CE 374 K – Hydrology

Evaporation
Daene C. McKinney
 Evaporation
• Terminology
– Evaporation: liquid water passes directly to
the vapor phase
– Transpiration: liquid water passes from
liquid to vapor through plant metabolism
– Sublimation: water passes directly from the
solid phase to the vapor phase
Factors Influencing Evaporation
• Energy supply for vaporization (latent heat)
– Solar radiation
• Transport of vapor away from evaporative surface
– Wind velocity over surface
– Specific humidity gradient above surface
• Vegetated surfaces
– Supply of moisture to the surface
– Evapotranspiration (ET)
• Potential Evapotranspiration (PET) – moisture supply is not limited
 Evaporation from a Water Surface
Sensible
Net radiation Vapor flow rate
heat to air
Hs Rn m& v = ρ w AE

ρa

• National Weather Service Class A CS

ρw
dh
type E=− h
dt
• Installed on a wooden platform in a
grassy location Area, A
• Filled with water to within 2.5 inches
of the top
G
• Evaporation rate is measured by Heat conducted
manual readings or with an analog to ground
output evaporation gauge
Methods of Estimating Evaporation
• Energy method
• Aerodynamic method
• Combined method
 Energy Method
Continuity of Liquid Phase

Hs Rn m& v

d
− m& v = ∫∫∫ ρ w d∀ + ∫∫ ρ wV ⋅ dA
ρa dt CV CS
dh
ρw h
=0
E=−
dt
dh dh
= ρw A E=− No flow of liquid
G
dt dt water through CS

m& v = ρ w AE
 Energy Method (2)
d
Vapor Phase - Continuitym& v = ∫∫∫ qv ρ a d∀ + ∫∫ qv ρ aV ⋅ dA
dt CV CS

Hs Rn m& v =0
m& v = ∫∫ qv ρ aV ⋅ dA Steady flow of air
CS over water
ρa
= ρ w AE
dh
ρw h
ρ w AE = ∫∫ qv ρ aV ⋅ dA
E=−
dt

CS
G
1
E= ∫∫ qv ρ aV ⋅ dA
ρ w A CS
 Energy Method (3)
Energy Eq. dH dW d
− = ∫∫∫ (eu + V 2 / 2 + gz ) ρd∀
dt dt dt CV
r r
+ ∫∫ (eu + V / 2 + gz ) ρV ⋅ dA
2
Hs Rn m& v =0 CS

≈ 0; V = 0, h ≈ const.
ρa
dH d
= ∫∫∫ eu ρ w d∀
E=−
dh
ρw h
dt dt CV
dt

= Rn − H s − G

G dH
= Rn − H s − G
dt
 Energy Method (4)
Energy Eq. for Water in CV
dH
= Rn − H s − G Hs Rn m& v
dt
Assume:
ρa
1. Constant temp of water in CV
2. Change of heat is change in internal E=−
dh
ρw
dt h
energy of evaporated water dH
= lv m& v
dt G

lv m& v = Rn − H s − G & = ρ w AE
Recall: m

1 Rn Neglecting sensible
E= (Rn − H s − G ) Er =
lv ρ w A lv ρ w and ground heat fluxes
 Aerodynamic Method
• Include transport of vapor Rn Net radiation
away from water surface as
function of:
– Humidity gradient above
surface Air Flow

– Wind speed across surface E Evaporation

• Upward vapor flux
dqv qv2 − qv1
m& = − ρ a K w = −ρa K w
dz z2 − z1
• Upward momentum flux
du u −u m& (
K w qv1 − qv2 )
τ = ρa Km = ρa K m 2 1 =
dz z2 − z1 τ K m (u2 − u1 )
 Aerodynamic Method (2)
(
K w qv1 − qv2 )
m& = τ
K m (u 2 − u1 ) Rn Net radiation

• Log-velocity profile
u 1 ⎛ Z ⎞ Air Flow
= ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
τ k ⎝ Zo ⎠ E Evaporation
ρa
• Momentum flux
⎡ k (u − u ) ⎤
2
τ = ρa ⎢ 2 1 ⎥
⎣ ln(Z 2 Z1 )⎦

( )
K w k 2 ρ a qv1 − qv2 (u 2 − u1 )
Too many variables!
m& = Often only know qv and u at 1 elevation
K m [ln(Z 2 Z1 )]2
Thornthwaite-Holzman Equation
 Aerodynamic Method (3)
• Simplify Rn Net radiation

Ea = B(es − e )
Air Flow
0.622k ρ a u 2
2
B= E Evaporation
Pρ w [ln(Z 2 Z o )]2

e = vapor pressure

es = sat. vapor pressure

 Combined Method
• Evaporation could be calculated by
– Aerodynamic method: when energy supply is not limiting
– Energy method: when vapor transport is not limiting
• Normally, both are limiting, so use a combination
method
 Combined Method (Cont.)
• Combining Rn
Er =
– Energy balance lv ρ w
– Aerodynamic Methods Ea = B(es − e )
• Combined Method
Δ γ C p Kh p
E= Er + Ea γ= Δ=
4098es
Δ +γ Δ+γ 0.622lv K w (237.3 + T ) 2

– Well suited to small areas with

detailed data
• Net Radiation
• Air Temperature Δ
E = 1.3 Er Priestly & Taylor
• Humidity Δ +γ
• Wind Speed
• Air Pressure
 Example

• Use Combo Method to find Evaporation

z=2m
lv = 2.501x10 6 − 2370T
P = 101.3 kPa
u = 3 m/s = (2500 − 2.36 * 25) x103 = 2441 kJ/kg
Rn = 200 W/m2
T = 25 degC
Rh = 40% Rn 200
Er = =
lv ρ w
2441x103 * 997
= 7.10 mm/day
 Example (Cont.)

• Use Combo Method to find Evaporation

z=2m
es = 3167 Pa
P = 101.3 kPa
e = Rh * es = 0.4 * 3167 = 1267 Pa
u = 3 m/s
Rn = 200 W/m2
T = 25 degC
2
ρ 2
= 4.54 x10 −11 m/Pa ⋅ s
0
RBh == 40%.622 k u 0 . 622 * 0 .4 *1.19 * 3
a 2 =
[( )]
Pρ w [ln (Z 2 Z o )]2 101.3 * 997 ln 2 3 x10 − 4 2

Ea = 4.54 x10 −11(3167 − 1267 ) * (1000 mm / 1m) * (86400 s / 1day)

= 7.45 mm/day
 Example (Cont.)

• Use Combo Method to find Evaporation

C p Kh p 3
z=2m γ= =
1005 *101.3 x10
= 67.1 Pa/degC
3
P = 101.3 kPa 0.622lv K w 0.622 * 2441x10
u = 3 m/s 4098es 4098 * 3167
Δ= = = 188.7 Pa/degC
2
Rn = 200 W/m (237.3 + T ) (237.3 + 25)
2 2

T = 25 degC
Δ γ
Rh = 40% = 0 .738 = 0.262
Δ +γ Δ +γ

Δ γ
E= Er + Ea = 0.738 * 7.10 + 0.262 * 7.45 = 7.2 mm/day
Δ +γ Δ +γ
 Example

• Use Priestly-Taylor Method to find

Evaporation rate for a water body
z=2m
P = 101.3 kPa Δ
u = 3 m/s E = 1.3 Er Priestly & Taylor
Δ+γ
Rn = 200 W/m2
T = 25 degC
Δ
Rh = 40%
Er = 7.10 mm/day = 0.738
Δ +γ

E = 1.3 * 0.738 * 7.10 = 6.80 mm/day

 Evapotranspiration
• Evapotranspiration
– Combination of evaporation from soil surface and
transpiration from vegetation
– Governing factors
• Energy supply and vapor transport
• Supply of moisture at evaporative surfaces
– Reference crop
• 8-15 cm of healthy growing green grass with abundant water
– Combo Method works well if B is calibrated to local
conditions
 Potential Evapotranspiration
• Multiply reference crop ET by a Crop Coefficient
and a Soil Coefficient
ET = Actual ET CORN
1
ETr = Reference Crop ET 0.9

k c = Crop Coefficient; 0.8

Crop Coefficient, kc

0.7
0.2 ≤ k c ≤ 1.3 0.6

k s = Soil Coefficient; 0.5

0.4
0 ≤ ks ≤ 1 0.3

0.2

ET = k s k c ETr 0.1

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Time Since Planting (Days)

http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/crops/04707.html
 Combined Method
• Evaporation could be calculated by
– Aerodynamic method: when energy supply is not limiting
– Energy method: when vapor transport is not limiting
• Normally, both are limiting, so use a combination
method
• Sensible heat flux is difficult to estimate
– Assume it is proportional to the vapor heat flux H s = β (lv m& v )
– Where β = Bowen ratio
1
– Energy balance equation (G=0) E= (Rn − H s − G )
lv ρ w A
Rn = lv m& (1 + β )
 Combined Method (2)
• Transport equations for heat and vapor

dqv dT
H s = −ρa K w m& v = − ρ a C p K h
dz dz

H s C p K h (T2 − T1 )
= H s = β (lv m& v ) qv = 0.622
e
m& v K w (qv − qv ) p
2 1

C p K h p(T2 − T1 ) C p Kh p
β= γ=
0.622lv K w (e2 − e1 ) 0.622lv K w
(T2 − T1 ) Kh
β =γ ≈1
(e2 − e1 ) Kw
 Recall Vapor Pressure

Saturate vapor pressure

Vapor Pressure

for given temperature

e
Rh =
es

es Saturation Vapor Pressure

e Vapor Pressure

Dew Point temp, Td

Measured temp, T

Temperature

⎛ 17.27T ⎞ des 4098es

es = 611exp⎜ ⎟ Δ= =
⎝ 237 .3 + T ⎠ dT (237.3 + T ) 2