexibility in the shaft is provided by splined or rubber couplings.
• The tail drive shaft may be either hollow or solid.
• The tail drive shaft is the shaft which runs from main gear box output to tail
gear box input.

HELICOPTER GEAR BOXES-MAIN GEAR BOX

• The main gear box is a gear reduction mechanism attached to the engine.
• The main gear box transmits the engine power to the main rotor, the tail
rotor, the generator and other accessories namely the cooling fan, the
hydraulic pump, the rotor tachometer etc.,
• The main gear box is designed in such a way to disengage the rotor from
the engine in case of engine failure.
• The main gear box protects the rotor system from the torsional drag of
an inoperative engine.
• The main gear box usually contains spur gears, helical gears, bevel gears,
hypoid gears, worm gears, epi-cyclic gears or planetary gears and
pinions.
• Most main transmissions are lubricated by a wet sump oil system which
is separate from the engine oil system.
• The main reasons for using main gear box in helicopter are:
1. The engine produces the greatest amount of power at a very high
RPM.
2. The rotor cannot operate at high RPM because of the retreating blade
stall and the fact that the tip speed must stay subsonic.
 • For multi-engined helicopters, the rotors will be continuously driven by
the remaining engines in order to ensure that the lift and the control
from the rotors are available after an engine failure.
• The helicopter gears usually use synthetic oil for its lubrication.

HELICOPTER GEAR BOXES-INTERMEDIATE GEAR BOX

• An intermediate gearbox is located on the tail boom of the helicopter.
• This gearbox provides a specific degree change in direction of the tail rotor
drive shaft with no speed change.
• One kind of universal joint may also be used in place of intermediate gear
box.
• The gearbox assembly consists of a case with flexible coupling provisions for
attaching onto the tail rotor shaft fore and aft.
• The gearbox is splash--lubricated, and the case is fitted with an oil filter cap, a
vent breather, an oil level sight gage, and a drain plug equipped with a
magnetic insert.
• The magnetic insert collects metal particles coming from inside the gear box.
• When there is a requirement, the metal particles can be collected and
analyzed to determine the condition of the gears and bearings in the gearbox.
 HELICOPTER GEAR BOXES-TAIL GEAR BOX
• The tail rotor gearbox is located on the extreme aft end of the tail boom. In
some cases on top of the tail boom vertical fin
• The tail gear box is used to change the direction of rotation by 90 degrees.
• The tail gear box is also used to increase or decrease the speed of rotation of
the tail rotor.
• On some helicopter, the tail rotor pitch change mechanism is also affected
through the tail gear box.
• The gearbox is splash lubricated.
• It consists of mating input and output gear assemblies set into a case provided
with a vented oil filler cap, oil level sight gage, and a drain plug with a
magnetic insert plug for collecting metal particles.
• Flexible couplings are provided for attaching the tail rotor driveshaft onto the
input end of the gear box.
 • When there is a requirement, the metal particles can be collected and
analyzed to determine the condition of the gears and bearings in the gearbox.

HELICOPTER TAIL ROTOR BLADES

There are two general types of main rotor blades in use today. These types are
metal and fiberglass. They are described in the following paragraphs.
METAL.
• Aluminum is the most frequently used metal in rotor blades due to its light
weight and strength characteristics.
• It is found in the honeycomb core, spars, ribs, and doublers, and is also used
as the skin covering.
• Titanium is used for spars and abrasion strips on some rotor blades.
FIBERGLASS.
• Tail rotor blades that contain fiberglass may have straight fiberglass or may
have a composite mixture consisting of ingredients such as fiberglass,
titanium, Nomex, glass fiber epoxy resin, and an elastomeric.
• Fiberglass is used for skin and spars.
• Tail rotor blades are used to provide directional control only.
• Made of metal or fiberglass, they are built similarly to main rotor blades.
• Metal tail rotor blades are made of aluminum; the spars are made of solid
aluminum extrusions, hollow aluminum extrusions, and aluminum sheet
channels.
• Fiberglass rotor blades are made of fiberglass sheets; the spars are made of
solid titanium extrusions
• Metal and fiberglass rotor blades should not be intermixed.
 MAINTENANCE OF HELICOPTER CONTROLS

• It is necessary to keep the control system components and its entire layout
Very neat and clean.
• It is necessary to ensure that the hydraulic system, if used in the helicopter
control system is properly serviced.
• All actuators and filters used in the helicopter control system should be
thoroughly cleaned periodically to remove any foreign matter from the
actuator rods and filters etc.,
• Ensure that the push-pull rods, cables etc., are properly fitted. Any loose
fittings may be tightened and secured properly.
• Wire locking, use of lock washers etc., should be done wherever required
during maintenance of the system.
• Maintenance of components of helicopter control system is usually limited
to removal and replacements of tubing, hoses, valves and pumps.
• Whenever any hydraulic component is removed for any reason, it is
mandatory to carry out bleeding process in order to remove any trapped air
from the system.
• Maintenance activity in a helicopter control system includes removal and
replacement of life component, if any before it expires its designated life.
• Flight controls require periodic lubrication either in the form of oil or in the
form of grease.
• Tension check of helicopter control cables and its adjustments forms the
part of maintenance activity.
• The control system should be properly rigged so that the desired flight
movement is achieved.
 INSPECTION OF HELICOPTER CONTROL SYSTEM
• Inspect the control system components and its layout for cleanliness.
• Inspect the control cable for its proper routing. This is to ensure that the
control cable is not butting to the helicopter structure or getting twisted
anywhere in its run.
• Inspect the control cables for any broken strands and for any physical
damage.
• Inspect the hydraulic system tank meant for control system for its condition
and the hydraulic fluid level.
• Inspect the control system components for its proper fitment and
attachment.
• Inspect the control system components for any corrosion.
• Operate the control system thoroughly and inspect them for its proper
movement.
• Inspect the push-pull rods and control cables for its condition.

HELICOPTER MAIN ROTOR SYSTEM RIGGING

• Rigging of main rotor usually involves the adjustments made on the
collective and cyclic, so that correct amount of pitch is present and is within
the tolerance.
• Rigging of main rotor system is accomplished with the use of special tools
such as rig pins, holding fixtures, measuring scale, and universal propeller
protractor and jigs to position the controls while rigging.
• Other items of the helicopter such as mast alignment, which would
adversely affect the rigging often require checks.
• It may be necessary on some helicopter to jack-up and level the helicopter
for rigging.
• Using the rig pins, the controls are locked in the specific positions such as
neutral/extreme position, the pitch of the main rotor is measured.
• If the pitch is not within the limits, adjustments are made in the connecting
rods to a set length.
• The cyclic pitch is used to rig the main rotor in lateral and longitudinal
directions.
 CYCLIC CONTROL RIGGING
• The lateral cyclic is rigged by moving the cyclic pitch stick in lateral
directions i.e., extreme left and extreme right via neutral position.
• First keep the cyclic pitch in neutral setting and check for the position of
the swash plate assembly. It should be in the position as prescribed in the
maintenance manual.
• Now move the cyclic pitch stick to one of the extremities say extreme left.
Now note the tilt of the swash plate assembly. It should be in the position as
defined in the maintenance manual. If not, adjust the control in such a way
that the desired tilt is achieved. The tilt of the swash plate assembly
basically decides the pitch angle of the blades.
• Now repeat the same process with the cyclic pitch stick in the extreme
right position.
• Now repeat the same process with the cyclic pitch stick in the extreme
forward and rearward position.

COLLECTIVE PITCH CONTROL RIGGING

• Set the collective pitch lever in the neutral position and check the swash
plate assembly for its position.
• If, it is not in position, adjust the control system (Collective) in such a way
that the swash plate assembly takes up the designated position.
• Now lower the collective pitch lever to fully down position and check the
swash plate for its position.
• If, it is not in position, adjust the control system (Collective) in such a way
that the swash plate assembly takes up the designated position.
• Now raise the collective pitch lever to fully up position and check the
swash plate for its position.
• If, it is not in position, adjust the control system (Collective) in such a way
that the swash plate assembly takes up the designated position.
 TAIL ROTOR DRIVE SHAFT

• The main purpose of tail drive shaft is to transmit the torque from the main
gear box to the helicopter tail rotor.
• The tail rotor drive shaft passes through/over the tail boom.
• The tail boom is usually made of different pieces joined together to form a
single shaft.
• The tail drive shaft is supported in sections with universal joints connecting
the sections or it may be a continuous member with bearing supports at
intervals.
• The spacing between the support bearings is determined by the natural
bending vibration frequency of the shaft.
• When different pieces are joined, they are attached to each other either by a
rigid joint(using nut and bolt) or by a flexible joint(Splined or universal).
• Flexibility in the shaft is provided by splined or rubber couplings.
• The tail drive shaft may be either hollow or solid.
• The tail drive shaft is the shaft which runs from main gear box output to tail
gear box input.

HELICOPTER GEAR BOXES-MAIN GEAR BOX

• The main gear box is a gear reduction mechanism attached to the
engine.
• The main gear box transmits the engine power to the main rotor, the
tail rotor, the generator and other accessories namely the cooling fan,
the hydraulic pump, the rotor tachometer etc.,
• The main gear box is designed in such a way to disengage the rotor
from the engine in case of engine failure.
• The main gear box protects the rotor system from the torsional drag of
an inoperative engine.
• The main gear box usually contains spur gears, helical gears, bevel
gears, hypoid gears, worm gears, epi-cyclic gears or planetary gears
and pinions.
• Most main transmissions are lubricated by a wet sump oil system
which is separate from the engine oil system.
• The main reasons for using main gear box in helicopter are:
1. The engine produces the greatest amount of power at a very high
RPM.
2. The rotor cannot operate at high RPM because of the retreating
blade stall and the fact that the tip speed must stay subsonic.
• For multi-engined helicopters, the rotors will be continuously driven
by the remaining engines in order to ensure that the lift and the
control from the rotors are available after an engine failure.
• The helicopter gears usually use synthetic oil for its lubrication.
 HELICOPTER GEAR BOXES-INTERMEDIATE GEAR BOX
• An intermediate gearbox is located on the tail boom of the helicopter.
• This gearbox provides a specific degree change in direction of the tail rotor
drive shaft with no speed change.
• One kind of universal joint may also be used in place of intermediate gear
box.
• The gearbox assembly consists of a case with flexible coupling provisions
for attaching onto the tail rotor shaft fore and aft.
• The gearbox is splash--lubricated, and the case is fitted with an oil filter
cap, a vent breather, an oil level sight gage, and a drain plug equipped with
a magnetic insert.
• The magnetic insert collects metal particles coming from inside the gear
box.
• When there is a requirement, the metal particles can be collected and
analyzed to determine the condition of the gears and bearings in the
gearbox.
 HELICOPTER GEAR BOXES-TAIL GEAR BOX
• The tail rotor gearbox is located on the extreme aft end of the tail boom. In
some cases on top of the tail boom vertical fin
• The tail gear box is used to change the direction of rotation by 90 degrees.
• The tail gear box is also used to increase or decrease the speed of rotation
of the tail rotor.
• On some helicopter, the tail rotor pitch change mechanism is also affected
through the tail gear box.
• The gearbox is splash lubricated.
• It consists of mating input and output gear assemblies set into a case
provided with a vented oil filler cap, oil level sight gage, and a drain plug
with a magnetic insert plug for collecting metal particles.
• Flexible couplings are provided for attaching the tail rotor driveshaft onto
the input end of the gear box.
• When there is a requirement, the metal particles can be collected and
analyzed to determine the condition of the gears and bearings in the
gearbox.
 HELICOPTER TAIL ROTOR BLADES
There are two general types of tail rotor blades in use today. These types are
metal and fiberglass. They are described in the following paragraphs. They are
more or less similar to that of the constructional features of main rotor blades.
METAL.
• Aluminum is the most frequently used metal in rotor blades due to its light
weight and strength characteristics.
• It is found in the honeycomb core, spars, ribs, and doublers, and is also used
as the skin covering.
• Titanium is used for spars and abrasion strips on some rotor blades.
FIBERGLASS.
• Tail rotor blades that contain fiberglass may have straight fiberglass or may
have a composite mixture consisting of ingredients such as fiberglass,
titanium, Nomex, glass fiber epoxy resin, and an elastomeric.
• Fiberglass is used for skin and spars.
• Tail rotor blades are used to provide directional control only.
• Made of metal or fiberglass, they are built similarly to main rotor blades.
• Metal tail rotor blades are made of aluminum; the spars are made of solid
aluminum extrusions, hollow aluminum extrusions, and aluminum sheet
channels.
• Fiberglass rotor blades are made of fiberglass sheets; the spars are made of
solid titanium extrusions
• Metal and fiberglass rotor blades should not be intermixed.
 TAIL ROTOR PITCH CHANGE MECHANISM
• The tail rotor pitch change control is connected to the rudder/yaw pedals.
By a flying control system which may consist of light alloy push-pull rods, or
more usually high tensile non-corrodible steel cables supported by pulleys
and fairleads until they get to the tail rotor gear box.
• Here the control cables are terminated with end fittings which connect to a
chain wrapped around a sprocket on the tail rotor gear box.
• On some helicopter the control cables are connected to a pulley that
transfers the inputs to a push-pull rod-this may connect directly to the tail
rotor pitch change beam or to a powered flying control unit-then to a push
pull rod to the pitch change beam.

SCREW JACK OPERATION

• When the yaw pedals are moved the fore and aft movement of the cable and
chain rotates the sprocket.
• Rotating the sprocket causes the jack operating ram to extend or retract.
• The ram is connected to the pitch change links via the pitch change beam
and a rotating/non-rotating coupling, so altering the pitch of the tail rotor
blades.
 BALANCING OF TAIL ROTOR BLADES
Balance is critical to tail rotor blades because of their high rotational speed,
compared to the main rotor blades. Tail rotor blades can be balanced in both the
span and chord directions.
(1) SPANWISE.
• Span wise balancing of the tail rotor blades involves adding or removing
weight at the blade tip.
• A balancing kit should be used with adapters for the specific type blades.
(2) CHORDWISE.
• Chord wise balancing of the tail rotor blades involves adding of removing
balance washers to the pitch arm.
• A balancing kit with adapters should be used for the specific blades being
balanced.
NOTE
• Always try to balance the blades by deleting weights or washers.
• Keep over-all weight at a minimum.
• Consult the applicable maintenance manual for the particular model of
helicopter.
 TRACKING OF TAIL ROTOR BLADES
• Tracking of tail rotor blades may be done by either manually or
electronically.
• Manually carried out tail rotor tracking is done by stick method.
• In this method, a stick with a sponge rubber tip is applied with Prussian
blue is made to come in contact with the rotating rotor and the track of the
rotor is registered.
• After shutting down the engine, the track is adjusted.
• Electronic method of tracking require Vibrex analyzer which when installed
records the track and instructs the necessary adjustments to be made.
 HELICOPTER TAIL ROTOR SYSTEM-RIGGING
• It is important to carryout rigging of tail rotor system in addition to
balancing and tracking of the tail rotor system.
• Rigging of tail rotor system is accomplished with the use of special tools
such as rig pins, protractors and jigs to position the controls while rigging.
• The pitch of the tail rotor is usually set for left pedals only.
• The right pedal is assumed to be set by the extreme left pedal position.
• In a two bladed rotor system, flap stops are incorporated in the attachment
and may be adjusted by shims to limit the flap travel.
• Pedal creep is the tendency of the pedals to move from the neutral position.
• Pedal creep may be adjusted by adding or subtracting washers from the
arms or rings.
• To check pedal creep, the pedals are set to neutral when the helicopter is at
the designated power setting.
• When the feet are taken off, the pedals should remain in neutral.
• If the left pedal moves forward, the weights are too heavy and the weights
must be removed.
• If the right pedal moves forward, the weights are too less and the weights
must be added.
• Pedal creep must always be checked in normal condition.
• The pitch of the tail rotor blades is checked when the pedals are in
neutral/Extreme positions.(Left pedal fully forward/Right pedal fully
forward/Pedal in neutral position)
• Tracking of tail rotor is to be carried after rigging.
 HELICOPTER POWER PLANTS
• The two most common types of engines used in helicopters are the
reciprocating engine and the turbine engine.
• Reciprocating engines, also called piston engines, are generally used in
smaller helicopters.
• Most training helicopters use reciprocating engines because they are
relatively simple and inexpensive to operate.
• Turbine engines are more powerful and are used in a wide variety of
helicopters.
• Turbine engines produce a tremendous amount of power for their size but
are generally more expensive to operate.

RECIPROCATING ENGINE
The reciprocating engine consists of a series of pistons connected to a rotating
crankshaft. As the pistons move up and down, the crankshaft rotates. The
reciprocating engine gets its name from the back-and-forth movement of its
internal parts. The four-stroke engine is the most common type, and refers to the
four different cycles the engine undergoes to produce power.

When the piston moves away from the cylinder head on the intake stroke, the
intake valve opens and a mixture of fuel and air is drawn into the combustion
chamber. As the cylinder moves back towards the cylinder head, the intake valve
closes, and the fuel/air mixture is compressed. When compression is nearly
complete, the spark plugs fire and the compressed mixture is ignited to begin the
power stroke. The rapidly expanding gases from the controlled burning of the
fuel/air mixture drive the piston away from the cylinder head, thus providing
power to rotate the crankshaft. The piston then moves back toward the cylinder
head on the exhaust stroke where the burned gasses are expelled through the
opened exhaust valve.

Even when the engine is operated at a fairly low speed, the four-stroke cycle
takes place several hundred times each minute. In a four-cylinder engine, each
cylinder operates on a different stroke. Continuous rotation of a crankshaft is
maintained by the precise timing of the power strokes in each cylinder.
 TURBINE ENGINE

TURBINE ENGINE
The gas turbine engine mounted on most helicopters is made up of a compressor,
combustion chamber, turbine, and gearbox assembly. The compressor
compresses the air, which is then fed into the combustion chamber where
atomized fuel is injected into it. The fuel/air mixture is ignited and allowed to
expand. This combustion gas is then forced through a series of turbine wheels
causing them to turn. These turbine wheels provide power to both the engine
compressor and the main rotor system through an output shaft. The combustion
gas is finally expelled through an exhaust outlet.

COMPRESSOR
The compressor may consist of an axial compressor, a centrifugal compressor, or
both. An axial compressor consists of two main elements, the rotor and the
stator. The rotor consists of a number of blades fixed on a rotating spindle and
resembles a fan. As the rotor turns, air is drawn rearwards. Stator vanes are
arranged in fixed rows between the rotor blades and act as a diffuser at each
stage to decrease air velocity and increase air pressure. There may be a number
of rows of rotor blades and stator vanes. Each row constitutes a pressure stage,
and the number of stages depends on the amount of air and pressure rise
required for the particular engine.
 A centrifugal compressor consists of an
impeller, diffuser, and a manifold. The
impeller, which is a forged disc with
integral blades, rotates at a high speed
to draw air in and expel it at an
accelerated rate. The air then passes
through the diffuser which slows the
air down. When the velocity of the air
is slowed, static pressure increases,
resulting in compressed, high-pressure
air. The high pressure air then passes
through the compressor manifold
where it is distributed to the
combustion chamber.
COMBUSTION CHAMBER
Unlike a piston engine, the combustion
in a turbine engine is continuous. An
igniter plug serves only to ignite the
fuel/air mixture when starting the
engine.
Once the fuel/air mixture is ignited, it
will continue to burn as long as the
fuel/air mixture continues to be
present. If there is an interruption of
fuel, air, or both, combustion ceases.
This is known as a “flame-out,” and the engine has to be restarted or re-lit. Some
helicopters are equipped with auto-relight, which automatically activates the
igniters to start combustion if the engine flames out.
TURBINE
The turbine section consists of a series of turbine wheels that are used to drive
the compressor section and the rotor system. The first stage, which is usually
referred to as the gas producer or N1 may consist of one or more turbine wheels.
This stage drives the components necessary to complete the turbine cycle
making the engine self-sustaining. Common components driven by the N1 stage
are the compressor, oil pump, and fuel pump. The second stage, which may
also consist of one or more wheels, is dedicated to driving the main rotor system
and accessories from the engine gearbox. This is referred to as the power
turbine (N2 or Nr).

If the first and second stage turbines are mechanically coupled to each other, the
system is said to be a direct-drive engine or fixed turbine. These engines share a
common shaft, which means the first and second stage turbines, and thus the
compressor and output shaft, are connected.

On most turbine assemblies used in helicopters, the first stage and second stage
turbines are not mechanically connected to each other. Rather, they are mounted
on independent shafts and can turn freely with respect to each other. This is
referred to as a “free turbine.” When the engine is running, the combustion gases
pass through the first stage turbine to drive the compressor rotor, and then past
the independent second stage turbine, which turns the gearbox to drive the
output shaft.
 HELICOPTER DRIVE SHAFT
MAIN DRIVE SHAFT.
• The main drive shaft (Refer Figure) transmits torque from the engine to the
main transmission.
• The shaft is a hollow, statically balanced tube.
• In addition to required fittings, bolts, nuts, and washers are provided with
flexible splined or rubber couplings for installation between the engine and
transmission.
• The rubber couplings absorb torsional shock loads.
• On systems using a clutch assembly, the main shaft is attached to the clutch
on one end and to the transmission input drive on the other end.
• The clutch assembly provides free wheeling (Refer Figure).
• On systems not requiring a clutch assembly, the shaft is attached to an
adapter on the engine output shaft on one end and to the free wheel
coupling of the transmission input drive assembly on the other end.
 MAIN DRIVE SHAFT

CLUTCH MECHANISM
• A clutch allows the engine to be started and then gradually pick up the load
of the rotor.
• The clutch assembly allows for a smooth engagement of the engine to the
power train system.
• The clutch is used to stop possible blade damage and shaft shearing due to
sudden torque loading.
• Some clutches are designed to let the engine start and run without the rotor
turning.
• This is very useful for warm--up and maintenance procedures. Due to the
free power system in all gas turbine engines used by the Aviation, a clutch
assembly is not needed on aircraft with gas turbine engines.
• On free turbine engines, no clutch is required, as the gas producer turbine is
essentially disconnected from the power turbine.
• When the engine is started, there is little resistance from the power turbine.
This enables the gas producer turbine to accelerate to normal idle speed
without the load of the transmission and rotor system dragging it down.
 • As the gas pressure increases through the power turbine, the rotor blades
begin to turn, slowly at first and then gradually accelerate to normal
operating RPM.
• On reciprocating engine helicopters, the two main types of clutches are the
centrifugal clutch and the belt drive clutch.

CENTRIFUGAL CLUTCH
• The centrifugal clutch assembly is used only with engines of low horse
power output.
• The centrifugal clutch is made up of an inner assembly and a outer drum.
The inner assembly, which is connected to the engine driveshaft, consists of
shoes lined with material similar to automotive brake linings.
• At low engine speeds, springs hold the shoes in, so there is no contact with
the outer drum, which is attached to the transmission input shaft.
• As engine speed increases, centrifugal force causes the clutch shoes to move
outward and begin sliding against the outer drum.
• The transmission input shaft begins to rotate, causing the rotor to turn,
slowly at first, but increasing as the friction increases between the clutch
shoes and transmission drum.
• As rotor speed increases, the rotor tachometer needle shows an increase by
moving toward the engine tachometer needle. When the two needles are
superimposed, the engine and the rotor are synchronized, indicating the
clutch is fully engaged and there is no further slippage of the clutch shoes.
• When the engine speed is increased, centrifugal force throws the clutch
shoe against the inner surface of a drum, completing the drive to the rotor.
• This type of clutch, because of its slippage at low and medium speeds,
generates heat, which is harmful to the life of clutch parts.

BELT DRIVE CLUTCH

• Some helicopters utilize a belt drive to transmit power from the engine to
the transmission.
• A belt drive consists of a lower pulley attached to the engine, an upper
pulley attached to the transmission input shaft, a belt or a series of V-belts,
and some means of applying tension to the belts.
• The belts fit loosely over the upper and lower pulley when there is no
tension on the belts.
• This allows the engine to be started without any load from the
transmission. Once the engine is running, tension on the belts is gradually
increased.
• When the rotor and engine tachometer needles are superimposed, the rotor
and the engine are synchronized, and the clutch is then fully engaged.
• Advantages of this system include vibration isolation, simple maintenance,
and the ability to start and warm up the engine without engaging the rotor.

FREEWHEELING UNIT
• All rotary--wing aircraft have a freewheel unit located between the engine
and the main rotor or rotors.
• Free wheeling unit will be found on all helicopters regardless of the power
plant.
• On multi-engine helicopter, each engine is provided with a free wheeling
unit.
• The purpose of the free wheel unit is to allow the engine to drive the
transmission and prevent the rotor from driving the rotor.
• The purpose of the free wheel unit is to free the power train drive system
from the drag made by the dead or idling engine.
• Without the free wheeling unit, the engine would be driven by the rotor any
time an autorotation is attempted.
• Without the free wheeling unit, any seizure of the engine would prevent the
possibility of autorotation.
• Three basic types of freewheel units are roller, sprag clutch, and over
running clutch.
• By doing this the free wheel unit makes autorotation possible.
• This allows an aircraft to land safely without engine power.
• All types of freewheel units generally work in the same manner.
• The operation of the free wheeling unit will always be automatic.
• They provide a positive lock of the power train drive system to the engine
at any time engine speed equals rotor speed.
• When rotor speed is faster than engine speed, the free wheel unit unlocks
the power train drive system from the engine.
• The size of the free wheeling unit used and their location vary from one
helicopter to another helicopter.

MAIN ROTOR BRAKE

• Main rotor brake is usually located between the engine and the
transmission.
• The purpose of the main rotor brake is to stop the rotor on shut down after
the engine has ceased to power the rotor.
• Main rotor brakes are often installed either as standard or optional
equipment.
• The use of main rotor brake is usually limited.
• The main rotor has a very high inertia, requiring great amount of braking
force, and hence the main rotor brake is never applied until the rotor has
slowed considerably on its own.
• Usually the main rotor brakes are of disc type, attached to the input to the
transmission.
• The main rotor brake may be either hydraulically or manually operated.
 MAIN ROTOR BRAKE (HYDRAULICALLY OPERATED)
• The main rotor brake which is hydraulically operated mainly consists of a
master cylinder and a brake unit.
• The master cylinder is usually installed on the cabin roof or where suitable.
• The master cylinder is equipped with a handle which the pilot pulls to apply
brake pressure.
• The brake unit itself is a single disc unit with a dual brake pad system;
similar to what might be found on many general aviation aircraft wheel
brakes.
• The disc attaches to the short shaft between the transmission and the
engine so the freewheeling unit does not affect the braking action.
• This system with its master cylinder will require servicing with fluid
because it does not utilize the hydraulic system of the aircraft.

MAIN ROTOR BRAKE (MANUALLY OPERATED)

• The main rotor brake which is manually operated consists of a fixed
housing, secured to the transmission and a movable housing that slides into
the fixed housing and support the brake lining.
• The movable housing always moves in the fore and aft direction only.
• Between the fixed housing and the movable housing is a spring to keep the
movable housing off the disc when the brake is not applied.
• The rotor brake is actuated by a control fork.
• The control fork slides over the fixed housing and through a sleeve and a
diaphragm moves the movable housing against the disc attached to the
input of the transmission.

HELICOPTER ENGINE MOUNTS

MOUNTS FOR RADIAL ENGINES
• All modern aircraft equipped with radial engines use an engine mount
structure made of welded steel tubing.
• The mount-is constructed in one or more sections that incorporate the
engine mount ring, bracing members (V-struts), and fittings for attaching
the mount to the wing nacelle.
• The engine mounts are usually secured to the aircraft by special heat-
treated steel bolts.
 • The upper bolts support the weight of the engine while the aircraft is on the
ground, but when the aircraft is airborne another stress is added. This
stress is torsional and affects all bolts, not just the top bolts.
• The section of an engine mount where the engine is attached is known as
the engine mount ring.
• It is usually constructed of steel tubing having a larger diameter than the
rest of the mount structure.
• It is circular in shape so that it can surround the engine blower and
accessory section, which is near the point of balance for the engine.

MOUNT FOR RECIPROCATING ENGINE MOUNT FOR TURBINE ENGINE

MOUNTS FOR TURBOJET ENGINES
• The engine mounts on most turbojet engines are relatively simple when
compared with the mounting structures installed on reciprocating engines.
However, they perform the same basic functions of supporting the engine
and transmitting the loads imposed by the engine to the aircraft structure.
• Most turbine engine mounts are made of stainless steel, and are typically
located as illustrated in figure.
• Some engine mounting systems use two mounts to support the rear end of
the engine and a single mount at the forward end.

HELICOPTER TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

• The transmission system transfers power from the engine to the main
rotor, tail rotor, and other accessories.
• The main components of the transmission system are the main rotor
transmission, tail rotor drive system, clutch, and freewheeling unit.
• Helicopter transmissions are normally lubricated and cooled with their
 own oil supply. A sight gauge is provided to check the oil level. Some
transmissions have chip detectors located in the sump. These detectors
are wired to warning lights located on the pilot’s instrument panel that
illuminate in the event of an internal problem.
MAIN ROTOR TRANSMISSION
• The primary purpose of the main rotor transmission is to reduce engine
output RPM. to optimum rotor RPM
• This reduction is different for the various helicopters, but as an example,
suppose the engine RPM of a specific helicopter is 2,700. To achieve a rotor
speed of 450 RPM would require a 6 to 1 reduction. A 9 to 1 reduction
would mean the rotor would turn at 300 RPM.
• Most helicopters use a dual-needle tachometer to show both engine and
rotor RPM. or a percentage of engine and rotor RPM
• The rotor RPM needle normally is used only during clutch engagement to
monitor rotor acceleration, and in autorotation to maintain RPM. within
prescribed limits.
• In helicopters with horizontally mounted engines, another purpose of the
main rotor transmission is to change the axis of rotation from the
horizontal axis of the engine to the vertical axis of the rotor shaft.
TAIL ROTOR DRIVE SYSTEM
• The tail rotor drive system consists of a tail rotor drive shaft powered from
the main transmission and a tail rotor transmission mounted at the end of
the tail boom.
• The drive shaft may consist of one long shaft or a series of shorter shafts
connected at both ends with flexible couplings.
• This allows the drive shaft to flex with the tail boom.
• The tail rotor transmission provides a right angle drive for the tail rotor and
may also include gearing to adjust the output to optimum tail rotor RPM
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