Renewable

Energy
Presented By: Amgad Mohamed Taher 2018
Contents
------------------------------------------------------
1)INTRODUCTION........................................................................................... 7

1-1 ABOUT NREA...............................................................................................8

➢ NREA Activities................................................................................................................... 9

1-2 EGYPT HIGH RESOURCES ATLAS.............................................................. 11

➢ Wind atlas .......................................................................................................................... 11

➢ Solar atlas .......................................................................................................................... 11

1-3 ELECTRICITY IN EGYPT ............................................................................ 12

1-4 EGYPT’S POWER SECTOR STRATEGY UP TO 2035 ....................................13

2)RENEWABLE ENERGY ................................................................................ 14

2-1 OVERVIEW .................................................................................................15

2-2 TYPES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY...............................................................15

2-3 ADVANTAGES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY ................................................. 17

2-4 DISADVANTAGES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY ........................................... 18

3)SOLAR ENERGY .......................................................................................... 19

3-1 OVERVIEW ................................................................................................ 20

3-2 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) SYSTEM .................................................... 20

How do these Systems Work? .................................................................................................. 21

3-3 PV SYSTEM COMPONENTS ...................................................................... 21

➢ Solar Panel ........................................................................................................................ 22

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➢ Inverters ........................................................................................................................... 22

➢ Racking ............................................................................................................................. 23

➢ PV Tracker: ....................................................................................................................... 23

➢ PV Batteries: ..................................................................................................................... 24

➢ Other Components ........................................................................................................... 24

➢ Types of PV System: .......................................................................................................... 25

A. Grid Connect Solar Power .............................................................................................................. 25
B. Stand Alone Solar Power ................................................................................................................ 25

➢ Advantages of PV System ................................................................................................. 26

➢ Disadvantages of PV System ............................................................................................ 27

➢ NREA S0lar Cell Projects: ................................................................................................. 28

3-3 CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER (CSP): ................................................. 29

How do these Systems Work? ................................................................................................. 29

➢ CSP Systems: ..................................................................................................................... 30

• Power Tower Systems: ....................................................................................................... 31

• Parabolic Dish Systems: .................................................................................................... 31

➢ CSP Components .............................................................................................................. 32

➢ NREA CSP Projects: .......................................................................................................... 33

3-4 SOLAR WATER HEATING (SWH) ............................................................. 34

How do these Systems Work? ................................................................................................. 34

➢ SWH Components ............................................................................................................ 35

4)WIND POWER ............................................................................................ 36

4-1 OVERVIEW ................................................................................................ 37

How do these Systems Work? ................................................................................................. 37

4-2 WIND TURBINE COMPONENTS: .............................................................40

4-3 WIND TURBINE TYPES: ............................................................................ 42

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4-4 ADVANTAGES OF WIND ENERGY ............................................................ 43

4-5 DISADVANTAGES OF WIND ENERGY ...................................................... 43

4-6 NREA PROJECTS....................................................................................... 44

5)BIOMASS ENERGY ..................................................................................... 45

5-1 OVERVIEW ................................................................................................ 46

5-2 RECOVERY OF BIOMASS .......................................................................... 46

1) Biogas technology ................................................................................................................... 46

2) Gasification............................................................................................................................ 46

CONCLUSION ................................................................................................ 47

KEYWORDS .................................................................................................... 48

REFERENCES .................................................................................................. 49

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Table of Figures
------------------------------------------------------
Figure 1 NREA LOGO ................................................................................................................................... 8
Figure 2 High resources wind atlas of Egypt 1996, 2003 & 2005 .................................................................11
Figure 3 High resources Solar atlas of Egypt ................................................................................................11
Figure 4 Electricity in Egypt Chart ................................................................................................................12
Figure 5 Egypt’s Power Sector strategy up to 2035 ......................................................................................13
Figure 6 A photovoltaic system comprised of a solar panel array, inverter and other electrical hardware ...21
Figure 7 Residential grid-tied solar PV system diagram ...............................................................................21
Figure 8 A solar panel, consisting of many photovoltaic cells .....................................................................22
Figure 9 A solar inverter (yellow) mounted to the solar racking converts DC electricity from the solar array
to useful AC electricity ..................................................................................................................................22
Figure 10 PV Tracker ....................................................................................................................................23
Figure 11 PV Batteries ..................................................................................................................................24
Figure 12 Grid connect system ......................................................................................................................25
Figure 13 Stand Alone solar system ..............................................................................................................26
Figure 14 30 kw PV system...........................................................................................................................28
Figure 15 42 kw PV system...........................................................................................................................28
Figure 16 Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) .................................................................................................29
Figure 17 Parabolic Trough System .............................................................................................................30
Figure 18 Linear Fresnel Systems ................................................................................................................30
Figure 19 Power Tower Systems ..................................................................................................................31
Figure 20 Parabolic Dish System .................................................................................................................31
Figure 21 CSP System ...................................................................................................................................32
Figure 22 The Kuraymat Location ................................................................................................................33
Figure 23 Receiver ........................................................................................................................................34
Figure 24 Parabolic trough ............................................................................................................................34
Figure 25 Solar water heating (SWH) ...........................................................................................................34
Figure 26 SWH System .................................................................................................................................35
Figure 27 Wind Turbine System ...................................................................................................................38
Figure 28 Wind turbine components .............................................................................................................40
Figure 29 HAWT...........................................................................................................................................42
Figure 30 VAWT...........................................................................................................................................42
Figure 31 Zafarana Wind Farm .....................................................................................................................44

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Tables
------------------------------------------------------
Table 1 Organization Chart of Ministry of Electricity & Renewable Energy ----------------------------- 10
Table 2 Zafarana wind farm year 2015/2016 ----------------------------------------------------------------- 44

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1
Introduction

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1-1 About NREA
NREA Stand For: New & Renewable Energy
Authority

(NREA) established in 1986

The national focal point to develop and introduce

renewable energy technologies to Egypt on a
commercial scale together with implementation of
related energy conservation programs
Figure 1 NREA LOGO
The Authority aims to develop the use of renewable
energy and encourage the manufacture of its equipment locally to
represent the national focal point for efforts to develop their
technologies and exploit their sources at the commercial level as
clean and sustainable energy. The country has adopted a number
of measures and legislation in record time, while it may
revolutionize the legislation required to support renewable sources
of energy, especially wind and solar energy. The first was to
change the name of the Ministry of Electricity and Energy to
become the Ministry of Electricity and Renewable Energy in March
2014 as a clear signal to increase the interest of countries in
renewable energy , And then work to overcome the difficulties and
remove obstacles and encourage and push efforts, planning and
preparation and ideas and procedures are unconventional to
accelerate the establishment of large capacity projects by the
private sector within the next few years, to generate electricity and
fuel and reduce Emissions. The decision to implement the tariff
restructuring system from July 2014 with the aim of gradually
reducing the electricity subsidy tariff and eliminating it within five
years is a bold step at a very opportune time. In parallel, the
increase in the selling price of the existing renewable power plants
With the same annual increase in the sale of electricity to
consumers until it reaches the equilibrium stage in 2018/2019 as
the current sale price is much lower than the cost, which will be a
strong boost to the Authority's projects in terms of reducing the
annual losses incurred by the Commission due to the low price of
selling electricity produced from this is Projects.

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 And the amendment of the law establishing the Authority to allow
the establishment of companies either on their own or with other
partners to establish, operate and maintain renewable energy
projects, to create an attractive element for investors to enter with
the Commission in joint projects to achieve the implementation of
the current policy of the electricity sector to encourage companies
working in the field of renewable energy to invest in the
establishment of stations Generating electricity from renewable
energy sources in partnership with the private sector or
government companies for the purpose of implementing projects
or works of operation and maintenance. The Prime Minister's
decision was also issued regarding the issuance of a feed tariff for
electricity produced from solar energy projects Which aims to build
capacity of about 4300 MW. The period 2015-2017 includes the
construction of 2000 MW wind power stations and 2,000 MW PV
photovoltaic stations, as well as encouraging consumers to
establish and sell photovoltaic power generation systems on
rooftops. To the electricity grid with a capacity of 300 MW. Before
the end of 2014, the President of the Republic issued Decree No.
203 of 2014 on 21/12/2014 on stimulating the production of
electricity from renewable sources of energy.

➢ NREA Activities
The activities are concentrated into 4 areas:
1- Wind Energy
2- Solar Energy
3- Testing & Certification
4- Capacity Building

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Table 1 Organization Chart of Ministry of Electricity & Renewable Energy

Egyptian Electricity Holding Company

Hydro Power Projects Execution Authority

New & Renewable Energy Authority

Atomic Energy Authority

Nuclear Power Plants Authority

Nuclear Materials Authority

10 | P A G E
1-2 Egypt High Resources Atlas

➢ Wind atlas

Average wind speed reaches

10.5 m/sec at 50 m height

Average wind speed reaches

7.5 m/s at 80 m height

Figure 2 High resources wind atlas of Egypt 1996, 2003 & 2005

➢ Solar atlas

Figure 3 High resources Solar atlas of Egypt

• Direct solar radiation ranging: 2000 – 3200 kWh/m2/year

Figure 8 High resources Solar atlas of Egypt
• Sun shine duration: 9-11 h/day

Figure 9 Solar water heating (SWH)Figure 10 High resources Solar atlas of Egypt

Figure 11 High resources Solar atlas of Egypt

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Figure 4 Electricity in Egypt ChartFigure 3 High resources Solar atlas of Egypt

1-3 Electricity in Egypt
• Total installed capacity about
38.8GW 0.75 0.14
2.8
o 35.1 thermal
o 2.8 hydro
o 0.75 wind
o 0.14 CSP

• Secured supply to 99% of the

population.

• Renewable Energy (Wind & 35.1

solar) represent about 2.5%
from the capacity
Figure 4 Electricity in Egypt Chart
& 0.8% from the electric energy.

• Targeting to reach 20% of the electricity generation by year 2022

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1-4 Egypt’s Power Sector Strategy up to 2035
Recently, in Last October, National Energy Strategy till 2035, has been
adopted by the Supreme Council of Energy including maximize the benefit
from renewable energy resources to increase its share in the energy mix to
reach more than 37% by 2035

2034/2035
Nuclear Power Stations

CSP

PV

Wind Coal

Hydro
N. Gas & Dual fuel
Biogas Oil plants
Oil
Biomass/Biofuels
products

Figure 5 Egypt’s Power Sector strategy up to 2035

Figure 16 Egypt’s Power Sector strategy up to 2035

Figure 17 Egypt’s Power Sector strategy up to 2035

Figure 18 Egypt’s Power Sector strategy up to 2035

Figure 6 A photovoltaic system comprised of a solar

panel array, inverter and other electrical hardware

Figure 19 Residential grid-tied solar PV system

diagramFigure 20 A photovoltaic system comprised
of a solar panel array, inverter and other electrical
hardware

Figure 21 Residential grid-tied solar PV system

diagramFigure 22 A photovoltaic system comprised
of a solar panel array, inverter and other electrical
hardwareFigure 5 Egypt’s Power Sector strategy up
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to 2035

Figure 23 Egypt’s Power Sector strategy up to 2035

2
Renewable
Energy

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2-1 Overview
Renewable energy resources and significant opportunities for energy
efficiency exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy
sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid
deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency, and technological
diversification of energy sources, would result in significant energy
security and economic benefits. It would also reduce
environmental pollution such as air pollution caused by burning of fossil fuels
and improve public health, reduce premature mortalities due to pollution and
save associated health costs that amount to several hundred billion dollars
annually only in the United States. Renewable energy sources, that derive
their energy from the sun, either directly or indirectly, such as hydro and wind,
are expected to be capable of supplying humanity energy for almost another
1 billion years, at which point the predicted increase in heat from the sun is
expected to make the surface of the earth too hot for liquid water to exist.

Climate change and global warming concerns, coupled with high oil
prices, peak oil, and increasing government support, are driving increasing
renewable energy legislation, incentives and commercialization. New
government spending, regulation and policies helped the industry weather
the global financial crisis better than many other sectors. According to a 2011
projection by the International Energy Agency, solar power generators may
produce most of the world's electricity within 50 years, reducing the emissions
of greenhouse gases that harm the environment.

2-2 Types of renewable energy

There are many forms of renewable energy. Most of these renewable energies
depend in one way or another on sunlight. Wind and hydroelectric power are
the direct result of differential heating of the Earth's surface which leads to air
moving about (wind) and precipitation forming as the air is lifted. Solar
energy is the direct conversion of sunlight using panels or collectors. Biomass
energy is stored sunlight contained in plants. Other renewable energies that
do not depend on sunlight are geothermal energy, which is a result of
radioactive decay in the crust combined with the original heat of accreting the
Earth, and tidal energy, which is a conversion of gravitational energy.

15 | P A G E
Solar: This form of energy relies on the nuclear fusion power from the core
of the Sun. This energy can be collected and converted in a few different ways.
The range is from solar water heating with solar collectors or attic cooling
with solar attic fans for domestic use to the complex technologies of direct
conversion of sunlight to electrical energy using mirrors and boilers or
photovoltaic cells. Unfortunately these are currently insufficient to fully
power our modern society.

Wind Power: The movement of the atmosphere is driven by differences of

temperature at the Earth's surface due to varying temperatures of the Earth's
surface when lit by sunlight. Wind energy can be used to pump water or
generate electricity, but requires extensive areal coverage to produce
significant amounts of energy.

Hydroelectric energy: This form uses the gravitational potential of elevated

water that was lifted from the oceans by sunlight. It is not strictly speaking
renewable since all reservoirs eventually fill up and require very expensive
excavation to become useful again. At this time, most of the available
locations for hydroelectric dams are already used in the developed world.

Biomass: is the term for energy from plants. Energy in this form is very
commonly used throughout the world. Unfortunately the most popular is the
burning of trees for cooking and warmth. This process releases copious
amounts of carbon dioxide gases into the atmosphere and is a major
contributor to unhealthy air in many areas. Some of the more modern forms
of biomass energy are methane generation and production of alcohol for
automobile fuel and fueling electric power plants.

Hydrogen: and fuel cells. These are also not strictly renewable energy
resources but are very abundant in availability and are very low in pollution
when utilized. Hydrogen can be burned as a fuel, typically in a vehicle, with
only water as the combustion product. This clean burning fuel can mean a
significant reduction of pollution in cities. Or the hydrogen can be used in fuel
cells, which are similar to batteries, to power an electric motor. In either case
significant production of hydrogen requires abundant power. Due to the need
for energy to produce the initial hydrogen gas, the result is the relocation of
pollution from the cities to the power plants.

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Geothermal power: Energy left over from the original accretion of the
planet and augmented by heat from radioactive decay seeps out slowly
everywhere, everyday. In certain areas the geothermal gradient (increase in
temperature with depth) is high enough to exploit to generate electricity. This
possibility is limited to a few locations on Earth and many technical problems
exist that limit its utility. Another form of geothermal energy is Earth energy,
a result of the heat storage in the Earth's surface. Soil everywhere tends to stay
at a relatively constant temperature, the yearly average, and can be used with
heat pumps to heat a building in winter and cool a building in summer. This
form of energy can lessen the need for other power to maintain comfortable
temperatures in buildings, but cannot be used to produce electricity.

Other forms of energy: Energy from tides, the oceans and hot hydrogen
fusion are other forms that can be used to generate electricity. Each of these
is discussed in some detail with the final result being that each suffers from
one or another significant drawback and cannot be relied upon at this time to
solve the upcoming energy crunch.

2-3 Advantages of Renewable Energy

One major advantage with the use of renewable energy is that as it is
renewable it is therefore sustainable and so will never run out.

Renewable energy facilities generally require less maintenance than

traditional generators. Their fuel being derived from natural and available
resources reduces the costs of operation.

Even more importantly, renewable energy produces little or no waste products

such as carbon dioxide or other chemical pollutants, so has minimal impact
on the environment.

Renewable energy projects can also bring economic benefits to many regional
areas, as most projects are located away from large urban centers and suburbs
of the capital cities. These economic benefits may be from the increased use
of local services as well as tourism.

17 | P A G E
2-4 Disadvantages of Renewable Energy
It is easy to recognize the environmental advantages of utilizing the
alternative and renewable forms of energy but we must also be aware of the
disadvantages.

One disadvantage with renewable energy is that it is difficult to generate the

quantities of electricity that are as large as those produced by traditional
fossil fuel generators. This may mean that we need to reduce the amount of
energy we use or simply build more energy facilities. It also indicates that
the best solution to our energy problems may be to have a balance of many
different power sources.

Another disadvantage of renewable energy sources is the reliability of

supply. Renewable energy often relies on the weather for its source of
power. Hydro generators need rain to fill dams to supply flowing water.
Wind turbines need wind to turn the blades, and solar collectors need clear
skies and sunshine to collect heat and make electricity. When these
resources are unavailable so is the capacity to make energy from them. This
can be unpredictable and inconsistent. The current cost of renewable energy
technology is also far in excess of traditional fossil fuel generation. This is
because it is a new technology and as such has extremely large capital cost.

18 | P A G E
3
Solar
Energy

19 | P A G E
3-1 Overview
Solar power is the conversion of energy from sunlight into electricity, either
directly using photovoltaics (PV), indirectly using concentrated solar power,
or a combination. Concentrated solar power systems
use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight
into a small beam. Photovoltaic cells convert light into an electric
current using the photovoltaic effect.
Photovoltaics were initially solely used as a source of electricity for small and
medium-sized applications, from the calculator powered by a single solar cell
to remote homes powered by an off-grid rooftop PV system. Commercial
concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the 1980s. The
392 MW Ivanpah installation is the largest concentrating solar power plant in
the world, located in the Mojave Desert of California.
As the cost of solar electricity has fallen, the number of grid-connected solar
PV systems has grown into the millions and utility-scale solar power
stations with hundreds of megawatts are being built. Solar PV is rapidly
becoming an inexpensive, low-carbon technology to harness renewable
energy from the Sun. The current largest photovoltaic power station in the
world is the 850 MW Longyangxia Dam Solar Park, in Qinghai, China.
The International Energy Agency projected in 2014 that under its "high
renewables" scenario, by 2050, solar photovoltaics and concentrated solar
power would contribute about 16 and 11 percent, respectively, of
the worldwide electricity consumption, and solar would be the world's largest
source of electricity. Most solar installations would be in China and India. As
of 2016, solar power provided just 1% of total worldwide electricity
production but was growing at 33% per annum.

3-2 Solar Photovoltaic (PV) System

A photovoltaic (PV) system is a system composed of one or more solar
panels combined with an inverter and other electrical and mechanical
hardware that use energy from the Sun to generate electricity. PV systems can
vary greatly in size from small rooftop or portable systems to massive utility-
scale generation plants. Although PV systems can operate by themselves
as off-grid PV systems, this article focuses on systems connected to the utility
grid, or grid-tied PV systems.

20 | P A G E
How do these Systems Work?

The light from the Sun, made

up of packets of energy
called photons, falls onto
a solar panel and creates
an electric current through a
process called
the photovoltaic effect. Each
panel produces a relatively
small amount of energy, but
can be linked together with
other panels to produce
higher amounts of energy as
a solar array. Figure 6 A photovoltaic system comprised of a solar panel
array, inverter and other electrical hardware
The electricity produced from
a solar panel (or array) is in the form of direct current (DC). Although many
electronic devices use DC electricity,
Figure 26including your phone
Residential grid-tied orsystem
solar PV laptop, they are
diagramFigure
27 A photovoltaic system comprised of a solar panel array,
designed to operate using theinverter
electrical utility grid which provides (and
and other electrical hardware
requires) alternating current (AC). Therefore, in order for the solar electricity
to be useful it must first be converted from DC to AC using an inverter. This
AC electricity from the inverter Figure
can then be usedgrid-tied
28 Residential to power electronics
solar PV locally,
system diagramFigure
29 A photovoltaic system comprised of a solar panel array,
or be sent on to the electrical grid for and
inverter useother
elsewhere.
electrical hardware

Figure 30 Residential grid-tied solar PV system diagramFigure

Figure 7 Residential grid-tied solar
31 A photovoltaic system comprised of a solar panel array,
PV system diagram
inverter and other electrical hardware

Figure 7 Residential grid-tied solar PV system diagraFigure 6

3-3 PV System Components
A photovoltaic system comprised of a solar panel array,
inverter and other electrical hardware

In addition to the solar panels,Figure

there are othergrid-tied
32 Residential important
solar PVcomponents of a
system diagramFigure
33 A photovoltaic system comprised of a solar panel array,
photovoltaic system which areinverter
commonly referred to as the "balance of
and other electrical hardware
system" or BOS. These components (which typically account for over half of
the system cost and most the of maintenance) can
Figure 34 Residential grid-tied solar PV system diagramFigure
include inverters, racking, wiring,
35 Acombiners,
photovoltaic system comprised disconnects, circuit
of a solar panel array,
breakers and electric meters. inverter and other electrical hardware

Figure 36 Residential grid-tied solar PV system diagramFigure

37 A photovoltaic system comprised of a solar panel array,
inverter and other electrical hardware

21 | P A G E
➢ Solar Panel
A solar panel consists of many solar cells with semiconductor properties
encapsulated within a material to protect it from the environment. These
properties enable the cell to capture light, or more specifically,
the photons from the sun and
convert their energy into
useful electricity through a
process called
the photovoltaic effect. On
either side of the
semiconductor is a layer of
conducting material which
"collects" the electricity
produced. The illuminated
side of the panel also
contains an anti-reflection
coating to minimize the
losses due to reflection. The
majority of solar panels Figure 8 A solar panel, consisting of many photovoltaic cells
produced worldwide are
made from crystalline silicon, which has a theoretical efficiency limit of 33%
for converting the Sun's energy into electricity. Many other semiconductor
materials and solar cell technologies have been developed that operate at
higher efficiencies, but these come with a higher cost to manufacture.

➢ Inverters
An inverter is an electrical device
which accepts electrical current in
the form of direct current (DC) and
converts it to alternating
current (AC). For solar energy
systems, this means the DC current
from the solar array is fed through
an inverter which converts it to AC.
This conversion is necessary to
operate most electric devices or
interface with the electrical grid. Figure 9 A solar inverter (yellow) mounted to the solar
Inverters are important for almost racking converts DC electricity from the solar array to
useful AC electricity
all solar energy systems and are
typically the most expensive component after the solar panels themselves.
Figure 38 A solar inverter (yellow) mounted to the
solar racking converts DC electricity from the solar
array to useful AC electricity
22 | P A G E

Figure 39 A solar inverter (yellow) mounted to the

solar racking converts DC electricity from the solar
 Most inverters have conversion efficiencies of 90% or higher and contain
important safety features including ground fault circuit interruption and anti-
islanding. These shut down the PV system when there is a loss of grid power.

➢ Racking
Racking refers to the mounting apparatus which fixes the solar array to the
ground or rooftop. Typically constructed from steel or aluminum, these
apparatuses mechanically fix the solar panels in place with a high level of
precision. Racking systems should be designed to withstand extreme weather
events such as hurricane or tornado level wind speeds and/or high
accumulations of snow. Another important feature of racking systems is to
electrically bond and ground the solar array to prevent electrocution. Rooftop
racking systems typically come in two variations including flat roof systems
and pitched roof systems. For flat rooftops it is common for the racking system
to include weighted ballast to hold the array to the roof using gravity. On
pitched rooftops, the racking system must be mechanically anchored to the roof
structure. Ground mounted PV systems, as shown in figure 4, can also use
either ballast or mechanical anchors to fix the array to the ground. Some ground
mounted racking systems also incorporate tracking systems which use motors
and sensors to track the Sun through the sky, increasing the amount of energy
generated at a higher equipment and maintenance cost.

➢ PV Tracker:
A solar tracking system tilts a
solar panel throughout the day.
Depending on the type of
tracking system, the panel is
either aimed directly at the sun
or the brightest area of a partly
clouded sky. Trackers greatly
enhance early morning and
late afternoon performance,
increasing the total amount of
power produced by a system
by about 20–25% for a single
axis tracker and about 30% or Figure 10 PV Tracker
more for a dual axis tracker.

Figure 52 PV Tracker

Figure 53 PV Tracker
23 | P A G E

Figure 54 PV Tracker
➢ PV Batteries:

Although still expensive, PV systems

increasingly use rechargeable batteries to store
a surplus to be later used at night. Batteries
used for grid-storage also stabilize the
electrical grid by leveling out peak loads, and
play an important role in a smart grid, as they
can charge during periods of low demand and
feed their stored energy into the grid when
demand is high. Lead acid batteries are usually Figure 11 PV Batteries
used.

➢ Other Components
The remaining components of a typical solar PV system include combiners,
disconnects, breakers, meters and wiring. A solar Figurecombiner,
66 Grid connectassystem
the name
Figure 67 PV Batteries
suggests, combines two or more electrical cables into one larger one.
Combiners typically include fuses for protection and are used on all medium
to large and utility-scale solar arrays. Disconnectsare electrical gates or
switches which allow for manual disconnection of an electrical wire.
Typically used on either side of an inverter, namely the "DC disconnect" and
"AC disconnect" these devices provide electrical isolation when
Figure 12 Grid an system
connect inverter
needs to be installed or replaced. Circuit breakers or breakers protect
electrical systems from over current or surges. Designed to trigger
Figure 68 Stand Alone solar
automatically when the current reaches a predetermined amount,
systemFigure 69 Gridbreakers can
connect system
also be operated manually, acting as an additional disconnect. An Electric
meter measures the amount of energy that passes through it and is commonly
used by electric utility companies to measure and charge Figurecustomers.
70 Stand Alone For
solarsolar
systemFigure 71 Grid connect system
PV systems, a special bi-directional electric meter is used to measure both the
incoming energy from the utility, and the outgoing energy from the solar PV
system. Finally, the wiring or electrical cables transport the
Figure electrical
72 Stand energy
Alone solar
systemFigure 73
from and between each component and must be properly sized to carry Grid connect system
the
current. Wiring exposed to sunlight must have protection against UV
exposure, and wires carrying DC current sometimes require metal sheathing
Figure 74 Stand Alone solar
for added protection. systemFigure 75 Grid connect system
Figure 11 PV Batteries

24 | P A G E
Figure 76 Grid connect system
Figure 77 PV Batteries
➢ Types of PV System:
A. Grid Connect Solar Power
A grid connect system is one that works in with the local utility grid so that
when your solar panels produce more solar electricity than your house is using
the surplus power is fed into the grid. With a grid connect solar power system
when your house requires more power than what your solar panels are
producing then the balance of your electricity is supplied by the utility grid.
So for example if your electrical loads in your house were consuming 20 amps
of power and your solar power was only generating 12 amps then you would
be drawing 8 amps from the grid. Obviously at night all of your electrical
needs are supplied by the grid because with a grid connect system you do not
store the power you generate during the day.

Figure 12 Grid connect system

Figure 78 Stand Alone solar

B. Stand Alone Solar systemFigure
Power 79 Grid connect
system
A Standalone solar system the solar panels are not connected to a grid but
instead are used to charge a bank of batteries. These batteries store the power
produced by the solar panels and
Figure thenAlone
80 Stand yoursolarelectrical loads draw their
systemFigure 81 Grid connect
electricity from these batteries. Standalone
system
solar power systems have been
used for a long time in areas where no public grid is available. However, the
real growth in solar power systems in the last 5 years has been in grid connect
systems. Why is this? BecauseFigure
most82people live
Stand Alone in areas that are connected to
solar
systemFigure 83 Grid connect
a public grid and stand-alone systemssystem are much, much more expensive than
grid connect systems because batteries are very expensive. It is my hope that
in the future we will see a fall in battery prices and that standalone systems
will be used more. However, Figure
batteries will
84 Stand need
Alone solarto become a lot cheaper for
systemFigure 85 Grid connect
this to happen. system

Figure 86 Stand Alone solar

systemFigure 87 Grid connect
system

Figure 88 Stand Alone solar 25 | P A G E

systemFigure 89 Grid connect
system
A grid connect system is one that works in with the local utility grid so that
when your solar panels produce more solar electricity than your house is using
the surplus power is fed into the grid. With a grid connect solar power system
when your house requires more power than what your solar panels are
producing then the balance of your electricity is supplied by the utility grid.
So for example if your electrical loads in your house were consuming 20 amps
of power and your solar power was only generating 12 amps then you would
be drawing 8 amps from the grid. Obviously at night all of your electrical
needs are supplied by the grid because with a grid connect system you do not
store the power you generate during the day.
With a standalone solar system the solar panels are not connected to a grid but
instead are used to charge a bank of batteries. These batteries store the power
produced by the solar panels and then your electrical loads draw their
electricity from these batteries. Standalone solar power systems have been

Figure 13 Stand Alone solar system

used for a long time in areas where no public grid is available. However, the
real growth in solar power systems
Figure in Alone
108 Stand the last
solar5system
years has been in grid connect
systems. Why is this? Because most people live in areas that are connected to
a public grid and stand-alone systems are much, much more expensive than
Figure 109 Stand Alone solar system
grid connect systems because batteries are very expensive.
It is my hope that in the future we will see a fall in battery prices and that
Figure 110 Stand Alone solar system
standalone systems will be used more. However, batteries will need to become
a lot cheaper for this to happen.
➢ Advantages
Figure 14 30 kw PV systemFigure 13 Stand Alone solar system
of PV System
1. Low maintenance, no moving parts to service so operation is also silent.
Figure 111 Stand Alone solar system
2. If replacing a roof, PV integrated roof tiles/slates form an alternative (but
more expensive) to standard tiles
3. Reduces the losses withFigureimporting
112 Stand Alone solar system to the house; (the most
electricity
expensive and polluting fossil fuel energy)
4. Almost any size or shape of Stand
Figure 113 roofAlone
cansolar
besystem
accommodated by the array
allowing creativity in appearance.
5. Long operational life-time; well in excess of 20 years.
6. PV can be positioned on the roof of a building or near the building on a
suitable mounting, e.g. an A-frame

26 | P A G E
➢ Disadvantages of PV System
1. Some toxic chemicals, like cadmium and arsenic, are used in the PV
production process. These environmental impacts are minor and can be
easily controlled through recycling and proper disposal.
2. Solar energy is somewhat more expensive to produce than conventional
sources of energy due in part to the cost of manufacturing PV devices and
in part to the conversion efficiencies of the equipment. As the conversion
efficiencies continue to increase and the manufacturing costs continue to
come down, PV will become increasingly cost competitive with
conventional fuels.
3. Solar power is a variable energy source, with energy production dependent
on the sun. Solar facilities may produce no power at all some of the time,
which could lead to an energy shortage if too much of a region's power
comes from solar power

27 | P A G E
➢ NREA S0lar Cell Projects:
o Project 1:

• Consists of 6 strings each

string contains 20 module.
• Each module give an output
of 250 watt.
• Monocrystalline solar cell
type.
• Overall output is 30 kW
Figure 14 30 kw PV system

o Project 2:

• Consists of 8 strings each string contains 13 module.

• Each module give an output of 410 watt.
• Polycrystalline solar cell type
• Overall output is 42 kW.

Figure 15 42 kw PV system

28 | P A G E
 3-3 Concentrated Solar Power (CSP):
Concentrated solar power (also
called concentrating solar
power, concentrated solar thermal,
and CSP) systems generate solar
power by using mirrors or lenses to
concentrate a large area of sunlight,
or solar thermal energy, onto a small
area. Electricity is generated when
the concentrated light is converted Figure 16 Concentrating Solar Power (CSP)
to heat, which drives a heat
engine (usually a steam turbine) connected to an electrical power
generator or powers a thermochemical reaction (experimental as of 2013).

➢ CSP classified according to focusing:

• Line focusing.
• Point focusing.
How do these Systems Work?

Concentrating solar power technologies use different mirror configurations to

concentrate the sun’s light energy onto a receiver and convert it into heat. The
heat can then be used to create steam to drive a turbine to produce electrical
power or used as industrial process heat.

Concentrating solar power plants can integrate thermal energy storage

systems to use to generate electricity during cloudy periods or for hours after
sunset or before sunrise. These attributes, make concentrating solar power the
most attractive renewable energy option in the world’s sunbelt regions.

CSP systems can be also combined with combined cycle power plants
resulting in hybrid power plants which provide high-value, dispatchable
power. They can also be integrated into existing thermal-fired power plants
that use a power block like CSP; such as coal, natural gas, biofuel or
geothermal plants.

CSP plants can also use fossil fuel to supplement the solar output during
periods of low solar radiation. In that case, a natural gas-fired heat or a gas
steam boiler/heater is used.

29 | P A G E
There are four types of CSP technologies used, with the earliest in use being
trough, and the fastest growing as of 2017 being tower. For each of these,
there are various design variations or different configurations, depending on
whether thermal energy storage is included, and what methods are used to
store solar thermally

➢ CSP Systems:

• Parabolic Trough Systems:

The sun’s energy is concentrated by parabolically
curved, trough-shaped reflectors onto a receiver
pipe running along the inside of the curved
surface. The temperature of the heat transfer fluid
flowing through the pipe, usually thermal oil, is
increased from 293ºC to 393ºC, and the heat
energy is then used to generate electricity in a
conventional steam generator.
Figure 17 Parabolic Trough System

A collector field comprises many troughs in parallel rows aligned on a north-

south axis. This configuration enables the single-axis troughs to track the sun
from east to west during the day to ensure that the sun is continuously focused
on the receiver pipes.

• Linear Fresnel Systems:

Another option is the
approximation of the
parabolic troughs by
segmented mirrors
according to the principle of
Fresnel.

Most CSP designs can Figure 18 Linear Fresnel Systems

incorporate thermal
storage—setting aside the heat transfer fluid in its hot phase—allowing for
electricity generation several hours into the evening or during cloudy days.

30 | P A G E
• Power Tower Systems:

Power tower or central receiver

systems utilize sun-tracking mirrors
called heliostats to focus sunlight
onto a receiver at the top of a tower.
A heat transfer fluid heated in the
receiver up to around 600ºC is used
to generate steam, which, in turn, is
used in a conventional turbine-
generator to produce electricity.

Early power towers, such as the

Solar One plant, utilized steam as Figure 19 Power Tower Systems
the heat transfer fluid; current
designs use molten salts because of superior heat transfer and energy storage
Figure 114 Power Tower Systems
capabilities. Some other designs use air as heat transfer medium because of
its high temperature and its good hand ability.
Figure 115 Power Tower Systems

• Parabolic Dish Systems: Figure 116 Power Tower Systems

Parabolic dish systems consist of a

parabolic-shaped point focus Figure 19 Power Tower Systems
concentrator in the form of a dish
that reflects solar radiation onto a
Figure 117 Power Tower Systems
receiver mounted at the focal point.
These concentrators are mounted
on a structure with a two-axis Figure 118 Power Tower Systems
tracking system to follow the sun.
The collected heat is typically
Figure 119 Power Tower Systems
utilized directly by a heat engine
mounted on the receiver moving
with the dish structure. Stirling and
Brayton cycle engines are currently Figure 20 Parabolic Dish System
favored for power conversion.

31 | P A G E
➢ CSP Components

A. The Solar Field

a) Concentrator structure
b) Mirrors or reflectors
c) Linear receiver or heat collection element
d) Pump system for the HTF
e) Collector balance of system

B. Thermal Energy Storage

a) The two-tank direct system
b) Two-tank indirect system
c) Single-tank thermocline system

C. The Power Generation System

a) Power cycles
i. Steam Rankine
ii. Organic Rankine
iii. Combined
b) Fossil-fired (hybrid) backup

Figure 21 CSP System

32 | P A G E
 ➢ NREA CSP Projects:
o Project 1: Kuraymat 150MWe Integrated Solar Combined Cycle
Power Plant (ISCC), Kuraymat, Egypt
The Kuraymat project is located at about 95 miles
south of Cairo, on the eastern side of the River Nile.
It comprises two gas turbines of about 40 MWe each,
one steam turbine of about 70 MWe, one parabolic
trough solar field capable to generate about 200
GWh/a (thermal) of solar heat plus all associated
balance of plant equipment which includes a steel
structure to hold the 160 skal-et-parabolic trough
collectors spread over an area of 624,438 square
meters. On completion, the plant will be capable of
generating 62 MW of solar heat at temperature of 393 Figure 22 The Kuraymat Location

degrees.
Figure 120 The Kuraymat Location
➢ Project details:

• High intensity direct solar reaches 2400 KWH/m2/year.

Figure 121 CSP System Figure 122 The
Kuraymat Location

• The project based on a parabolic trough technology integrated with

combined cycle power plant using natural gas as aFigure
fuel.123 The Kuraymat Location

• The ability of the solar component is about 20 MW.

Figure 24 Receiver Figure 22 The
Kuraymat Location
• Capacity of the gas turbine 74 MW.
Figure 124 The Kuraymat Location
• Capacity of the steam turbine 36 MW.

• Total energy produced 850 GW/Year. Figure 125 CSP System Figure 126 The
Kuraymat Location

• Energy produced from solar component 34 GW/Year.

Figure 127 The Kuraymat Location
• Reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide resulting from the
operation of the solar component of about 20 thousand tons / year.

• Savings in the consumption of petroleum fuels about 10,000 tons of

oil equivalent

33 | P A G E
 Figure 23 Parabolic trough Figure 24 Receiver

3-4 Solar Water Heating (SWH)

Solar water heating is the conversion of sunlight into heat for water
heating using a solar thermal collector. A
variety of configurations are available at
varying cost to provide solutions in
different climates and latitudes. SWHs are
widely used for residential and some
industrial applications.
A sun-facing collector heats a working
fluid that passes into a storage system for
later use. SWH are active (pumped) and
passive (convection-driven). They use water Figure 25 Solar water heating (SWH)
only, or both water and a working fluid.
They are heated directly or via light-concentrating mirrors. They operate
independently or as hybrids with electric or gas heaters. In large-scale
installations, mirrors may concentrate sunlight onto a smaller collector.
The global solar thermal market is dominated by China, Europe, Japan
and India, although Israel was one of the first countries to mandate
installation of SWH in 1980, leading to a flourishing industry.
How do these Systems Work?

1. A thermosiphon solar water heater is composed of a tank

(accumulator) and a solar collector which is connected to the tank.
2. The transfer between tank and collector is governed by gravity (hot
water density is lower than cold water density). Instead of a pump, the
pressure differential between hot and cold is used as propulsion
energy. This is the “thermosiphon principle”. In order to operate, the
collector (heat generator) must be located below the tank (heat
consumer).

34 | P A G E
3. The heat transfer medium is heated inside the solar collector. The hot
liquid in the collector below is lighter than the cold liquid in the tank
above the collector. As soon as the lighter hot liquid rises, gravity
circulation starts.
4. Inside the cylinder, the heated medium transfers its heat to the stored
DHW and then, once cooled, falls back to the lowest point in the
collector circuit

Figure 26 SWH System

➢ SWH Components
A. Solar collectors: Figure 26 SWH System

a) The solar collectors absorb sunlight to collect heat. There are

three types of solar collectors
b) Evacuated tube collectors
c) Flat plate collectors
d) Parabolic collectors

B. Heat exchanger

C. Storage tank

D. Monitoring system

E. Copper pipes

35 | P A G E
4
Wind
Power

36 | P A G E
4-1 Overview
Wind power is the use of air flow through wind turbines to provide
the mechanical power to turn electric generators. Wind power, as an
alternative to burning fossil fuels, is plentiful, renewable, widely
distributed, clean, produces no greenhouse gasemissions during operation,
consumes no water, and uses little land. The net effects on the
environment are far less problematic than those of nonrenewable
power sources.
Wind farms consist of many individual wind turbines, which are connected to
the electric power transmission network. Onshore wind is an inexpensive
source of electric power, competitive with or in many places cheaper than coal
or gas plants. Offshore wind is steadier and stronger than on land and offshore
farms have less visual impact, but construction and maintenance costs are
considerably higher. Small onshore wind farms can feed some energy into the
grid or provide electric power to isolated off-grid locations.
Wind power gives variable power, which is very consistent from year to year
but has significant variation over shorter time scales. It is therefore used in
conjunction with other electric power sources to give a reliable supply. As the
proportion of wind power in a region increases, a need to upgrade the grid and
a lowered ability to supplant conventional production can occur. Power-
management techniques such as having excess capacity, geographically
distributed turbines, dispatchable backing sources, sufficient hydroelectric
power, exporting and importing power to neighboring areas, or reducing
demand when wind production is low, can in many cases overcome these
problems. In addition, weather forecasting permits the electric-power
network to be readied for the predictable variations in production that occur.

How do these Systems Work?

Wind is simply defined as moving air. When the earth heats up from sunrays
it releases wind, this is a balanced reaction meant to cool the earth. The sun
heat is felt more on dry land than on the sea. The air expands and
easily reaches maximum high altitudes, then cool air drops down and
moves as wind.

37 | P A G E
 Figure 27 Wind Turbine System

1. Wind (moving air that contains kinetic energy) blows toward the
Figure 128 Wind Turbine System
turbine's rotor blades.
2. The rotors spin around, capturing some of the kinetic energy from the
Figure 129 HAWT
wind, and turning the central drive shaftFigure that130 Wind Turbine System
supports them. Although
the outer edges of the rotor blades move very fast, the central axle (drive
shaft) they're connected toFigure
turns131 Windslowly.
quite Turbine System

3. In most large modern turbines, the rotor blades can swivel on the hub at
the front so they meet the wind at the best angle (or "pitch") for
harvesting energy. This is called the pitch control mechanism. On big
turbines, small electric motors or hydraulic rams swivel the blades back
and forth under precise electronic control. On smaller turbines, the pitch
control is often completely mechanical. However, many turbines have
fixed rotors and no pitch control at all.
4. Inside the nacelle (the main body of the turbine sitting on top of the
tower and behind the blades), the gearbox converts the low-speed
rotation of the drive shaft (perhaps, 16 revolutions per minute, rpm) into
high-speed (perhaps, 1600 rpm) rotation fast enough to drive the
generator efficiently.

38 | P A G E
5. The generator, immediately behind the gearbox, takes kinetic energy
from the spinning drive shaft and turns it into electrical energy. Running
at maximum capacity, a typical 2MW turbine generator will produce 2
million watts of power at about 700 volts.
6. Anemometers (automatic speed measuring devices) and wind vanes on
the back of the nacelle provide measurements of the wind speed and
direction.
7. Using these measurements, the entire top part of the turbine (the rotors
and nacelle) can be rotated by a yaw motor, mounted between the nacelle
and the tower, so it faces directly into the oncoming wind and captures
the maximum amount of energy. If it's too windy or turbulent, brakes are
applied to stop the rotors from turning (for safety reasons). The brakes
are also applied during routine maintenance.
8. The electric current produced by the generator flows through a cable
running down through the inside of the turbine tower.
9. A step-up transformer converts the electricity to about 50 times higher
voltage so it can be transmitted efficiently to the power grid (or to nearby
buildings or communities). If the electricity is flowing to the grid, it's
converted to an even higher voltage (130,000 volts or more) by a
substation nearby, which services many turbines.
10.Homes enjoy clean, green energy: the turbine has produced no
greenhouse gas emissions or pollution as it operates.
11.Wind carries on blowing past the turbine, but with less speed and energy
(for reasons explained below) and more turbulence (since the turbine has
disrupted its flow).

39 | P A G E
 4-2 Wind Turbine Components:

Figure 28 Wind turbine components

1) Anemometer:
Measures the wind speed and transmits wind speed data to the controller.

2) Blades:
Rotates when wind is blown over them, causing the rotor to spin. Most turbines
have either two or three blades.

3) Brake:
Stops the rotor mechanically, electrically, or hydraulically, in emergencies.

4) Controller:
Starts up the machine at wind speeds of about 6 to 13 m/s and shuts off the
machine at about 18 m/s. Turbines do not operate at wind speeds above about 25
mph because they may be damaged by the high winds.

40 | P A G E
5) Gear box:
Connects the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and increases the rotational
speeds from about 30-60 rpm to about 1,000-1,800 rpm; this is the rotational
speed required by most generators to produce electricity

6) Generator:
Produces 60-cycle AC electricity

7) High-speed shaft:
Drives the generator.

8) Low-speed shaft:
Connect rotor with gearbox.

9) Nacelle:
On the top of the tower and contains the gear box, low- and high-speed shafts,
generator, controller, and brake. Some nacelles are large enough for a helicopter
to land on.

10) Pitch:
Turns (or pitches) blades out of the wind to control the rotor speed, and to keep
the rotor from turning in winds that are too high or too low to produce electricity.

11) Rotor:
Blades and hub together form the rotor.

12) Tower:
Made from tubular steel, concrete, or steel lattice supports the structure of the
turbine. Because wind speed increases with height, taller towers enable turbines
to capture more energy and generate more electricity.

41 | P A G E
13) Wind vane:
Measures wind direction and communicates with the yaw drive to orient the
turbine properly with respect to the wind.

14) Yaw drive:

Orients turbines to keep them facing the wind when the direction changes.

15) Yaw motor:

Powers the yaw drive.

4-3 Wind Turbine Types:

➢ Horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT).

Horizontal axis means the rotating axis of the wind turbine is

horizontal or parallel with the
ground.

- Single blade
- Double blade
- Triple blade
- Multi blade

Figure 29 HAWT

➢ Vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT).

With vertical axis wind turbines the

rotational axis of the turbine stands
vertical or perpendicular to the
ground.

- Helical shape.
- H-type.
- Darrius. Figure 30 VAWT

42 | P A G E
4-4 Advantages of Wind Energy
1. Renewable & Sustainable

2. Environmentally Friendly

3. Reduces Fossil Fuel Consumption

4. Wind Energy is Free

5. Small Footprint

6. Industrial & Domestic Installations

7. Remote Power Solution

8. Wind Technology Becoming Cheaper

9. Low Maintenance

10. Low Running Costs

11. Huge Potential

12. Increases Energy Security

13. Job Creation

4-5 Disadvantages of Wind Energy

1. The Wind Fluctuates

2. Installation is Expensive

3. Threat to Wildlife

4. Noise Pollution

43 | P A G E
4-6 NREA PROJECTS
Project 1: Zafarana Wind Farm
Table 2 Zafarana wind farm year 2015/2016

Total number of turbines 700 turbines

Total installed capacity 545 MW

Total produced energy 1228229 MWH

Average measured wind speed 7 m/s

Fuel saved 268998 ton

Co2 emission 736980 ton

Figure 31 Zafarana Wind Farm

44 | P A G E
5
Biomass
Energy

45 | P A G E
5-1 Overview
The most familiar forms of renewable energy are the wind and the sun. But
biomass (plant material and animal waste) is the oldest source of renewable
energy, used since our ancestors learned the secret of fire.
Biomass is a renewable energy source not only because the energy in it comes
from the sun, but also because biomass can re-grow over a relatively short
period of time compared with the hundreds of millions of years that it took for
fossil fuels to form. Through the process of photosynthesis, chlorophyll in
plants captures the sun's energy by converting carbon dioxide from the air and
water from the ground into carbohydrates complex compounds composed of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. When these carbohydrates are burned, they
turn back into carbon dioxide and water and release the energy they captured
from the sun. In biomass power plants, wood waste or other waste is burned
to produce steam that runs a turbine to make electricity, or that provides heat
to industries and homes.

5-2 Recovery of Biomass

1) Biogas technology
Biogas is actually a mixture of gases, usually carbon dioxide and methane. It
is produced by a few kinds of bacteria, usually when air or
Oxygen is absent, Animals that eat a lot of plant material, particularly grazing
animals produce large amounts of biogas.

2) Gasification
Gasification is a process that converts organic or fossil based
Carbonaceous materials into carbon monoxide, hydrogen, carbon
Dioxide and methane. This is achieved by reacting the material at high
Temperatures (>700°C), without combustion, with a controlled amount
Of oxygen and/or steam.

46 | P A G E
Conclusion

• It is now widely recognized that the fossil fuels may not be either sufficient
or suitable to keep pace with ever increasing demand of the electrical
energy of the world.

• So it’s important to develop new and alternative methods of power

generation like renewable energy

• The use of renewable energy is probably one of the very few solutions for
the energy needs of the future.

• Renewable energy is safe, clean, and non-terminating energy.

• Although renewable energy is expensive, time consuming, and less reliable

sometimes, yet it still stands out as the solution for the energy needs of the
future with respect to a safer environment.

• Renewable energy is really important for the Earth’s safety and

cleanliness. Energy that is obtained from solar radiation, water, wind, and
geothermal energy is from nature.

• All those forms of energy are considered as renewable means because we

can use them over and over again without harming the ozone layer and
without causing pollution.

• Renewable energy has become more and more required because

technologies seems to be racing these days.

47 | P A G E
Keywords

C
CSP
Concentrated Solar Power · 12, 29, 30

N
NREA
New & Renewable Energy Authority · 8, 9

P
PV
Photovoltaic · 20, 26, 27

S
SWH
Solar Water Heating · 34

48 | P A G E
References List

1- https://www.wikimedia.org

2- https://www.wikipedia.org

3- http://www.energybc.com

4- http://www.altenergy.org

5- http://www.solar-facts.com

6- http://www.linkedin.com

7- https://www.energyeducation.ca

8- http://www.solarreviews.com

9- https://www.solarpaces.org

10- https://www.atlantic-comfort.com

11- https://www.cleangreenenergyzone.com

12- https://www.explainthatstuff.com

13- https://www.clean-energy-ideas.com

49 | P A G E