Alternating Current Field Measurement

Alternating current field measurement (ACFM) is an electromagnetic technique used for the detection and

sizing of surface breaking cracks in metallic components and welds. It combines the advantages of the

alternating current potential drop (ACPD) technique and Eddy Current Testing (ECT) in terms of defect sizing
without calibration and ability to work without electrical contact respectively.

The ACFM probe introduces an electric current locally into the part and measures the associated

electromagnetic fields close to the surface. The presence of a defect disturbs the associated fields and the

information is graphically presented to the system operator. The ends of a defect are easily identified to

provide information on defect location and length. Through wall extent of the flaw plays an important role in

determining structural integrity and the same is calculated using mathematical computation thus allowing an

immediate evaluation of the implication of the indication. ACFM inspection can be performed through paint

and coatings, hence it is considered to be a faster and economic technique than others (E.g. magnetic
particle inspection (MPI).

TWI Resources

TWI owns the state-of-the-art Amigo ACFM system supplied by Technical Software Consultants (TSC)

accompanied by special probes. The induction coil typically operates at 5 kHz with standard probes and 50

KHz with special high-frequency probes. The 50 kHz high-frequency probes are typically used to obtain
higher test sensitivity for nonmagnetic conductive materials.

Benefits
 Applicable for base material or welds, ferritic or non-ferritic conductive metals

 Can be used on hot surfaces, underwater, or in irradiated environments

 Provides both depth and length information

 Accurate sizing of defects up to 25mm in depth

 Requires minimal surface preparation and can be applied over paint and other coatings

 Applicable for under water inspection as well as normal inspection

 Inspection data can be stored and analysed offline

 Inspection can be encoded

Applications

 Detection and sizing of fatigue cracks and hydrogen cracking

 Inspection of fillet welds in mobile offshore drilling Units

 Inspection of fillet welds in highway bridges

 Inspection of rail components

 Inspection of gear box, gear teeth, crank shafts, cylinder heads, turbines etc. in aerospace industries

 Detection of cracks and corrosion in vessels, storage tanks and piping in oil & gas and power

generation industries

 Inspection of drilling tools

 Inspection of various components in automotive industries

Digital Radiography

Digital radiography is an advanced technology based on digital detector systems in which the x-ray image is
displayed directly on a computer screen without the need for developing chemicals or intermediate
scanning. The incident x-ray radiation is converted into an equivalent electric charge and then to a digital

image through a detector sensor. Compared to other imaging devices flat panel detector provides high

quality digital images with better signal to noise ratio and improved dynamic range, which in turn provides
high sensitivity for radiographic application.

Flat panel detectors work on two different approaches, namely indirect conversion and direct conversion.

Indirect conversion flat panel detectors utilize a photo diode matrix of amorphous silicon. Direct conversion

flat panel detectors use a photo conductor like amorphous selenium (a-Se) or Cadmium telluride (Cd-Te) on

a multi-micro electrode plate and provides the greatest sharpness and resolution. The information on both
types of detectors is read by thin film transistors.

In the direct conversion process, when photons impact over the photo conductor, like amorphous Selenium,

they are directly converted to electronic signals which are amplified and digitised. As there is no scintillator,

lateral spread of photons is absent here ensuring a sharper image. This differentiates it from indirect
construction.

TWI Resources

 TWI has two digital x-ray systems: a 450kV broad focus system and a 225kV micro-focus system.

Benefits

 Shorter exposure times

 Real Time Applications

 Use of analysis tool and defect recognition software

 Improved detail detectability

 Enhanced SNR and linearity

 Reduced inspection time as no chemical processing of film is required

 Eliminates processing Chemical hence safe for environment

 Digital image enhancement and data storage

 Higher productivity

 Portability

 Increased dynamic range enables multiple thickness to be inspected in one shot

 Immediate feed back

Applications
 Aerospace product examination

 Detection of Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI) in petrochemical, oil & gas and power generation

industries

 Detection of Flow accelerated corrosion

 Foreign object detection

 Casting and weld inspection

 Inspection of composites and fibre reinforced components

An Appreciation of Advanced Radiography (CR, DR and CT) – 4 day training course covering: Computerised

Radiography (CR), Digital Radiography (DR) and Computerised Tomography (CT). Suitable for Radiographic

Testing Operators qualified to at least Level 1, in accordance with ISO 9712, engaged in radiographic

testing/interpretation who need to update their knowledge to incorporate digital radiography, and personnel

engaged in the supervision, control and interpretation of radiographic images who wish to expand their
knowledge to incorporate digital radiography.

Eddy Current Testing

Continuous wave eddy current testing is one of several non-destructive testing methods that use the

electromagnetism principle. Conventional eddy current testing utilises electromagnetic induction to detect
discontinuities in conductive materials.

A specially designed coil energised with alternating current is placed in proximity to the test surface
generating changing magnetic-field which interacts with the test-part producing eddy current in the vicinity.

Variations in the changing phases and magnitude of these eddy currents is then monitored through the use
of receiver-coil(s), or by measuring changes to the alternate current flowing in the primary excitation-coil.
The electrical conductivity variations or magnetic permeability of the test-part, or the presence of any

discontinuities, will cause a change in eddy current and a corresponding change in phases and amplitude of
the measured current. The changes are shown on a screen for easy interpretation.

Another method of using the eddy current principle is pulsed eddy current testing. Methods are being

developed to investigate surfaces through protective coatings, weather sheetings, corrosion products and
even the insulation materials.

Inspection of surfaces at high temperature are possible with the eddy current technique as it is a non-
contact method.

TWI Resources

Equipment available at TWI:

 R/D Tech® Olympus MultiScan MS5800 (computerised eddy current systems)

 MultiView™ software

 GE Hocking Phasec 2d portable (dual frequency systems)

 Nortec 500 dual frequency portable with Eddymaster software

 EtherNDE veritor single frequency laptop based system with automated controls
Techniques available with this type of testing are:

 Single probe testing at a wide range of frequencies

 Array scanning technique

 Multi Frequency technique

 Pulsed Eddy Current technique

 Remote Field Technique

Benefits

 Detection of very small cracks in or near the surface of the test part

 Physically complex geometries can be investigated

 Electrical conductivity measurement

 Coating thickness measurement

 Provides immediate feedback
 Portable

 No couplant is required

Applications

 Checking for surface breaking cracks on metal

 Metal tube inspection for discontinuities

 Heat treat verification of metals

 Checking conductivity of metals, thickness of coatings and of thin metals

 Inspection of friction stir welds

 Testing gas turbine blades

 Inspection of a cast iron bridge

 Inspection of Hurricane propeller hubs

 Testing nozzle welds in nuclear reactor

Full Matrix Capture

Full matrix capture (FMC) is a data acquisition strategy that allows for the capture of every possible
transmit-receive combination for a given ultrasonic phased array transducer.

Acquired data is processed in real-time using an optimised version of the total focusing method (TFM)

algorithm which generates fully focused images from the FMC data. This new technique aims to increase the
reliability of ultrasonic inspection, leading to reduced costs and improved safety for industry.
TWI has been researching and developing full matrix capture technology for a number of years, and it is
now at the stage where it is ready for industrial testing, validation and uptake.

Benefits of full matrix capture

 Fully focused images

 High sensitivity to small flaws

 High resolution

 Signal-to-noise levels equivalent to phased array

 Real-time inspection

 Ease of inspection setup as no complicated focal laws involved

 Ease of interpretation

Current technology

 TWI Crystal full matrix capture software

 Real-time imaging through advanced software optimisation and parallelisation of the TFM algorithm

 Weld geometry inspection (B-scan, C-scan and D-scan display)

 Anisotropic CFRP material inspection with compensation for velocity variations

 Calibration of inspection sensitivity allowing a uniform amplitude response throughout the region of

interest

 Real-time inspection through arbitrary complex geometries

 Hybrid phased array/TFM technique for rapid inspection (100+ frames per second) using large arrays

and for thick-section components

 Dynamic Link Library (.DLL) for integration into third-party software packages


Future technology

 Validation through PoD study and sectioning

 Ongoing support and improvements for TWI Crystal

 Self tandem capability for vertically aligned through-wall planar flaws in weld geometries

 Inspection using transmit-receive longitudinal transducers for highly attenuating materials

 2D arrays for inspection of components with limited surface access

Guided Wave Technology

TWI has been the pioneer of long-range guided wave technology, also known as long-range ultrasonic
testing, since the mid-1990s. This research was stimulated by the need of the oil and

petrochemical industries for a method to detect corrosion under insulation in pipework and subsequently led

to creation of a wholly owned subsidiary Plant Integrity Ltd and the development of the first commercial

guided wave pipe inspection system, Teletest.

Guided wave technology is now widely accepted and used to inspect pipes in inaccessible areas such as road

and river crossings, power plant tubing, risers, offshore topside pipework, jetty lines and refinery pipework.

The success of Teletest meant that the system was bought as a business by Eddyfi Technologies in October

2017. TWI and Plant Integrity continues its work in the field with Members and customers on collaborative
and industrially sponsored projects.

Laser Shearography
Laser Shearography uses the coherent and monochromatic properties of laser light to illuminate the surface

of a component under investigation. If the surface is optically rough e.g. not a mirror surface, the lights

reflected by the component surface will generate a speckle pattern. This speckle pattern is then recorded
by a digital camera.

When the component is stressed e.g. by a mechanical load, thermal heating etc., the speckle pattern will

change accordingly as the component deforms. By recording the new speckle pattern, and subtracting it

from the original speckle pattern, a shearograpic fringe pattern will be produced and can be displayed on a
computer screen.

This fringe pattern contains information about the relative deformation of the component between its two

states (before and after stress), and is made up of a series of characteristic black and white

fringes. When there are no features within the component, a regular fringe pattern (usually in the form of

uniformly distributed fringes) will be obtained. When there is a subsurface feature such as a defect (e.g.
a void, crack, or delamination), or a stringer, the regular fringe pattern will be disturbed.

This enables the defect to be identified by the operator. In addition, the shearographic fringe pattern can

also be used to quantitatively measure the deformation of the component, rendering shearography a
powerful non-contact, full field strain/stress measurement technique.

TWI Resource

TWI owns a Laser Optical Engineering SM 1200 strain mapper. This is unique in that it can separately

resolve in-plane and out-of-plane strain through the use of a novel dual laser system. This is especially
useful when it is necessary to differentiate between faults that produce mainly out-of-plane strain, such as
skin to core disbonds, and those that produce mostly in-plane strain, such as cracks.

TWI has also established an optical lab, which contains two vibration isolated optical tables, a range of laser

sources (class 3B and class 4), several high definition digital cameras, and a high speed camera. A team is

dedicated to developing optical techniques for NDT and strain/displacement measurement, which includes
four Marie Curie Fellows since 2007.

Benefits

 Rapid, full-field inspection

 Non-contact

 High sensitivity

 Able to distinguish between in and out of plane strain

Applications

 Composite boat hulls

 Bridge support welds

 Aerospace

 Power generation

 Oil & Gas

Laser Ultrasonic Testing

TWI has been developing laser-ultrasonic testing techniques for many years and is now able to provide

services harnessing this relatively nascent technology to members.

Laser ultrasonics is a cutting edge non-destructive testing (NDT) method in which lasers are used to

generate, and then measure, ultrasonic waves in a material.

Laser-ultrasonic testing is able to remotely generate ultrasound in materials without contact, leaves a very

small footprint so that it can be applied to irregular geometries, and allows access to restricted areas via

fibre optics.

Our resources

 IOS research kit including laser generator, laser receiver, ADC card, scanner and software
 Generation laser with 9ns pulse duration

 Generation laser with 5-6ns pulse duration

The benefits of laser-ultrasonic testing

 Non-contact and remote, allowing inspection of samples at high temperature, e.g. during welding with

restricted access

 Small and adjustable footprint

 Enables inspection of small and complex geometries

 High frequency capable of detecting very small flaws

 Laser beam scanning method for full coverage of inspection samples

Applications for laser-ultrasonic testing

 Industrial in-process measurements on hot, hazardous, remote samples which may be moving at high

speeds

 High-resolution measurement of small parts

 Inspection of complex structures

 TWI is pursuing various laser-ultrasonics projects involving the inspection of friction stir welds, laser
material depositing and composite materials

Our work with the technology

Intensive research on the mechanisms of generation and properties of the ultrasound produced has been

carried out since the 1980s. A technology readiness level of between six and eight has reached by certain

laser-ultrasonic applications, such as thickness measurement for steel tubes coming out from the mill and
damage detection of composite aircraft components.

TWI has carried out a number of research projects in developing laser-ultrasonic testing as an online
inspection tool for different welding processes and continues to investigate the technology’s potential.

Broadly speaking, the mechanisms of generating ultrasound using this method are laser thermal shock and

laser ablation. They both deposit a rapid laser pulse on the material surface, inducing a sudden stress in the

sample. The stress then propagates in the material as ultrasound. Broadband, multi-mode waves are
generated simultaneously.

Manual Ultrasonic Testing

Manual ultrasonic testing is one of the more common non-destructive testing methods performed on
materials. This testing utilises high frequency mechanical energy, i.e. sound waves, to conduct examinations
and measurements on a test area.

Typically the UT inspection system consists of a transducer, pulser/receiver, and display unit. A

pulser/receiver is an electronic device that can produce high voltage electrical pulses to the transducer.

When driven by the pulser, the transducer generates high frequency ultrasonic sound energy into the
material in the form of sound waves.

When there are discontinuities such as inclusions, porosity, cracks, etc. in the sound path, part of the
mechanical energy will be reflected from the discontinuities' (reflectors') surface.

The reflected sound waves signal received by the transducer is then transformed back into an electrical
signal and its intensity is shown on the display unit.

The sound waves travel time can be directly related to the distance that the signal has travelled. From the
signal, information about reflector location, size, orientation and other features can be determined.

TWI Resources

 Sonatest Masterscan 380M – manual UT

 GE Phasor XS – phased array

 Zetec Dynaray – phased array

 Olympus Omniscan MX – phased array

 Olympus Omniscan MX2 - phased array

 NDT Solutions EUI-AFG – c-scan system

 Force Technology P-Scan system PS4+ - conventional UT & TOFD

Benefits

Some of the various advantages of this UT method is;

 Capable of portable or highly automated operation

 Can be performed on all types of materials

 High accuracy and reproducibility in flaws detection

 Generally only one surface needs to be accessible

 Fluid level check in enclosure

 Materials characterization

Applications

Ultrasonic Testing is widely used for;

 Checking the quality of welds in pipes for the offshore oil industry

 Flaw detection and evaluation of materials

 Aerospace industries

 Military defence

 Offshore and marine industries

Micro-Focus X-Ray
X-Ray equipment in which the focal spot size is less than 100 µm is referred to as microfocus unit. Advanced

micro-focus units have a focal spot size as low as 5 µm which is achieved by focussing the electron beam on
the target in combination with sufficient cooling to avoid overheating.

Micro-focus radiography facilitates to observe the minute details of the object through production of

magnified X-ray images, which in turn enhances the flaw detection capability which improves reliability in

comparison to conventional radiography. Micro-focus X-ray systems having focal spots that approach a point
source are useful in obtaining very high resolution images due to the negligible penumbra effect.

The X-ray source generates a continuous beam of X-rays from the very small focal point. The beam passes

through the sample placed on the manipulator turntable, and casts an X-ray projection onto the detector

sensor. The sensor converts the transmitted X-ray projection into a visible greyscale image, which is

displayed on a monitor. The magnification of the sample depends on its position between the X-ray source

and detector. Moving the sample towards the X-ray source increases the magnification and improves the

spatial resolution by increasing the number of pixels over which the X-ray image is projected. Even when

operating at maximum magnification, the micro-focus X-ray spot ensures the image is always sharp. The
associated software enables contrast enhancement and image integration.

TWI Resources

X-Tek HMX225 micro-focus advanced X-ray system

Features:

 5-10 µm Focal Spot Reflection Target X-ray Source

 25 to 225 kV, 0 - 2000 µA, 225 Watt

 5 axis fully programmable manipulator

 Maximum scan area 480 x 450mm

 Geometric Magnification up to: 160x

 System Magnification up to: 400x

 Feature recognition: down to 5µm

Benefits

 Image Enlargement
 Improved Radiographic contrast

 Reliable detection of micro features

Applications

 Inspection of integrated circuits and PCBs

 Inspection of high quality castings and weld material

 Tube to tube sheet weld inspection

 Inspection of composites and ceramics for micro-voids and structural inhomogeneity

 Inspection of inaccessible areas

 Inspection of turbine blades of aero engine to detect hair line cracks

Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing

Phased array ultrasonic systems utilise multi-element probes, which are individually excited under computer

control. By exciting each element in a controlled manner, a focused beam of ultrasound can be generated.

Software enables the beam to be steered. Two and three dimensional views can be generated showing the
sizes and locations of any flaws detected.

TWI's Resources

TWI owns a range of phased array systems. They are as follows:

Laboratory / bench units

 Olympus NDT’s Tomoscan Focus. A 32 channel system

 Zetec Tomoscan III. A flexible and powerful system capable of handling up to 128 channels of phased
array ultrasound channels
 Peak NDT's Micropulse 5 PA system. This is an advanced unit developed for the nuclear industry with

128 channels

Portable units

 Olympus NDT’s Omniscan MX PA. A robust 16 channel unit. (TWI owns 5 of these systems).

 Harfang Microtechniques X-32. TWI owns 8 of these units. They are robust and extremely well adapted

to site use

Advantages

 Beam focusing
 Beam steering

 Linear or sectorial scans

 Permanent data storage

 Display enables flaw visualisation

Radiography Testing

In Radiography Testing the test-part is placed between the radiation source and film (or detector). The

material density and thickness differences of the test-part will attenuate (i.e. reduce) the penetrating

radiation through interaction processes involving scattering and/or absorption. The differences in absorption

are then recorded on film(s) or through an electronic means. In industrial radiography there are several

imaging methods available, techniques to display the final image, i.e. Film Radiography, Real Time
Radiography (RTR), Computed Tomography (CT), Digital Radiography (DR), and Computed Radiography
(CR).

There are two different radioactive sources available for industrial use; X-ray and Gamma-ray. These

radiation sources use higher energy level, i.e. shorter wavelength, versions of the electromagnetic waves.

Because of the radioactivity involved in radiography testing, it is of paramount importance to ensure that
the Local Rules is strictly adhered during operation.

Computed Tomography (CT) is one of the lab based advanced NDT methods that TWI offers to industry. CT

is a radiographic based technique that provides both cross-sectional and 3D volume images of the object

under inspection. These images allow the internal structure of the test object to be inspected without the

inherent superimposition associated with 2D radiography. This feature allows detailed analysis of the
internal structure of a wide range of components.

TWI Resources

TWI has the following digital radiography equipment with computed tomography capability to cater for
industrial needs.

 Nikon 450kV micro-focus CT system

 X-Tek Industrial 450 kV broad focus system

 X-Tek 225kV micro-focus CT system

Benefits

 Can inspect assembled components

 Minimum surface preparation required

 Detects both surface and subsurface defects

 Provides a permanent record of the inspection

 Verify internal flaws on complex structures

 Isolate and inspect internal components

 Automatically detect and measure internal flaws

 Measure dimensions and angles within the sample without sectioning

 Sensitive to changes in thickness, corrosion, flaws and material density changes

Applications
Radiographic Testing is widely used in the;

 Aerospace industries

 Military defence

 Offshore industries

 Marine industries

 Power-gen industries

 Petrochem industries

 Waste Management

 Automotive industries

 Manufacturing industries

 Transport industries

Robotic Automated Inspection

TWI has developed a highly capable automated inspection system suited to both research and development
work and production inspection.

Two six-axis arms deploy ultrasonic transducers allowing pulse echo and through-transmission ultrasonic

inspection of complex geometry components. The primary application for this technology is the inspection of

carbon fibre composites where defects such as delamination and voids can be detected, but other material
types can also be inspected.

TWI Resources
The heart of the automated inspection system is an inspection cell comprising two six-axis robotic arms,

capable of working independently and cooperatively. The robotic arms deploy end-effectors carrying

ultrasonic transducers (single element and phased array), mounted into water jet nozzles that provide
suitable water columns to guide the ultrasonic beams from the probes to the surfaces of the samples.

Software developed in-house synchronises the robot’s movement with the ultrasound signal acquisition. The

robots can be taught by teach pendant or via offline programming. An operator can load a CAD file matching

the inspected component’s geometry into a software application, and pick the areas to be inspected; the
software then generates the scan path for the robots.

The robot motion can be simulated in a 3D environment to verify non-collision between robot and part and
robot reach limits prior to actual deployment.

Benefits

 Inspection of complex geometry

 Capability to inspect large components in a 3m x 1m x 1m space

 General purpose to allow the deployment of different non-destructive testing inspection probes

 C-scan data mapped on component’s CAD drawing

 Automated defect detection

 Accepts CAD files for fast teaching of scan paths

 High inspection productivity

 Fast inspection speeds

Applications

 Aerospace product examination

 Inspection of composites and fibre-reinforced components

Thermography
Thermography uses a camera containing large numbers of infrared sensors which can detect and measure
small temperature differences. The image showing these differences can be downloaded to and displayed on

a PC, normally as a colour or grey-scale map.

There are two basic types of thermography; passive thermography and active thermography.

In passive thermography, the camera is simply pointed at the test piece and from the thermal image a

temperature map is constructed. Active thermography involves heating the surface of the object rapidly

using an external heat source and observing how the temperature decays with time. Flaws in the material
show up by variations in the temperature decay rate.

TWI Resources

TWI owns state-of-the-art systems of both types:

 Passive thermography - Fluke Ti30 infrared camera

 Passive thermography - Thermoteknix 307KS miniature thermal camera

 Active thermography – Thermal Wave Imaging EchoTherm™ Pulsed Thermography (PT) system

Benefits

 Data collection system can record temperature changes with time

 High-speed, portable, and non-contact

 Ability to inspect large areas

Applications
 Aerospace industry including sandwich panels, carbon/epoxy composites and delamination/impact

damage

 Automotive industry including composite structures, spot welds and adhesive bonds

 Power industry including wind turbine blades, coating uniformity and delamination in composites

Time-of-Flight Diffraction

In time-of-flight diffraction (ToFD) systems, a pair of ultrasonic probes are used, sitting on opposite sides of

a weld-joint or area of interest. A transmitter probe emits an ultrasonic pulse which is picked up by the

receiver probe on the opposite side. In an undamaged part, the signals picked up by the receiver probe are

from two waves: one that travels along the surface (lateral wave) and one that reflects off the far wall

(back-wall reflection). When a discontinuity such as a crack is present, there is a diffraction of the ultrasonic

sound wave from the top and bottom tips of the crack. Using the measured time of flight of the pulse, the

depth of the crack tips can be calculated automatically by trigonometry application. This method is even
more reliable than traditional radiographic, pulse echo manual UT and automated UT weld testing methods.

ToFD offers great accuracy for measuring the critical through-wall size of crack-like-defects. The accuracy

of greater than ±1mm can be obtained in a wide range of material thickness from which pressurised
components are constructed.

ToFD was initially developed as a method of accurate monitoring and sizing of through-wall height of in-

service discontinuities in the nuclear industry. It has now been independently validated as one of the most
effective techniques for locating and sizing discontinuities in ferritic welds.

TWI Resources
TWI has extensive R&D and field experience on ToFD application for defect growth monitoring, inspection of

welds in gas storage bullet, nozzle inspection, ToFD application in lieu of radiography testing (RT) for

pressure vessel and piping welds, detection of thermal fatigue cracks, inspection of turbine and generator
components, in-service inspection for flaw detection and sizing as part of FFS assessment.

TWI acquired the following equipment which is capable of performing ToFD:

 Olympus MX

 Olympus MX2

 Zetec Dynaray

 Zetec Tomoscan III 128

 GE Phasor XS

 Sonotron NDT’s Isonic 2005

 Force Technology P-Scan 4+8

TWI has a range of versatile scanners specially designed for manual and mechanical applications on site.

Benefits

The advantages of this technique are;

 Speed of detecting discontinuities

 Accurate positioning and sizing of discontinuities

 Reproducibility and accuracy is proven <0.5mm

 Permanent digital records with graphic images

 Detection is independent of type and orientation of discontinuities

 Compliant to ASME Code Case 2235

 Consistent results between pre- and post-heat treatment

 Consistent results between pre- and in-service inspection

 Accurate methods available for measuring the growth of discontinuities

 Offers a higher probability of detection

 Data is collected in B-scan or D-scan format to improve the detection of discontinuities

 Planar discontinuities, which are not perpendicular to measured surfaces can be detected

 Higher POD which means, improving risk reduction and calculation

 No evacuation of areas during operation because no radiation is used

 Inspection results are immediately available
 Inspection can be performed above 200° C

Applications

 Petrochemical, oil refining and power generation industries

 Offshore and marine industries

 Nuclear industries

 Manufacturing industries

 Aerospace and defence sector

 Inspection of bridges