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CONTROL AND COORDINATION

In Animals and Plants, Human Brain, Endocrine System and Plant Hormones

Debashish Bhattacharya
Department of Lifescience
Taurian World School
 CONTROL AND COORDINATION

Control and coordination in animals is performed by two ways: (i) Nervous system and (ii) Endocrine system
(hormones).
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Nervous system in Animals
Nervous system consists of specialized cells called neurons.
A neuron is the basic structural and functional unit of nervous system. Neurons are commonly called nerve cells.
Neurons cannot divide and for survival they need oxygen and glucose.
Neurons vary in shape and size depending on their position, but all neurons have a similar basic structure.
A neuron has three distinct parts: (a) Cyton, (b) Axon and (c) Dendrons.

Figure: Structure of a neuron. Arrow indicates the direction of impulse conduction.

(a) Cyton: It is also known as cell body which contains a nucleus and abundant cytoplasm. Cytoplasm has various
cell organelles and prominent Nissle's granules.

(b) Axon: It is a long protoplasmic extension arising from cyton. It is several centimeters long. Terminal fibres have
swollen knobs. Axon is surrounded by Schwann cells. These cells may secrete a fatty insulating layer called myelin
sheath. The sheath is constricted at intervals along its length by nodes of Ranvier.

(c) Dendrons: are short and branched protoplasmic extensions which arise from cyton. They have further fine
branches called dendrites which carry the impulse towards the cell body.

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RECEPTORS. All the information from our environment is detected by the specialized tips of some nerve cells
called receptors. These receptors are located in our sense organs such as tongue, nose, skin and inner ear etc.
For example: Olfactory receptor for smell, Photoreceptor for light and gustatory receptors for taste.

SENSORY AND MOTOR NEURON

The receptors pass information to the brain by a type of nerve cells called sensory (= afferent) neurons. Another
type of nerve cells called motor (= efferent) neurons transmit information from the brain to the effector organ
(muscle cells).
The brain is the centre for analysis of information and acts as an interneuron.

Fig. Direction of nerve impulse along three types of neurons

Transmission of nerve impulse

The space between axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another is called a synapse.
There is always more than one neuron involved in the transmission of a nerve impulse from its origin to its
destination. There is no physical contact between these neurons. The point at which the nerve impulse passes from
one to another is called the synapse.
What Happens at a SYNAPSE?
A chemical reaction occurs at the receptor tip to create electrical impulses which are similar to tiny electrical
charges. This impulse travels from the dendrites to the cell body and then along the axon to its end. At the end of
the axon, the electrical impulse releases some chemicals like acetylcholine. These chemicals cross the synapse and
start a similar electric impulse in the dendrites of next neuron and because of this, these chemicals are called
neurotransmitters.

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 Figure. Synapse junction

REFLEX ACTION
Reflex action is a rapid automatic response of the body to a stimulus without involving the brain.
Some examples of reflex action are:
 Pulling of hand away on touching a hot object (see the figure) or on pricking a pin.
 Salivation (watering) in mouth at the thought of tasty food.
 Movement of diaphragm during breathing.
 Shrinking of the pupil in eye in bright light.
 Paleness of skin or standing of hair as a result of fear or cold.
Reflex actions are unconscious (without thinking) and involuntary (without will).
The pathway of nerve involved in a reflex action is called REFLEX ARC. The impulse in a reflex arc moves in a
single direction only as shown in the figure below.

Figure: A schematic diagram showing a reflex arc

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Reflex actions have not evolved along with the thinking process of brain. This is because of the fact that reflex
actions are fast but thinking process is slow. The brain takes some time to think and react. Reflex actions have
evolved as efficient ways of functioning in the absence of true thought processes and in case of emergency
situation.
HUMAN BRAIN
Information of reflex actions also goes to the brain. It is through nerves from spinal cord to the brain. So spinal
cord does not have the function of reflex actions only but also sends the information to the brain.

The brain is the main coordinating centre the human body. The brain receives information from all parts of the body
and integrates it. The brain and spinal cord constitute the central nervous system (CNS).

Fig: Flow chart of Human Nervous System

The communication between the central nervous system and other parts of the body is facilitated by the peripheral
nervous system (PNS) consisting of cranial nerves (12 pairs) which arise from brain and the spinal nerves (31
pairs) that arise from spinal cord.

BRAIN AND ITS PARTS

The brain is divided into three main parts namely, forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain

Fig: Parts of Human Brain

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A. Forebrain: It is the main part of the brain. It is divided into three sub-parts:
(a) Cerebrum
(b) Thalamus
(c) Hypothalamus

(a) Cerebrum:
 It is the most complex and largest part of the brain.
 The outer region of cerebrum is made up of densely packed nerve cells called cerebral cortex. It has a
number of infoldings that increase its surface area.
 Cerebrum is divided into two parts called left cerebral hemisphere and right cerebral hemisphere.
 These two hemispheres are joined together by a thick nerve of band fibres called corpus callosum.
 Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into four lobes carrying out different functions as shown below:

Figure: Four lobes of cerebral hemisphere (Forebrain)

1. Frontal- Associated with reasoning.

2. Parietal- Perception of general sensations like pressure, touch and pain.
3. Occipital- Visual perception.
4. Temporal- Important for interpreting sounds and the language we hear and formation of memories.

(b) Thalamus: It is located below the cerebral hemispheres. It acts as a relay station for all sensory information
going to the cerebrum. Relay station means it passes the received signals to correct part of cerebrum.

(c) Hypothalamus: It is a small region present below the thalamus, hence the name hypothalamus (hypo means
below). It controls and regulates heartbeat, blood pressure, hunger, thirst and peristaltic movements. It acts a
connecting link between endocrine and nervous system because it is connected to pituitary gland and also controls
it.

B. Midbrain:
It is present in the middle of forebrain so it is named midbrain (mid means middle).
It controls reflexes of eyes (pupil size), ears and head.

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C. Hindbrain:
It is present behind forebrain and midbrain, hence named hindbrain. It is further divided into three parts:

(a) Cerebellum
(b) Pons
(c) Medulla oblongata

(a) Cerebellum: It is leaf-like and the largest part of hindbrain. It is situated below the occipital lobes of cerebrum
behind pons and medulla oblongata.
 It maintains body balance and posture for example, walking in a straight line, riding a bicycle etc.
 It controls and coordinates voluntary muscular body movements. Alcohol affects the cerebellum adversely,
so the person who is drunk generally can't move steadily.

(b) Pons: It is present in front of cerebellum and above the medulla oblongata. It acts as bridge between brain and
spinal cord (pons means bridge). It is also called biological clock. It deal primarily with sleep and breathing.

(c) Medulla oblongata: It is the lowermost portion of brain.

 It is roughly triangular and continues posteriorly into the spinal cord.
 It forms the brain stem along with pons and midbrain.
 It is the reflex centre to control activities like salivation, swallowing, vomiting, breathing, coughing,
sneezing and heartbeat.
 It also controls sleep, consciousness and activities of cerebrum.

How are Brain and Spinal cord protected?

The human brain is soft and the highest coordinating centre in the body, so it needs to be carefully protected. It is
present in a bony case called cranium or skull which protects it from external injuries. It is covered with three
membranes called meninges. The space between is filled with a fluid called cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). It protects
the brain from mechanical shocks.
Spinal cord is present in the neural canal of the vertebral column or backbone which is hard, bumpy structure in the
middle of our back. This vertebral column also protects the spinal cord. Like brain, spinal cord is covered by three
meninges. CSF is also present between these membranes to protect from mechanical shocks.

NERVOUS COORDINATION AND NERVE ACTION

Nervous coordination is through nerve impulses. Nerve impulse is an electro-chemical wave which is carried by the
neurons only in one direction. Receptor organ receives stimulus and converts it into nerve impulse. These impulses
are carried to nervous system by sensory neurons. Nervous system integrates or coordinates these impulses and
sends them to effector organ through motor neurons. Effector organs are generally muscles to perform the final job
in the form of required response.
How do animal muscles move? When a nerve impulse reaches the muscle, the muscle fibre must move. How does a
muscle cell move? The simplest motion of movement at the cellular level is that muscle cells move by changing
their shape. So the next question is, how do muscle cells change their shape? The answer must lie in the chemistry
of cellular components. Muscle cells have special proteins that change both their shape and arrangement in the cell

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in response to nervous electrical impulses. When this happens, new arrangements of these proteins give the muscle
different shapes.
A coordinated behavior has seven main components-stimulus, receptor organ, sensory neurons/ coordinator, motor
neurons/ effector organ, and response.

Figure: Components of coordinated behavior

Mid Brain and Hind Brain Fore Brain

Fig: Parts of the human brain

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 COORIDNATION IN PLANTS

Plants do not have a nervous system for control and coordination like animals but they too respond to external
stimuli like touch, light and chemicals etc.
Plant responses are mainly of two types, namely
(i) GROWTH DEPENDENT ( Tropism )
(ii) GROWTH INDEPENDENT ( Nastic )
Figure. Plant showing different tropic movement

Fig: Phototropism (Shoots are Phototropic)

Fig: Geotropism (Roots are Geotropic)

Fig: Hydrotropism Fig: Thigmotropism

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Plants do not have nervous control but have chemical control only. This is performed in plants through
phytohormones or plant hormones.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANT HORMONES

 They are produced in small amounts.
 They act from their sites of production and reach at the site of action by simple diffusion.
 They are very specific in their action.
 The synthesis and action of phytohormones is greatly influenced by the external.
 They control and coordinate growth, development and responses to the stimuli.
The five types of phytohormones that have been identified are as follows:

1. Auxins
 Promote cell division and elongation.
 Cause apical dominance (terminal or apical bud inhibits the development of lateral buds)
 Used in parthenocarpy (production of seedless fruits without pollination and fertilization)
 Help in root initiation in cuttings or callus (undifferentiated mass of cells formed during plant tissue
culture).
 Promote production of female flowers.
 Help in bending the shoot towards the source of light.
 Promote the growth of a tendril around a support by causing more synthesis of auxin.

2. Gibberellins
 Stimulate stem elongation
 Help in breaking seed dormancy (inability of seed to germinate even in the presence of favorable
conditions).
 Promote flowering in some plants even under unfavorable conditions.
 Help in seed germination.
 Promote production of male flowers.

3. Cytokinin
 Essential for cell division and elongation.
 Suppress apical dominance (promotes lateral branches in the presence of apical bud).
 Delay ageing (senescence).
 Help in secondary growth (growth in thickness)
 Differentiate callus to form shoots.
 Promote production of female flowers.

4. Abscisic acids
 Inhibits growth hence called anti-auxins or anti-gibberellins or anti-cytokinins.
 Reduce transpiration by closing stomata under water stress conditions, hence called stress hormone.
 Stimulate the formation of abscission zone (zone of separation).
 Increase seed and bud dormancy.
 Cause senescence( cell ageing and death)
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5. Ethylene (Gaseous phytohormone)
 Promote fruit growth and ripening.
 Stimulate the formation of abscission-on zone (zone of separation) in leaves and flowers.
 Cause epinasty (more growth on upper surface).
 Promote flowering in some plants like pineapple.
 Cause ageing or senescence.
 Promote production of female flowers.

HORMONES (CHEMICAL MESSENGERS) IN ANIMALS

Hormones (hormon-to urge on) are chemical substances which are secreted in very less amount by specialized
tissues called endocrine glands. Endocrine glands are ductless glands which pour their secretions (hormones)
directly into the blood. An organ which responds to hormone is called target organ. There are another type of
glands called exocrine glands in the body. Exocrine glands are duct glands which do not pour their secretions
(enzymes) into the blood.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ANIMAL HORMONES

 They are required in very less amount.
 They are secreted by endocrine glands.
 They are poured directly into the blood and carried to the target organ through blood circulation.
 They act away from their site of production.
 Hormones are specific in their functions.
 Deficiency or over secretions of hormones have negative effects in the body.
 Chemically hormones are proteins, amino acids or steroids.
There are some glands which act as both endocrine and exocrine type of glands. Such glands are called heterocrine
glands

Figure and Table : Various endocrine glands, their hormones and location
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COMMON HORMONAL DISORDERS
Deficiency or over secretions of hormones cause some disorders or diseases in the body.
Disorders/diseases along with by deficiency or over secretion of their symptoms caused some hormones.
Deficiency of insulin production by the pancreatic cells leads to a common disease known as diabetes mellitus
which can be cured by giving injections of insulin.

SUMMARY

 Living organisms have the ability to respond and react to their environment.
 Animals possess nervous system and endocrine system for control and coordination of various activities in
the body to maintain homeostasis.
 Plants do not have nervous system like animals, but they are sensitive to stimuli like light, gravity,
chemicals and water etc.
 Neuron is the structural and functional impulses unit of nervous system which transmits.
 Each neuron consists of a cell body called cyton and it has one axon and many dendrites.
 Synapse is the junction between axon of one neuron and dendrites of another.
 The nervous system receives a stimulus through a receptor organ, integrates or coordinates it, and effects a
response through the effector organ.
 In a given neuron, the dendrites are the receptors, the cell body is the integrator or coordinator and the ends
of the axons are the transmitters.
 Vertebrate nervous system consists of central and peripheral nervous systems.
 Brain is the highest coordination centre in the body. It is divisible into forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain.
 Brain is covered with three membranes called meninges.
 Spinal cord is the center of reflex actions.
 Reflex action is a spontaneous and automatic response to a stimulus controlled by the spinal cord without
the involvement of brain.
 The bending or movement of a part of plant in response to the external stimulus is called tropism.
 Depending upon the stimuli the tropism can be phototropism (light), geotropism (gravity), chemotropism
(chemicals) or hydrotropism (water).
 Hormones are chemical substances produced in minute quantity in one part of an organism and transported
to other parts where it exerts a profound effect.
 Auxins, Gibberellins, Cytokinins, Ethylene and Abscisic acid are the five major types of plant hormones
 Ethylene is commercially used for fruits ripening.
 Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, Pancreas, ovaries and testes are the major glands in the human body.

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 SOME IMPORTANT TERMS
Abscisic acid is a growth inhibitory plant hormone'
Acetocholine is a chemical transmitter which excites a fresh nerve
ADH (Antidiuretic hormone) is secreted by the posterior lobe helps in controlling the osmoregulation.
Adrenal glands are endocrine glands and are two small semilunar structures upper pole of the kidneys.
Antidiuretic hormone or vasopressin maintains water and electrolyte balance in the body.
Auxin is a plant hormone for cell elongation.
Axon are elongated fibre arising from the neuron (nerve cell) that transmits neuron impulses away from the cell
body.
Central nervous system. Consists of brain and spinal cord.
Cranial nerves. Nerves arising from brain.
Cranium. Bony case which protects the brain.
Cytokinins. Plant hormone which promotes cytokinesis (wall formation between daughter nuclei) in cell division.
Dendrites. Short branched processes arising from the body of nerve cell.
Endocrine gland. Ductless glands which secretes hormones'
Estrogen. The female sex hormone secreted from the ovaries'
Geotropism. Down ward movement of roots in response to gravitational force.
Gibberellins. Plant hormone for cell division and cell elongation'
Hormones(=Chemical messengers). The chemical substances produced by endocrine gland of an animal and
carried by blood to different organs where they influence special physiological processes. These substances are also
produced by plants and translocated to another part where they influence specific physiological processes.
Nastic movement. Non-directional movement in plants.
Neuron. A nerve cell, the functional unit of nervous system.
Phototropism. The light induced growth movement in plants'
Phytohormones. The chemical substances which perform the functions of control and coordination in plants.
Receptors. Specialised structures which perceive the stimulus.
Reflex action. An involuntary, rapid response to a stimulus without the involvement of brain.
Stimulus. Any change in the external or internal environment of an organism that provokes a physiological reaction
in the organisms.
Synapse. The functional junction between neuron for transfer and relay of information.
Thyroxine. Hormone secreated from thyroid gland in human.
Tropism. Movements of plants in the direction of stimulus.

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