Evolution of Problem Solving Methods

Azizah Safie (2009111435)

Masters of Science in Information Technology (CS770)
Faculty of Computer and Mathematical Sciences
Universiti Teknologi Mara

This discourse will provide a brief overview of the Problem Solving Methods and the
evolution of this methods related to Information Technology (IT). This section will provide
an explanation for each step in the process. Then I will discuss the past, present and future of
this methods.This will explore the importance of the method in solving any problems that
may occured in IT industries.

Brief Overview of the Problem Solving Methods

“The mere formulation of a problem is far more essential than its solution, which may be
merely a matter of mathematical or experimental skills. To raise new questions, new
possibilities, to regard old problems from a new angle require creative imagination and
marks real advances in science.”
--Albert Einstein--

Quote from Albert Einstein about problem solving, briefly explain about the evolution, not
only the method of solving problems but also the problem itself. Some people might not been
taught on how to solve the problems while others are been afraid to make mistake while
solving one. So, people would often refer to several methods on how to solve a problem, by
making assumption that, it just might had work. And yet, they complete one or more of the
steps in the methods inadequately. Problem would never be solved in straightforward solution
as some can only be solved with a series of actions. Which are called as algorithmic
solutions, whereby the best among several alternatives was choosen as steps and completion
of the steps would make the solution appear. But for solution that cannot be reached through
a direct steps are called heuristic solutions (Sprankle & Hubbard, 2009). Psychologists for
ages have use several methods in order to study human problem solving methods such as;
introspection, behaviorism, simulation, computer modeling and experiment. (Amsel, Langer,
& Loutzenhiser, 1991)
 Evolution of Problem Solving Methods

Problem solving methods was beginning since the early 30s and 40s when the experimental
work of the Gestaltist in Germany (Duncker, 1935). The Gestalt laws are used in user
interface design or visual perception which is used the law of similarity, law of proximity,
law of figure-ground, law of symmetry and law of closure. They may also be used in
designing computers and software for more intuitive human use. Examples include the design
and layout of a desktop's shortcuts in rows and columns. Gestalt psychology also has
applications in computer vision for trying to make computers "see" the same things as
humans do.

Problem solving methods continuing through 1960s and early 1970s where the researchers
conducted relatively simple, laboratory tasks; disk problem also known as Tower of Hanoi:
Mathematical puzzle. The puzzle was invented by the French mathematician Édouard Lucas
in 1883. Various reasons account for the choice of simple novel tasks: they had clearly
defined optimal solutions, they were solvable within a relatively short time frame, and
researchers could trace participants' problem-solving steps, and so on. The researchers made
the underlying assumption, of course, that simple tasks such as the Tower of Hanoi captured
the main properties of "real world" problems, and that the cognitive processes underlying
participants' attempts to solve simple problems were representative of the processes engaged
in when solving "real world" problems. Thus researchers used simple problems for reasons of
convenience, and thought generalizations to more complex problems would become possible.

In 1982, D’Zurilla and Nezu wrote that simple laboratory-based tasks that was very useful in
explicating the steps of logic and reasoning that underlie problem solving; but the study
neglect the complexity and emotional valence of "real-world" problems. In clinical
psychology, researchers have focused on the role of emotions in problem solving (D'Zurilla
& Goldfried, 1971; D'Zurilla & Nezu, 1982), demonstrating that poor emotional control can
interrupt focus on the target task and slow down problem resolution (Rath, Langenbahn,
Simon, Sherr, & Diller, 2004). According to this conceptualization, human problem solving
consists of two related processes: problem orientation, the motivational or affective approach
to problematic situations and problem-solving skills, the actual cognitive-behavioural steps,
which is, if successfully implemented, it will lead to effective problem resolution. Working
with individuals with frontal lobe injuries, neuropsychologists have discovered that deficits in
emotional control and reasoning can be remediated, improving the capacity of injured
persons to resolve everyday problems successfully (Rath, Simon, Langenbahn, Sherr, &
Diller, 2003).

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 Evolution of Problem Solving Methods

Evolution of Problem Solving Method Related to IT

This study is focus on evolution of problem solving methods and how its work. Problem
solving is a process and is part of the larger problem process that includes problem finding
and problem shaping. Measured the most complex of all logical functions, problem solving
has been defined as higher-order cognitive process that requires the modulation and control
of more routine or fundamental skills. Problem solving occurs when a person or an artificial
intelligence system needs to move from a given state to a desired goal state. This paper will
briefly describe a several methods of problem solving that will focus on information
technology field.

1. Eight Disciplines Problem Solving

An evolvement of problem solving method started with eight disciplines problem solving
which is typically employed by quality engineers or other professionals. This method was
implemented during the Second World War by US Government as Military Standard 1520
'Corrective Action and Disposition System for Nonconforming Material'. This military
standard focused on nonconforming material and the disposition of the material. This method
consist eight (8) disciplines, refer to Table 1 below.

Dis. No. Name Description

Establish a team of people with product/process
D1 Use a Team
knowledge.
Specify the problem by identifying in quantifiable
D2 Define the Problem terms; who, what, where, when, why, how and how
many (5W2H) for the problem.
Implement and verify Interim Define and implement containment actions to
D3
Actions isolate the problem from any customer.
Identify all potential causes that could explain why
the problem occurred. Also identify why the
D4 Identify and Verify Root Causes problem has not been noticed at the time it
occurred. All causes shall be verified or proved, not
determined by fuzzy brainstorming.
Choose and verify Permanent Through pre-production programs quantitatively
D5
Corrective Actions (PCAs) confirm that the selected corrective actions will

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 Evolution of Problem Solving Methods

resolve the problem for the customer.

D6 Implement and validate PCAs Define and Implement the best corrective actions.
Modify the management systems, operation
D7 Prevent recurrence systems, practices and procedures to prevent
recurrence of this and all similar problems.
Recognize the collective efforts of the team. The
D8 Congratulate your Team team needs to be formally thanked by the
organization.

Table 1: Eight Disciplines Problem Solving

The eight disciplines problem process is used to identify the accurate problem and solution
and to get rid of frequent problems. The methodology is useful in product and process
improvement. This method establishes a permanent corrective action based on statistical
analysis of the problem and it focuses on the origin of the problem by determining root
causes.

In 1986, the assignment was given to develop a manual and a subsequent course that would
achieve a new approach to solving tough engineering design and manufacturing problems.
The manual for this methodology was documented and defined in "Team Oriented Problem
Solving"(TOPS), first published in 1987. This 'Determine a Root Cause' step is a part of the
military usage of the eight disciplines problem solving but was not an allusion in the
development of the eight disciplines problem solving methodology and it also not
incorporated in the TOPS manual or course.

Nowadays, the eight disciplines problem solving methodology process has been engaged
significantly outside the auto industry. As part of lean initiatives and continuous
improvement processes it is employed extensively within food manufacturing, health care
industries and also technologically advanced industry.

2. GROW Model

The GROW model (or process) is one of procedure for problem solving or goal setting. It
was developed in the UK and used extensively in the corporate coaching market in the late
1980s and 1990s. There have been many claims to authorship of GROW as a way of
achieving goals and solving problems. While no one person can be clearly identified as the

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originator Graham Alexander, Alan Fine and Sir John Whitmore, who are well known in the
world of coaching, made significant contributions. Max Landsberg also describes GROW in
his book The Tao of Coaching. GROW is very well known in the business arena but it also
has many applications in everyday life. The particular value of GROW is that it provides an
effective, structured methodology which both helps set goals effectively and is a problem
solving process.

This approach of problem solving methodology can be used by anyone without special
training. While there are many methodologies that can be used to deal with problems, the
value of GROW is that it is easily understood, straightforward to apply and very thorough.
Furthermore it is possible to apply GROW model to a large variety of issues in a very
effective way. There are a number of different versions of the GROW model. This version
presents one view of the stages but there are others ways which are not includes in this report.
The 'O' in this version has two meanings. For more detail please refer Table 2 below.

No. Stage Description

G Goal This is the end point, where the client wants to be. The goal has to be
defined in such a way that it is very clear to the client when they have
achieved it.
R Reality This is how far the client is away from their goal. If the client were to look at
all the steps they need to take in order to achieve the goal, the Reality would
be the number of those steps they have completed so far.
Obstacles There will be Obstacles stopping the client getting from where they are now
to where they want to go. If there were no Obstacles the client would already
O have reached their goal.
Options Once Obstacles have been identified the client need to find ways of dealing
with them if they are to make progress. These are the Options.
W Way Forward The Options then need to be converted into action steps which will take the
client to their goal. These are the Way Forward.

Table 2: Stages of GROW

As for the researcher, the GROW model is one of the convenience approach to solve the
difficulty and it also will not take much time to understand the methods that involved in this
methodology.

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 Evolution of Problem Solving Methods

3. How to Solve It

This method was introduced by George Polya in 1945 which describing methods of problem
solving for mathematical problem (Polya, 1957). Like what Polya said in his journal “If you
can't solve a problem, then there is an easier problem you can solve: find it.” There are four
steps in ‘How to Solve It’ method.

i. Understand the problem.

Understand the problem is often neglected as being obvious and is not even
practically done by people as a first step to solve the problem nevertheless people are
often unsuccessful in their efforts to solve problem, simply because they don't
understand it fully, or even in part.

ii. Make a plan.

Polya mentions that there are many reasonable ways to solve problems. The skill at
choosing a suitable strategy is best learned by solving many problems. There are
several lists of strategies:

• Guess and check

• Make an orderly list
• Eliminate possibilities
• Use symmetry
• Consider special cases
• Use direct reasoning
• Solve an equation

iii. Carry out the plan.

This step is usually easier than make the plan. Basically what need to do is concern
and persistence. If the problem persist with the plan that been have been chosen and it
continues not to work discard the plan that have been chosen and select another ways.

iv. Review

There are many advantages that can be gain by taking the time to reflect and review
back at what the approach have been select and made, what have worked and what did

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 Evolution of Problem Solving Methods

not work. It enables the problem solver to predict what strategy to use to solve future
problems, if these relate to the original problem.

‘How to Solve It’ methodology can be implement in any problem solving field as is
the methodology approach is a basic and core steps that should be taken in order to
tackle any problem occur. Even though this methodology was established in 40s
(1945) but it is suitable to put into practice in recent days.

4. Kepner Tregoe

This method was founded by Dr. Charles Kepner and Dr. Benjamin Tregoe in 1958, Kepner-
Tregoe, Inc., is a global organization providing consulting and training services around
problem solving, decision making and project execution methodologies. The figures 1, 2 and
3 below show the project management structure.

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 Evolution of Problem Solving Methods

Figure 1: Project Definition

The first step is project definition which is similar with analyze state in system development
life cycle (SDLC) approach. In this state, we have to analyze in many aspects which are what
the benefits, results, resources, outputs, how much time needed to solve the problem and what
are the requirement needed to assure the problem is solve successfully.

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 Evolution of Problem Solving Methods

Figure 2: Project Planning

The second step is project planning where the problem solver must plan the work that should
be done accords to the plan to assure the project is success. Problem solver has to assign the
right people to do each task. Second, the problem solver must affirm the sequence deliverable
suitable with the need of project and make the schedule deliverable to assure the project or
problem can be done smoothly.

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 Evolution of Problem Solving Methods

Figure 3: Project Implementation

Third step is project implementation which is the last step in this approach and also the vital
step in this problem solving method. Problem solver has to implement the ways that have
been gain from previous two (2) steps. After implement the plan, problem solver has to
monitor the implementation of the project a perform changes is needed. They also should
evaluate the problem solving method whether the plans that have been implement is success
or not.

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 Evolution of Problem Solving Methods

5. Southbeach Notation

Southbeach Notation is differs from other notable visual languages such as UML in that
codification of agents in a system as useful or harmful is defined on an entirely subjective
basis, whereas UML models are intended to be an objective statement about a system. Each
Southbeach diagram is drawn from a certain perspective; this could be the view or belief of
an individual, a role in a process, an organization, a political view, a legal position, an
economic policy or other system of thought.

This method supports the idea that problems may be abstracted into patterns of interactions
between agents that permit generalized problem solving techniques to be applied and to
enable Predictive Analysis of potential interventions that may be considered as ways of
improving a system.

6. PDCA (Plan-Do-Check-Act)

PDCA (plan-do-check-act) is an iterative four-step problem-solving process normally applied

in business process improvement. PDCA it also known as the Deming cycle, Shewhart cycle,
Deming wheel, or plan-do-study-act.

It was invented Dr. W. Edwards Deming, who is considered by many to be the father of
modern quality control; however it was always referred to by him as the "Shewhart cycle."
Later in Deming's career, he modified PDCA to "Plan, Do, Study, Act" PDSA so as to better
describe his recommendations. Basically, the concept of PDCA is based on the scientific
method, as developed from the work of Francis Bacon (Shewhart, 1939). The scientific
method can be written as "hypothesis" - "experiment" - "evaluation" or plan, do, and check.
According to Deming during his lectures in Japan in the early 1950's the Japanese participants
shortened the steps to the now traditional plan, do, check, act. Deming preferred plan, do,
study, and act because "study" has connotations in English closer to Shewhart's intent than
"check." (Deming, 1986)

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 Evolution of Problem Solving Methods

There are four (4) steps of PDCA method:

• PLAN
Establish the objectives and processes necessary to deliver results in accordance with
the expected output. By making the expected output the focus, it differs from other
techniques in that the completeness and accuracy of the specification is also part of
the improvement.
• DO
Implement the new processes.
• CHECK
Measure the new processes and compare the results against the expected results to
ascertain any differences.
• ACT
Analyze the differences to determine their cause. Each will be part of either one or
more of the P-D-C-A steps. Determine where to apply changes that will include
improvement. When a pass through these four steps does not result in the need to
improve, refine the scope to which PDCA is applied until there is a plan that involves
improvement.

7. RPR (Rapid Problem Resolution) Problem Diagnosis

It is a problem diagnosis method specifically designed to determine the root cause of IT

problems. The method was originally developed by Advance7 in 1990 as the Rapid Problem
Resolution Method, with the first fully documented version produced in 1995. Early versions
included problem management guidance but this was removed over time as the method
became more closely aligned to ITIL. RPR is now focused on Problem Diagnosis based on
Root Cause Identification. Due to the highly practical nature of the Supporting Techniques
and the ever changing IT landscape, Advance7 continues to develop RPR to keep it relevant
to current IT environments.

Until November 2007 Advance7 made the c material available to its employees only,
although a limited number of other IT professionals had been trained in the use of the
method. In late 2007 the company announced its intention to make RPR training and material
more widely available.

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 Evolution of Problem Solving Methods

This method is deals with failures, incorrect output and performance issues, and its particular
strengths are in the diagnosis of ongoing & recurring grey problems . The method comprises
core business and supporting techniques.

The Core Process defines a step-by-step approach to problem diagnosis and has three phases:

i. Discover

• Gather & review existing information

• Reach an agreed understanding

ii. Investigate

• Create & execute a diagnostic data capture plan

• Analyze the results & iterate if necessary
• Identify Root Cause

iii. Fix

• Translate diagnostic data

• Determine & implement fix
• Confirm Root Cause addressed

RPR is similar to ‘How to Solve It” methodology which introduced three (3) vital steps that
should be taken with the aim of assure the problem solving is success.

8. TRIZ

TRIZ was developed by a Soviet engineer and researcher Genrich Altshuller and his
colleagues starting in 1946. It has been evolving ever since. It meant "The theory of solving
inventor's problems" or "The theory of inventor's problem solving". Today, TRIZ is a
methodology, tool set, knowledge base, and model-based technology for generating
innovative ideas and solutions for problem solving. TRIZ provides tools and methods for use
in problem formulation, system analysis, failure analysis, and patterns of system evolution
(both 'as-is' and 'could be'). TRIZ, in contrast to techniques such as brainstorming (which is
based on random idea generation), aims to create an algorithmic approach to the invention of
new systems, and the refinement of old systems.

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 Evolution of Problem Solving Methods

There got a quantity of TRIZ is in the public domain and some TRIZ resides in knowledge
bases held by commercial consulting organizations. A complete and open TRIZ development
process is not yet evident. Various camps vie for control of TRIZ and interpretation of its
findings and applications.

Su-Field Analysis (structural substance-field analysis) produces a structural model of the

initial technological system, exposes its characteristics, and with the help of special laws,
transforms the model of the problem. Through this transformation the structure of the
solution that eliminates the shortcomings of the initial problem is revealed. Su-Field Analysis
is a special language of formulas with which it is possible to easily describe any
technological system in terms of a specific (structural) model. A model produced in this
manner is transformed according to special laws and regularities, thereby revealing the
structural solution of the problem.

Figure 4: Structural diagram of TRIZ

A system of laws for the development of technology, a system of standards for the solution of
inventive problems, and Su-Field Analysis are used to forecast the development of
technology, to search for and select problems, and to evaluate the received solution. For the
development of a creative imagination, all elements of TRIZ can be used, although particular
stress is given to methods for developing a creative imagination. The solution of inventive

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 Evolution of Problem Solving Methods

problems is realized with the help of laws for the development of technological systems, the
knowledge base, Su-Field Analysis, ARIZ, and, in part, with the help of methods for the
development of a creative imagination.

Nowadays, computer programs have been developed on the basis of TRIZ that try to provide
intellectual assistance to engineers and inventors during the solution of technological
problems. These programs also try to reveal and forecast emergency situations and
undesirable occurrences.

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 Evolution of Problem Solving Methods

Past, Present and future of Problem Solving Method

The conventional problem-solving model begins by determining what the problem is. However, if
sufficient data is not known about the problem, an accurate definition cannot be determined.
Beginning the process by defining the problem is similar to a police officer declaring a murder victim
committed suicide without gathering evidence. People must be motivated and intention to solve the
problem solving often got persistence and involves risks.

Starting the process with defining the problem can cause the solver to jump to conclusions. One of
the solutions worked and the problem is solved, but which solution was it because the approach taken
is difficult to document, and without documentation, the solution remains non-structured. Starting the
process by gathering data helps to reduce assumptions and prejudices about the cause of the problem
and avoids the shotgun approach.

Some common stumbling blocks in problem solving are fear of failure and unwillingness to take
ownership. Fear of failure may be accompanied by fear of being associated with the problem.
According to Rooney & Hopen, some people may not want to do to solve a problem because don’t
think that the problem is belong to them, example once the programmer owns the problem, the
problem is identified with the programmer problem (Bowman, 2006).

In practice, there are several methods that the problem solver can choose and work on the
overall design even as development teams begin building modules and tools to solve the
problem.

To sum up, researchers' realize that problem-solving processes differ across knowledge
domains and across levels of expertise.

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Conclusion

This paper has reviewed evolvement of different approaches and methods in problem solving
that are use manage risk or problem. The method emphasizes a complete plan and proposes
that can be implementing in problem solving state.

The researcher also noticed there are many methodology approaches were changed to suit
with the evolvement of time but there are several steps that be a must and a vital steps to
problem solving method, such as comprise phases of define the problem, fine the factor or
cause, determine how to solve the problem, what the impact of method that were chosen and
implementing the method that are chosen. Problem solver should define and recognize the
problem first before taking any solution and there are several methodology approaches that
can be considered to tackle or to solve the problem out.

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References

Amsel, E., Langer, R., & Loutzenhiser, L. (1991). Do lawyers reason differently from psychologists?
A comparative design for studying expertise. In R. J. Sternberg, & P. A. Frensch, Complex problem
solving: Principles and Mechanism (pp. 223-250). Hillsdale, New Jersy: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.

Sprankle, M., & Hubbard, J. (2009). Problem Solving and Programming Concepts. Upper Saddle
River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.

Project Lifecycle Models: How They Differ and When to Use Them. Business Evolution.
http://www.business-esolutions.com/islm.htm

Bots, P. W. G., (2006). Experimental Learning to See Through Strategic Behavior in Large Scale
Projects.

Bowman, D. , (2004), A Study of Ivy Tech State College Computer Information System Faculty and
Advisory Committee Problem-Solving Constructs.

Bowman, D., (2006) Building a better model for technical problem solving: when an organization
develops a practical approach to problem solving IT

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