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STRESS
1.1. Definition of stress
1.1.1. External forces on a body
Consider a body of continuous (no voids) and cohesive (no cracks or defects) material
subjected to an arbitrary number of externally applied loads as shown in Fig. 1.1a. It is
supposed that the body is in equilibrium.
F2 F2
F1 F1
(a) (b)
If we cut this body, the applied forces can be thought of as being distributed over the cut area
A as in Fig. 1.1b. In general, stress varies throughout the body so values depend on the
location of interest. For each patch A, we define the resultant force over this area as F. F
is also a distributed force; however, when A is extremely small, we can say that F is
effectively uniform.
Zooming back out to look at the entire sectioned area, we can thus say that area A is subject
to an infinite number of forces, where each one (of magnitude F) acts over a small area of
size A. From here, we can define stress as the magnitude of internal force F divided by the
acting area A.
If we let A approach zero, we obtain the stress at a point. Mathematically, stress at a point
can be expressed as:
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MECH3361/9361 Semester 2, 2016
𝑛 𝛥𝐹
𝜎 = 𝑇 = lim
𝛥𝐴→0 𝛥𝐴
(1.1)
Stress is one of most important concepts that we introduced in mechanics of solids. Why?
Because the design of structures is largely dependent on stress level for safety reasons.
We can resolve F in the normal (Fn) and tangential (Ft) directions of the acting area as
per Fig. 1.1b. The intensity of the force (or force per unit area) acting normal to section A is
called normal stress, nn, and it is expressed as:
𝛥𝐹𝑛
𝜎𝑛𝑛 = lim
𝛥𝐴→0 𝛥𝐴
(1.2)
The intensity or force per unit area acting tangentially to A is called shear stress, nt, and it
is expressed as:
𝛥𝐹𝑡
𝜎𝑛𝑡 = lim
𝛥𝐴→0 𝛥𝐴
(1.3)
The SI unit for stress is the Pascal (Pa), which is equivalent to N/m2. In engineering practice,
KPa = 103 Pa, MPa = 106 Pa, and GPa = 109 Pa are commonly used.
The normal stress nn can vary with the direction change of n, and shear stress nt can be in
any tangential direction of the surface. We need to be more specific.
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(1.4)
z-sectional plane
The first suffix of a stress component indicates the direction of the sectional plane (z, here).
The second denotes the direction along which the stress component is aligned.
Similarly, there are infinitesimal planes through P in the other coordinate directions. There
are six planes in total: positive/negative x; positive/negative y; positive/negative z.
F4
z
F3
zz
F5 z
n
+ z
-
Positive
Z-plane
P z-plane
P P
zy Negative
zx y y
z-plane
y
-n
o o o
x x x
F1
Normal in the same Normal in the opposite
F2 direction of coordinate (z) direction to coordinate (z)
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z zz
zy
zx yz
xz yy
xy
yx
xx
y
o
x
From above, we know that the stress state at point P consists of nine stress components. We
can arrange these stress components into a matrix, with the following form:
Example 1.1
The stress states at two different points in a machine component are measured as:
16 18 0 19 20 0
𝐴 = [18 17 −15] 𝐵 = [20 −25 0]
0 −15 19 0 0 20
Solution
To clarify the stress components, you can first compare the corresponding notation:
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For point A, 𝜎𝑥𝑥 = 16, 𝜎𝑥𝑦 = 18, 𝜎𝑥𝑧 = 0 arbitrary units, which are the three stress
components on the x-plane in x, y, and z directions. Thus, on the x-plane, draw an arrow of
magnitude 16 in the positive x-direction, 18 in the positive y-direction, and nothing in z-
direction, as shown in the front face of the left infinitesimal element. Similarly, y and z plane
stresses can be drawn as shown below.
19 z-section 20 z-section
z z
15
18 18 17 20 25
15 20
x-section 16 x-section 19
y-section y-section
y y
o o
x x
Conversely, if 𝜎𝑛𝑛 acts in the opposite direction (“pushing” into the surface), it is considered
a negative stress (also known as compressive stress) (Fig. 1.4, right).
Fig. 1.4 Sign of normal stress (left – the same direction as the normal direction of section
plane; right – opposite to the normal direction of section plane)
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MECH3361/9361 Semester 2, 2016
z z
(a)
+ (b)
y y
o xy positive o xy negative
x n x n
(Positive-section) (Positive-section)
z z
(c) n (d) + n
negative positive
xy
xy
y y
o o
x (Negative-section)
x (Negative-section)
Let’s check the infinitesimal element shown before. If we cut the infinitesimal element
through the middle, i.e. a z-section as shown by the dashed line below, we get the sectional
model on the right hand side.
yy
z zz
zy yx
zx yz
C B
D C xy
xz yy O
xx y
xy
A yx xy
B x
xx D A
y
y yx
x yy
o
x
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1 1 1 1
𝜎𝑥𝑦 (𝛥𝑦)(𝛥𝑧) [( 𝛥𝑥)] + 𝜎𝑥𝑦 (𝛥𝑦)(𝛥𝑧) [( 𝛥𝑥)] − 𝜎𝑦𝑥 (𝛥𝑥)(𝛥𝑧) [( 𝛥𝑦)] − 𝜎𝑦𝑥 (𝛥𝑥)(𝛥𝑧) [( 𝛥𝑦)] = 0
2 2 2 2
∴ 𝜎𝑥𝑦 − 𝜎𝑦𝑥 = 0
Thus,
𝜎𝑥𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦𝑥
Similarly, by checking equilibrium conditions in the yz- and xz planes, we find that:
𝜎𝑥𝑧 = 𝜎𝑧𝑥
𝜎𝑦𝑧 = 𝜎𝑧𝑦
(1.5)
Hence, only six independent stress components are needed to describe the stress state at a
point.
Example 1.2
10 0 −40
(i) Draw an infinitesimal cube to show the stress tensor, 𝜎𝐴 = [ 0 −30 0 ]
−40 0 10
Solution
10
+z-plane
40
30
z 40
10 +y-plane
o y +x-plane
x
(ii) Write the stress tensor from the stressed infinitesimal cube (note the signs of the shear
stress are not given in the figure and you need to decide them):
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60 60
+x-plane
40 +z-plane 40
60 60
20 20 40 20 20 40
z z
y 60 y 60
- y-plane
o x o x
Solution
Look at the planes in the infinitesimal cube. Obviously, the front y-section is a negative plane
(its normal direction is opposite to y-positive). The other two faces shown are positive planes.
In +x-plane: 𝜎𝑥𝑥 = −60 (comp.) , 𝜎𝑥𝑦 = −20 (opp. y), 𝜎𝑥𝑧 = −40 (opp. z)
No units are specified in this example, but units should be included outside of the matrix.
Example 1.3
(i) Complete the infinitesimal cube to show the stress tensor [σA].
10 20 −40
𝜎𝐴 = [ 20 −30 0 ]
−40 0 10
z O x
Solution
Step 1: Note that the co-ordinate system is different from that in Example 1.2.
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Step 2:
+y-plane 30
20
20
40
10
40
y 10 +x-plane
z o x +z-plane
Step 3:
(ii) Write the stress tensor from the stressed infinitesimal cube (note the signs of the shear
stress are not given in the figure and you need to determine them).
60
40
y 60
x o 20 20 40
z 60
Solution
Step 1: Determine the convention of section planes. Look at the visible planes of the
infinitesimal cube. Obviously, the visible x-plane is a negative plane (its normal direction is
opposite to x-positive). Similarly, other two faces shown are also negative sections as shown.
Step 2:
In –x-plane: 𝜎𝑥𝑥 = −60 (comp.), 𝜎𝑥𝑦 = 20 (opp. +y), 𝜎𝑥𝑧 = −40 (same as +z)
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−60 20 −40
𝜎𝐵 = [ 20 60 0 ]
−40 0 60
60
– x-plane
– z-plane 40
y 60
x o 20 20 40
z 60
– y-plane
Applying the equilibrium equations about the normal n and tangential t axes, we get:
∑𝐹𝑛 = 0 = 𝐴𝜎𝑛𝑛 − ⏟
(𝜎𝑦𝑦 )(𝐴 sin 𝜃) sin 𝜃
𝐹𝑦
yy n
t
xy tn
nn
Acos
xx xx xx A
xy Asin
y y
yx
yx
x yy x yy
(1.6a)
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1
cos2 𝜃 = (1 + cos 2𝜃)
2
1
sin2 𝜃 = (1 − cos 2𝜃)
2
sin 2𝜃 = 2 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
In a similar way, by applying equilibrium in the tangential (t) axis and using the
trigonometric functions, we can get:
∑𝐹𝑡 = 0 = 𝐴𝜎𝑛𝑡 − ⏟
(𝜎𝑦𝑦 )(𝐴 sin 𝜃) cos 𝜃
𝐹𝑦
1 1
𝜎𝑛𝑡 = [2𝜎𝑦𝑦 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃] − [2𝜎𝑥𝑥 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃] − 𝜎𝑦𝑥 sin2 𝜃 + 𝜎𝑥𝑦 cos 2 𝜃
2 2
(1.7a)
1 1
cos 2 𝜃 − sin2 𝜃 = (1 + cos 2𝜃) − (1 − cos 2𝜃) = cos 2𝜃
2 2
(𝜎𝑦𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥𝑥 )
𝜎𝑛𝑡 = sin 2𝜃 + 𝜎𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2
(1.7b)
With these two equations above, we can determine the stress in any rotated plane.
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MECH3361/9361 Semester 2, 2016
y
y’ y’y’ yy
x’y’
x’x’ x’
xy
xx
+90° x
o
𝜎𝑥′𝑥′ can be determined from the previous section where the coordinate x’ coincides with
normal n. Thus the stress in an inclined plane of can be calculated by:
(1.8)
𝜎𝑦′𝑦′ can be determined by viewing the inclined plane with angle of (+90):
𝜎𝑦 ′ 𝑦 ′ = 𝜎𝑥𝑥 cos2 (𝜃 + 90°) + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 sin2 (𝜃 + 90°) + 2𝜎𝑥𝑦 cos(𝜃 + 90°) sin(𝜃 + 90°)
= 𝜎𝑥𝑥 sin2 𝜃 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 cos2 𝜃 + 2𝜎𝑥𝑦 (− sin 𝜃) cos 𝜃
= 𝜎𝑥𝑥 sin2 𝜃 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 cos2 𝜃 − 2𝜎𝑥𝑦 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
Thus,
(1.9)
Similarly,
(𝜎𝑦𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥𝑥 )
𝜎𝑥′𝑦′ = sin 2𝜃 + 𝜎𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2
(1.10)
which means that the summation of two normal stress components is independent of the
orientation of the coordinate system. We will show this again in 3D (that 𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧𝑧 =
constant).
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Example 1.4
1 −1 0
Rotate the following stress tensor about z-axis for =90 : 𝜎 = [−1
o
2 0] MPa.
0 0 3
Solution
Since the rotation is about z-axis and 𝜎𝑥𝑧 = 𝜎𝑦𝑧 = 0, we do not need to change z-directional
stress:
(𝜎𝑦𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥𝑥 )
𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = sin 2𝜃 + 𝜎𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2
(2 − 1)
= sin(2 × 90°) + (−1) cos(2 × 90°)
2
1
= (0) + (−1)(−1)
2
= 1 MPa
𝜎𝑧′𝑧′ = 𝜎𝑧𝑧 = 3 MPa, since the rotation is purely about the z-axis.
2 1 0
Thus, 𝜎 ′ = [1 1 0] MPa
0 0 3
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2𝜎𝑥𝑦
tan 2𝜃𝑝 =
𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦
(1.11)
We call the maximum and minimum 𝜎𝑛𝑛 the principal stresses. From Eq. 1.10, 2𝜎𝑥′𝑦′ =
−(𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 ) sin 2𝜃 + 2𝜎𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃, we can obtain 2𝜎𝑥′𝑦′ = (𝜕𝜎𝑛𝑛 /𝜕𝜃) = 0, meaning that
when 𝜎𝑛𝑛 reaches its extrema (principal stresses) on the plane, 𝜎𝑛𝑡 = 0. In other words, a
zero shear plane is a principal plane.
( xx yy ) 2+ 2
xy
2
xy
2 p+180° 2 p
( xx yy )
2
For a 2D case, there are two roots to Eq. 1.11: p1 and p2. Mathematically, 2p1 and 2p2 are
180 apart, and thus p1 and p2 are 90 apart (or orthogonal), i.e.
2𝜎𝑥𝑦
tan 2𝜃𝑝 = tan(2𝜃𝑝 + 180°) =
𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦
𝜎𝑥𝑦
sin 2𝜃𝑝1 =
2
(𝜎 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 )
√[ 𝑥𝑥 2
] + 𝜎𝑥𝑦
2
(𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 )
cos 2𝜃𝑝1 = 2
2
(𝜎 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 )
√[ 𝑥𝑥 2
] + 𝜎𝑥𝑦
2
(1.12)
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−𝜎𝑥𝑦
sin 2𝜃𝑝2 =
2
(𝜎 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 )
√[ 𝑥𝑥 2
] + 𝜎𝑥𝑦
2
(𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 )
−
cos 2𝜃𝑝2 = 2
2
(𝜎 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 )
√[ 𝑥𝑥 2
] + 𝜎𝑥𝑦
2
(1.13)
Substituting the above two trigonometric relations into Eq. 1.6b, we can find the associated
principal stresses:
(𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 )
2
(𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 ) (𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 ) 2 𝜎𝑥𝑦
𝜎𝑛𝑛 = 𝜎𝑝 = ± ±
2 2 2 2
(𝜎 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 ) (𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 )
√[ 𝑥𝑥 2
] + 𝜎𝑥𝑦 √[ 2
] + 𝜎𝑥𝑦
2 2
2
(𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 ) 2
[ ] + 𝜎𝑥𝑦
(𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 ) 2
= ±
2 2
(𝜎 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 )
√[ 𝑥𝑥 2
] + 𝜎𝑥𝑦
2
2
(𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 ) (𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 )
𝜎𝑝 = ± √[ 2 =𝜎
] + 𝜎𝑥𝑦 1,2
2 2
(1.14)
𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦
tan 2𝜃𝑠 = −
2𝜎𝑥𝑦
(1.15)
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For a 2D case, there are two roots to Eq. 1.15 as for the max normal stress (principal stress)
directions.
𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦
tan 2𝜃𝑠 = tan(2𝜃𝑠 + 180°) = −
2𝜎𝑥𝑦
In contrast with the principal stress directions, each root (2s) is 90 to 2p. Thus the
maximum shear and s and p are 45 apart. The planes for max shear stress can be
determined by rotating 45 from the principal plane.
( xx yy ) 2+ 2
xy
2
xy
2 s
( xx yy ) 2 s+180°
2
(𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 )
−
sin 2𝜃𝑠1 = 2
2
√(𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 ) + 𝜎 2
2 𝑥𝑦
𝜎𝑥𝑦
cos 2𝜃𝑠1 =
2
(𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 )
√[ 2
] + 𝜎𝑥𝑦
2
(𝜎𝑦𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥𝑥 )
(𝜎𝑛𝑡 )max = sin 2𝜃𝑠 + 𝜎𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃𝑠
2
(𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 )
(𝜎𝑦𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥𝑥 ) − 𝜎𝑥𝑦
= 2 + 𝜎𝑥𝑦
2 2 2
(𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 ) (𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 )
√[ 2
] + 𝜎𝑥𝑦 √[ 2
] + 𝜎𝑥𝑦
2 2
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MECH3361/9361 Semester 2, 2016
2
(𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 )
(𝜎𝑛𝑡 )max = √[ 2
] + 𝜎𝑥𝑦
2
(1.16)
(𝜎𝑛𝑡 )max 1
{ = ± (𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )
(𝜎𝑛𝑡 )min 2
(1.17)
Example 1.5
Determine the principal and maximum shear stresses for the following stress tensor and
illustrate magnitude and direction on the infinitesimal elements.
50 20 0
𝜎 = [20 10 0 ] MPa
0 0 30
Solution
Step 1: Identify the principal stress in the z-direction (30 MPa), as there are no shear stresses
on the z-plane (i.e. 𝜎𝑧𝑥 = 𝜎𝑧𝑦 = 0). Hence, to obtain the remaining two principal stresses,
stresses are transformed in the xy-plane only, enabling the use of the 2D Mohr’s circle.
C = 30
22=1.72 11=58.28
xx=50
0 yy=10
2
2 R=28.28
xy=20
max=28.28
max
𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 50 + 10
C= = = 30 MPa
2 2
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𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 2 50 − 10 2
R = √( 2 √
) + 𝜎𝑥𝑦 = ( ) + 202 = 28.28 MPa
2 2
2𝜎𝑥𝑦 2 × 20
tan 2𝜃𝑝 = = =1
(𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 ) (50 − 10)
arctan(1)
𝜃𝑝1 = = 22.5°
2
𝜃𝑝2 = 𝜃𝑝1 + 90° = 112.5°
Step 4: Compute the principal stresses and the maximum shear stress
(𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 ) 𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 2
𝜎𝑝 = ± √( 2 =C±R
) + 𝜎𝑥𝑦
2 2
= 30 ± 28.28
58.28 MPa
= {
1.72 MPa
𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 2
𝜏max = (𝜎𝑛𝑡 )max = R = √( 2
) + 𝜎𝑥𝑦
2
= 28.28 MPa
To associate the principal stress directions with the correct principal stresses, confirm the
results using the stress transformation equations.
𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑥𝑥 cos2 𝜃𝑝1 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 sin2 𝜃𝑝1 + 2𝜎𝑥𝑦 cos 𝜃𝑝1 sin 𝜃𝑝1
𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑥𝑥 cos2 𝜃𝑝2 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 sin2 𝜃𝑝2 + 2𝜎𝑥𝑦 cos 𝜃𝑝2 sin 𝜃𝑝2
The angles used to define the principal directions are with respect to the x-axis (with anti-
clockwise rotation). As defined in Eq. 1.15, the max shear direction is 45° from the principal
direction.
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MECH3361/9361 Semester 2, 2016
max=28.28MPa
11=58.28MPa
30MPa
= 22.5o = 22.5o
Note that the principal stresses correspond to zero shear; but max shears do not correspond to
zero normal stress.
t y Sectioned plane
yy
P xx
xx x
Look at a FBD of the axial section as shown in Fig. 1.10 and check the axial equilibrium.
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MECH3361/9361 Semester 2, 2016
𝑃𝑟
𝜎𝑥𝑥 =
2𝑡
(1.18)
t
P
which simplifies to give the equation for hoop stress or circumferential stress:
𝑃𝑟
𝜎𝜃𝜃 =
𝑡
(1.19)
Example 1.6
Determine the principal stresses, maximum shear stress, and their orientations for the
𝑃𝑟
pressurised cylindrical vessel in Fig 1.10. Assume = 10 MPa.
2𝑡
Solution
Since there are no shear stresses, x and y (θ in cylindrical co-ordinates) are the principal
directions. Based on Eq. 1.18–1.19, is double xx.
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2
(𝜎𝑥𝑥 −𝜎𝑦𝑦 )
(𝜎𝑛𝑡 )max = √[ 2 = 5 MPa
] + 𝜎𝑥𝑦
2
𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 10 − 20
tan 2𝜃𝑠 = tan(2𝜃𝑠 + 180°) = − = = −∞
2𝜎𝑥𝑦 2(0)
2𝜃𝑠1 = 270°
𝜃𝑠1 = 135° (with respect to the x-axis)
Let’s begin by summing the forces on a 2D triangular element, shown in Fig. 1.12.
y
A + =90°
Acos
tn nn
xx
n
xy
x
yx
Acos
yy
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 = (−𝜎𝑥𝑥 )(𝐴 cos 𝜃) + (−𝜎𝑦𝑥 )(𝐴 cos 𝜙) + (−𝜎𝑡𝑛 cos 𝜙)(𝐴) + (𝜎𝑛𝑛 cos 𝜃)(𝐴)
𝜎𝑥𝑥 cos 𝜃 + 𝜎𝑦𝑥 cos 𝜙 = 𝜎𝑛𝑛 cos 𝜃 − 𝜎𝑡𝑛 cos 𝜙
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MECH3361/9361 Semester 2, 2016
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 = (−𝜎𝑦𝑦 )(𝐴 cos 𝜙) + (−𝜎𝑥𝑦 )(𝐴 cos 𝜃) + (𝜎𝑡𝑛 cos 𝜃)(𝐴) + (𝜎𝑛𝑛 cos 𝜙)(𝐴)
𝜎𝑦𝑦 cos 𝜙 + 𝜎𝑥𝑦 cos 𝜃 = 𝜎𝑛𝑛 cos 𝜙 − 𝜎𝑡𝑛 cos 𝜃
If n is a principal direction, σnn is a principal stress (σp), and σtn will be zero since by
definition there are no shear stresses acting on principal planes.
𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑥 𝑙 𝑙
[𝜎 𝜎𝑦𝑦 ] {𝑚} = 𝜎𝑝 {𝑚}
𝑥𝑦
where 𝑙 = cos 𝜃, and 𝑚 = cos 𝜙 (= sin 𝜃 , because θ+ϕ=90°). l and m are the direction
cosines of the principal direction n.
For an unknown principal stress 𝜎𝑝 = 𝜎, the matrix equation can be rewritten as:
(1.20)
The equation has non-vanishing solutions if and only if the determinant of coefficient matrix
is zero.
𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎 𝜎𝑦𝑥
| 𝜎
𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑦𝑦 − 𝜎| = (𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎)(𝜎𝑦𝑦 − 𝜎) − 𝜎𝑦𝑥 𝜎𝑥𝑦 = 0
(1.21)
Therefore, mathematically, principal stresses are the eigenvalues of the stress tensor, and
the corresponding eigenvector is the direction cosine:
𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
{ }={ }
𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
(1.22)
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This approach can easily be extended to 3D problems, making the calculation of principal
stresses and principal directions standardised and fairly straightforward.
Δ𝑥
𝑙 = cos(𝒏, 𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
√Δ𝑥 2 + Δ𝑦 2 + Δ𝑧 2
Δy
𝑚 = cos(𝒏, 𝑦) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 =
√Δ𝑥 2 + Δ𝑦 2 + Δ𝑧 2
Δ𝑧
𝑛 = cos(𝒏, 𝑧) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 =
√Δ𝑥 2 + Δ𝑦 2 + Δ𝑧 2
(1.23)
𝑙 2 + 𝑚 2 + 𝑛2 = 1
(1.24)
z z
c c nz n
A n
nn
A
Ax ny
Ay p Ay
y Ax y
o b nx o b
z’
x a x a Az
Az
Consider the areas of each surface in Fig. 1.13a. Let’s start with the xy plane. From the
geometry, we know zop=oz’p=. Therefore, to project abc onto the xy plane, we have
𝛥𝐴𝑧 = 𝐴𝑜𝑎𝑏 = (𝛥𝐴) cos 𝜑 = (𝛥𝐴)𝑛.
Similarly, 𝛥𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴𝑜𝑏𝑐 = (𝛥𝐴)𝑙, 𝛥𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴𝑜𝑎𝑐 = (𝛥𝐴)𝑚, 𝛥𝐴𝑧 = 𝐴𝑜𝑎𝑏 = (𝛥𝐴)𝑛
To apply equilibrium to the tetrahedron, we resolve 𝜎𝑛𝑛 to 𝜎𝑛𝑥 , 𝜎𝑛𝑦 , 𝜎𝑛𝑧 as in Fig. 1.13b.
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MECH3361/9361 Semester 2, 2016
The latter terms are negative because they act opposite to the coordinate positive.
Similarly, 𝜎𝑛𝑦 = 𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝑙 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝑚 + 𝜎𝑧𝑦 𝑛 and 𝜎𝑛𝑧 = 𝜎𝑥𝑧 𝑙 + 𝜎𝑦𝑧 𝑚 + 𝜎𝑧𝑧 𝑛.
(1.25)
Since 𝜎𝑛𝑥 = 𝜎𝑛𝑛 𝑙, 𝜎𝑛𝑦 = 𝜎𝑛𝑛 𝑚 , 𝜎𝑛𝑧 = 𝜎𝑛𝑛 𝑛, (by resolving the normal stress 𝜎𝑛𝑛 to 𝜎𝑛𝑥 ,
σny , 𝜎𝑛𝑧 in the x, y, z directions), we have: 𝜎𝑛𝑥 𝑙 = 𝜎𝑛𝑛 𝑙 2 , 𝜎𝑛𝑦 𝑚 = 𝜎𝑛𝑛 𝑚2 , 𝜎𝑛𝑧 𝑛 = 𝜎𝑛𝑛 𝑛2 .
Adding these three equations gives 𝜎𝑛𝑥 𝑙 + 𝜎𝑛𝑦 𝑚 + 𝜎𝑛𝑧 𝑛 = 𝜎𝑛𝑛 (𝑙 2 + 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 ), and since
𝑙 2 + 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 = 1, we have:
𝜎𝑛𝑥
𝜎𝑛𝑛 = 𝜎𝑛𝑥 𝑙 + 𝜎𝑛𝑦 𝑚 + 𝜎𝑛𝑧 𝑛 = {𝑙 𝑚 𝑛} {𝜎𝑛𝑦 }
𝜎𝑛𝑧
(1.26)
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MECH3361/9361 Semester 2, 2016
And again for all of the shear components. As a result, we can derive:
(1.27)
Thus:
𝝈𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑹𝝈𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑹𝑇
(1.28)
𝑙 𝑚 𝑛
where 𝑅 = [ 𝑙′ 𝑚′ 𝑛′ ] is called the “transformation matrix”.
′′
𝑙 𝑚′′ 𝑛′′
From Eq. (1.25), the Eigen equation of the 3D stress tensor can be written as:
(1.29)
where {𝑙𝑝 𝑚𝑝 𝑛𝑝 }𝑇 is the direction cosine for the principal plane and is the principal
stress. Re-arranging Eq. (1.30) leads to:
(1.30)
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MECH3361/9361 Semester 2, 2016
(1.31)
𝜎 3 − 𝐼1 𝜎 2 + 𝐼2 𝜎 − 𝐼3 = 0
(1.32)
where the first, second, and third invariants (the coefficients above) are:
2 2 2
𝐼2 = 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑦 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑧𝑧 + 𝜎𝑧𝑧 𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑥𝑦 − 𝜎𝑦𝑧 − 𝜎𝑧𝑥
2 2 2
𝐼3 = 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑧𝑧 + 2𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑦𝑧 𝜎𝑧𝑥 − 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑧 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑧𝑥 − 𝜎𝑧𝑧 𝜎𝑥𝑦
(1.33)
Since Eq. 1.32 is a third order equation, there are three roots that can be found using standard
analytical solutions. These three roots are the maximum, intermediate, and minimum
principal stresses, 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 , and 𝜎3 respectively, where:
𝜎1 ≥ 𝜎2 ≥ 𝜎3
(1.34)
When principal stresses 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 , and 𝜎3 are known, we can determine the three invariants as:
𝐼1 = 𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3
𝐼2 = 𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 𝜎1
𝐼3 = 𝜎1 𝜎2 𝜎3
(1.35)
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But the geometric relationship 𝑙 2 + 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 = 1 must also hold. Therefore, we pick any two
linear equations and combine them with the geometric equation:
(1.36)
The third linear equation (not listed in Eq. 1.36) should be used for checking the calculation.
Example 1.7
At a point in a structure subjected to 3D loading, the stress was measured as:
50 −20 0
𝜎 = [−20 80 60 ] MPa.
0 60 −70
Determine: (1) the stress invariants, (2) principal stresses, (3) direction cosines.
Solution
2 2 2
𝐼2 = 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑦 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑧𝑧 + 𝜎𝑧𝑧 𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑥𝑦 − 𝜎𝑦𝑧 − 𝜎𝑧𝑥
= 50 × 80 + 80 × (−70) + (−70) × 50 − (−20)2 − 602 − 02
= −9100
2 2 2
𝐼3 = 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑧𝑧 + 2𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑦𝑧 𝜎𝑧𝑥 − 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑧 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑧𝑥 − 𝜎𝑧𝑧 𝜎𝑥𝑦
= 50 × 80 × (−70) + 2 × (−20) × 60 × 0 − 50 × 602
−80 × 02 − (−70) × (−20)2
= −432000
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Solve the cubic equation directly, then rank the roots in order of magnitude.
You can use the coefficients of the Eigen equation (which are the invariants adjusted
for the signs in the equation):
x =
-91.3610
107.2882
44.0728
…or determine the Eigenvalue and Eigenvector directly from the stress tensor:
v =
0.0474 0.9483 0.3140
0.3350 0.2810 -0.8993
-0.9410 0.1478 -0.3044
d =
-91.3610 0 0
0 44.0728 0
0 0 107.2882
The d matrix will contain the principal stresses. Do not forget to rank them.
For each principal stress, substitute the value as per Eq. 1.36.
𝑙2 0.948 𝑙3 0.048
{𝑚2 } = {0.282}, {𝑚3 } = { 0.337 }
𝑛2 0.146 𝑛3 −0.940
Alternatively, the v matrix from MATLAB will give the corresponding directions
(reading down each column).
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Example 1.8
Determine the principal stress and principal planes for the following stress tensor:
−10 15 −25
𝜎 = [ 15 20 −35] MPa.
−25 −35 −30
Solution
Alternative solution:
−10 15 −25 𝑙𝑝 𝑙𝑝
[ 15 𝑚 𝑚
20 −35] { 𝑝 } = 𝜎 { 𝑝 }
−25 −35 −30 𝑛𝑝 𝑛𝑝
in MATLAB directly.
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>>[v,d]=eig(A)
v =
0.3761 0.8353 0.4011
0.3317 -0.5255 0.7834
0.8652 -0.1616 -0.4747
d =
-54.2852 0 0
0 -14.6016 0
0 0 48.8867
Example 1.9
A state of stress at a point is defined by xx = zz =10MPa, yy = –20MPa, xy = –4MPa and
yz = zx = 0. (i) Find the principal stresses and their direction cosines with respect to the x-
axis. (ii) Draw the stress state on an infinitesimal isolated cube element.
Solution:
10 −4 0
𝜎 = [−4 −20 0 ] MPa.
0 0 10
10 −4
𝜎=[ ] MPa.
−4 −20
2
(𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 ) (𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 )
𝜎𝑝 = ± √[ 2
] + 𝜎𝑥𝑦
2 2
2
(10 + (−20)) (10 − (−20))
= ± √[ ] + (−4)2
2 2
10.52
={
−20.52
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2𝜎𝑥𝑦 2 × (−4) 4
tan 2𝜃𝑝 = = =−
𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 10 − (−20) 15
−14.93°
2𝜃 = {
−14.93° + 180°
−7.47°
∴𝜃={
82.54°
For 𝜃 = −7.47°,
Thus, 𝜃 = −7.47° is the direction of 𝜎1 relative to the x-axis. We can say that
𝑙1 = cos(−7.47°) = 0.992, the x-direction cosine of the first principal stress. By
elimination, 𝑙3 = cos(82.54°) = 0.130 is the x-direction cosine of the third
principal stress.
Given the 2D simplification, we can calculate the other direction cosines for each
principal stress.
𝑙1 cos(−7.47°) 0.992
For 𝜎1 , {𝑚1 } = {cos(−7.47° − 90°)} = {−0.130}
𝑛1 cos(90°) 0
𝑙2 cos(90°) 0
For 𝜎2 , {𝑚2 } = {cos(90°)} = {0}
𝑛2 cos(0°) 1
𝑙3 cos(82.54°) 0.130
For 𝜎3 , {𝑚3 } = {cos(90° − 82.54°)} = {0.992}
𝑛3 cos(90°) 0
Note that the principal stresses showed should be 𝜎1 = 10.52 and 𝜎3 = −20.52 MPa
(rather than the typical 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 in 2D problems).
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82.54°
-7.47°
1
y x
-7.47°- 90°
x
-7.47°
Norm of 1st p-plane
Angle for direction cosine
We can check the answers in MATLAB. Note that MATLAB Eigen vector results
may indicate the opposite principal plane.
v= d=
0.1299 -0.0000 -0.9915 -20.5242 0 0
0.9915 0.0000 0.1299 0 10.0000 0
0.0000 1.0000 0.0000 0 0 10.5242
A
Ax ny
Ay p Ay
y Ax y
o b nx o b
z’
x a x a Az
Az
Assume that the coordinate directions are the principal directions (i.e. there are no shear
components).
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2
𝜎 2 = (𝜎𝑛𝑥 )2 + (𝜎𝑛𝑦 ) + (𝜎𝑛𝑧 )2 = (𝑙𝜎1 )2 + (𝑚𝜎2 )2 + (𝑛𝜎3 )2
The above equations have no shear, but since shear 𝜎𝑛𝑡 and normal 𝜎𝑛𝑛 are perpendicular to
each other, we can use Pythagoras’ Theorem to get 𝜎 2 = 𝜎𝑛𝑛 2 2
+ 𝜎𝑛𝑡 . As such, if there was shear
in the inclined plane, the square of the total shear stress on the plane should be:
2
𝜎𝑛𝑡 = 𝜎 2 − 𝜎𝑛𝑛
2
= (𝑙𝜎1 )2 + (𝑚𝜎2 )2 + (𝑛𝜎3 )2 − (𝜎1 𝑙 2 + 𝜎2 𝑚2 + 𝜎3 𝑛2 )2
𝜕𝜎𝑛𝑡 𝜕𝜎𝑛𝑡
= 0 and = 0 (note that only two of them are independent), so one can derive the
𝜕𝑙 𝜕𝑚
extrema shear stresses as follows:
1
± (𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )
2
1
𝜎𝑛𝑡|𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎 = ± (𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )
2
1
{± 2 (𝜎3 − 𝜎1 )
(1.37)
The largest of these would be the maximum shear stress. This is clearly given by:
1
𝜎𝑛𝑡|𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝜎 − 𝜎3 )
2 1
(1.38)
Each extreme shear stress bisects the angle between two principal axes. From vector
subtraction, we can find the corresponding direction cosines. For the maximum shear stress,
these are:
𝑙𝑠 𝑙1 − 𝑙3 1
{𝑚𝑠 } = {𝑚1 − 𝑚3 }
2 2 2
𝑛𝑠 𝑛1 − 𝑛3 √(𝑙1 − 𝑙3 ) + (𝑚1 − 𝑚3 ) + (𝑛1 − 𝑛3 )
(1.39)
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z
zz+ zz G
C
zy+ zy
zx+ zx F yz+ yz
B
xz+ xz
yy+
o
yy
y
yx+ yx
xy+ xy H
xx+ xx
x A E
At 𝑥 = 𝛥𝑥, front plane (ABFE): 𝜎𝑥𝑥 + Δ𝜎𝑥𝑥 , 𝜎𝑥𝑦 + Δ𝜎𝑥𝑦 , 𝜎𝑥𝑧 + Δ𝜎𝑥𝑧
At 𝑦 = 𝛥𝑦, right plane (EHGF): 𝜎𝑦𝑥 + Δ𝜎𝑦𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦𝑦 + Δ𝜎𝑦𝑦 , 𝜎𝑦𝑧 + Δ𝜎𝑦𝑧
At 𝑧 = 𝛥𝑧, top plane (BCGF): 𝜎𝑧𝑥 + Δ𝜎𝑧𝑥 , 𝜎𝑧𝑦 + Δ𝜎𝑧𝑦 , 𝜎𝑧𝑧 + Δ𝜎𝑧𝑧
∑𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥
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MECH3361/9361 Semester 2, 2016
∴ ∑𝐹𝑥 = [(𝜎𝑥𝑥 + Δ𝜎𝑥𝑥 )Δ𝑦Δ𝑧 − (𝜎𝑥𝑥 )Δ𝑦Δ𝑧] + [(𝜎𝑦𝑥 + Δ𝜎𝑦𝑥 )Δ𝑥Δ𝑧 − (𝜎𝑦𝑥 )Δ𝑥Δ𝑧]
+[(𝜎𝑧𝑥 + Δ𝜎𝑧𝑥 )Δ𝑥Δ𝑦 − (𝜎𝑧𝑥 )Δ𝑥Δ𝑦] + (Δ𝑥Δ𝑦Δ𝑧)𝜌𝑓𝑥
= (𝜌Δ𝑥Δ𝑦Δ𝑧)𝑎𝑥
When Δ → 0:
(1.40a)
(1.40b)
(1.40c)
Under static equilibrium, acceleration is zero. Therefore, the equilibrium equations are:
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MECH3361/9361 Semester 2, 2016
We can simplify these under certain conditions. For example, if body forces are negligible:
(1.42)
∂𝜎𝑥𝑥 ∂𝜎𝑥𝑦
+ =0
∂𝑥 ∂y
∂𝜎𝑦𝑥 ∂𝜎𝑦𝑦
+ =0
{ ∂𝑥 ∂y
(1.43)
𝜎𝑖𝑗,𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖 = 𝜌𝑢̈ 𝑖
(1.44)
or
𝛁 ⋅ 𝝈 + 𝒃 = 𝜌𝒂
(1.45)
𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑧
∂ ∂ ∂
where divergence 𝛁 = {∂x ∂y ∂z
} and stress tensor 𝝈 = [𝜎𝑦𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑦𝑧 ].
𝜎𝑧𝑥 𝜎𝑧𝑦 𝜎𝑧𝑧
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MECH3361/9361 Semester 2, 2016
Example 1.10
A thin rectangular plate as shown is in static equilibrium and body forces are negligible.
Derive the stress function by using the “engineering beam theory” from AMME2301 and
check whether it satisfies the equilibrium equations.
y P
0 x h
b
L
Solution:
Bending moments:
𝑀 = −𝑃(𝐿 − 𝑥)
𝑀𝑦 𝑃(𝐿 − 𝑥)𝑦
𝜎𝑥𝑥 = − = = 𝑞(𝐿 − 𝑥)𝑦
𝐼 𝐼
𝑃 1
where constant 𝑞 = and second moment of area 𝐼 = 12 𝑏ℎ3 .
𝐼
𝑉(𝑥)𝑄(𝑦) 𝑉𝑄
𝜎𝑥𝑦 = =−
𝐼𝑡(𝑦) 𝐼𝑡
where:
V(x) the shear force carried by the section, found from the shear force diagram;
Q(y) the first moment of area;
I the second moment of area;
t(y) the sectional width at distance y from the neutral axis.
To calculate Q:
𝑦𝑡𝑜𝑝
𝑄(𝑦) = ∫ 𝑦𝑡(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 𝑦̅ ′ 𝐴′
𝑦
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MECH3361/9361 Semester 2, 2016
A’ is the top (or bottom) portion of the member’s cross-sectional area, defined from the
section where t(y) is measured, and 𝑦̅ ′ is the distance to the centroid of A’, measured from the
neutral axis.
Centroid of A’
Parabolic
=0 curve
A’ y’
h max
max
h/2 y
NA
NA
b
Shear Stress distribution
The distribution of the shear stress throughout the cross section due to a shear force V can be
determined by computing the shear stress at an arbitrary height y from the neutral axis.
1 ℎ ℎ 1 ℎ2
𝑄(𝑦) = 𝑦̅ ′ 𝐴′ = (𝑦 + ( − 𝑦)) × (( − 𝑦) 𝑏) = ( − 𝑦 2 ) 𝑏
2 2 2 2 4
1 ℎ2
𝑉𝑄 𝑃 × [2 ( 4 − 𝑦 2 ) 𝑏] 6𝑃 ℎ2
𝜎𝑥𝑦 = − =− =− ( − 𝑦2)
𝐼𝑡 𝑏ℎ3 𝑏ℎ3 4
( 12 ) × 𝑏
∂𝜎𝑦𝑥 ∂𝜎𝑦𝑦 ∂ 6𝑃 ℎ2 ∂
+ = [− 3 ( − 𝑦 2 )] + (0) = 0 + 0 = 0
∂𝑥 ∂y ∂𝑥 𝑏ℎ 4 ∂y
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