Computer-Science PK Sinha

Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Ref Page Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 1/17

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Learning Objectives
In this chapter you will learn about:
§ Computer
§ Data processing
§ Characteristic features of computers
§ Computers’ evolution to their present form
§ Computer generations
§ Characteristic features of each computer generation
Ref Page 01 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 2/17

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Computer
§ The word computer comes from the word “compute”,

which means, “to calculate”
§ Thereby, a computer is an electronic device that can

perform arithmetic operations at high speed
§ A computer is also called a data processor because it can

store, process, and retrieve data whenever desired

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Data Processing
The activity of processing data using a computer is called

data processing
Data
Capture Data
Manipulate Data
Output Results
Information
Data is raw material used as input and information is
processed data obtained as output of data processing

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Characteristics of Computers
1) Automatic: Given a job, computer can work on it

automatically without human interventions
2) Speed: Computer can perform data processing jobs

very fast, usually measured in microseconds (10-6),
nanoseconds (10-9), and picoseconds (10-12)
3) Accuracy: Accuracy of a computer is consistently high

and the degree of its accuracy depends upon its design.
Computer errors caused due to incorrect input data or
unreliable programs are often referred to as Garbage-
In-Garbage-Out (GIGO)
(Continued on next slide)

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
(Continued from previous slide..)
4) Diligence: Computer is free from monotony, tiredness,

and lack of concentration. It can continuously work for
hours without creating any error and without grumbling
5) Versatility: Computer is capable of performing almost

any task, if the task can be reduced to a finite series of
logical steps
6) Power of Remembering: Computer can store and

recall any amount of information because of its
secondary storage capability. It forgets or looses certain
information only when it is asked to do so

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
7) No I.Q.: A computer does only what it is programmed

to do. It cannot take its own decision in this regard
8) No Feelings: Computers are devoid of emotions. Their

judgement is based on the instructions given to them in
the form of programs that are written by us (human
beings)

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Evolution of Computers
§ Blaise Pascal invented the first mechanical adding

machine in 1642
§ Baron Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz invented the first
calculator for multiplication in 1671
§ Keyboard machines originated in the United States
around 1880
§ Around 1880, Herman Hollerith came up with the concept
of punched cards that were extensively used as input
media until late 1970s

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Evolution of Computers
§ Charles Babbage is considered to be the father of

modern digital computers
§ He designed “Difference Engine” in 1822
§ He designed a fully automatic analytical engine in

1842 for performing basic arithmetic functions
§ His efforts established a number of principles that

are fundamental to the design of any digital
computer

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Some Well Known Early Computers
§ The Mark I Computer (1937-44)

§ The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (1939-42)
§ The ENIAC (1943-46)
§ The EDVAC (1946-52)
§ The EDSAC (1947-49)
§ Manchester Mark I (1948)
§ The UNIVAC I (1951)

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Computer Generations
§ “Generation” in computer talk is a step in technology. It

provides a framework for the growth of computer industry
§ Originally it was used to distinguish between various

hardware technologies, but now it has been extended to
include both hardware and software
§ Till today, there are five computer generations

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Key hardware Key software Key Some

Generation
representative
(Period) technologies technologies characteristics systems
First § Vacuum tubes § Machine and § Bulky in size § ENIAC

(1942-1955) § Electromagnetic assembly § Highly unreliable § EDVAC
relay memory languages § Limited commercial § EDSAC
§ Punched cards § Stored program use and costly § UNIVAC I
secondary storage concept § Difficult commercial § IBM 701
§ Mostly scientific production
applications § Difficult to use
Second § Transistors § Batch operating § Faster, smaller, more § Honeywell 400
(1955-1964) § Magnetic cores system reliable and easier to § IBM 7030
memory § High-level program than previous § CDC 1604
§ Magnetic tapes programming generation systems
§ UNIVAC LARC
§ Disks for secondary languages § Commercial production
storage § Scientific and was still difficult and
commercial costly
applications

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Generation Key hardware Key software Key Some rep.

Third § ICs with SSI and § Timesharing § Faster, smaller, more § IBM 360/370
(1964-1975) MSI technologies operating reliable, easier and § PDP-8
§ Larger magnetic system cheaper to produce § PDP-11
cores memory § Standardization § Commercially, easier § CDC 6600
§ Larger capacity of high-level to use, and easier to
disks and programming upgrade than
magnetic tapes languages previous generation
secondary § Unbundling of systems
storage software from § Scientific, commercial
§ Minicomputers; hardware and interactive on-
upward line applications
compatible family
of computers

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

(Period) Technologies technologies characteristics systems
Fourth § ICs with VLSI § Operating systems for § Small, affordable, § IBM PC and
(1975-1989) technology PCs with GUI and reliable, and easy its clones
§ Microprocessors; multiple windows on a to use PCs § Apple II
semiconductor memory single terminal screen § More powerful § TRS-80
§ Larger capacity hard § Multiprocessing OS and reliable § VAX 9000
disks as in-built with concurrent mainframe
programming systems and § CRAY-1
secondary storage
languages supercomputers § CRAY-2
§ Magnetic tapes and
floppy disks as portable § UNIX operating system § Totally general § CRAY-X/MP
storage media with C programming purpose machines
§ Personal computers language § Easier to produce
§ Supercomputers based § Object-oriented design commercially
on parallel vector and programming § Easier to upgrade
processing and § PC, Network-based, § Rapid software
symmetric and supercomputing development
multiprocessing applications possible
technologies
§ Spread of high-speed
computer networks

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Fifth § ICs with ULSI § Micro-kernel based, § Portable computers § IBM notebooks
(1989- technology multithreading, § Powerful, cheaper, § Pentium PCs
Present) § Larger capacity distributed OS reliable, and easier § SUN
main memory, § Parallel to use desktop Workstations
hard disks with programming machines § IBM SP/2
RAID support libraries like MPI & § Powerful
PVM § SGI Origin 2000
§ Optical disks as supercomputers
portable read-only § JAVA § PARAM 10000
§ High uptime due to
storage media § World Wide Web hot-pluggable
§ Notebooks, § Multimedia, components
powerful desktop Internet § Totally general
PCs and applications purpose machines
workstations § More complex § Easier to produce
§ Powerful servers, supercomputing commercially,
supercomputers applications easier to upgrade
§ Internet § Rapid software
§ Cluster computing development
possible

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Electronic
Electronic Devices
Devices Used
Used in
in Computers
Computers of
of Different
Different Generations
Generations
(a) A Vacuum Tube (b) A Transistor (c) An IC Chip

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Key Words/Phrases
§ Computer § Integrated Circuit (IC)

§ Computer generations § Large Scale Integration (VLSI)
§ Computer Supported Cooperative § Medium Scale Integration (MSI)
Working (CSCW) § Microprocessor
§ Data § Personal Computer (PC)
§ Data processing § Second-generation computers
§ Data processor § Small Scale Integration (SSI)
§ First-generation computers § Stored program concept
§ Fourth-generation computers § Third-generation computers
§ Garbage-in-garbage-out (GIGO) § Transistor
§ Graphical User Interface (GUI) § Ultra Large Scale Integration
§ Groupware (ULSI)
§ Information § Vacuum tubes

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Ref. Page Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 1/16

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Learning Objectives

§ Basic operations performed by all types of computer
systems
§ Basic organization of a computer system
§ Input unit and its functions
§ Output unit and its functions
§ Storage unit and its functions
§ Types of storage used in a computer system
Ref. Page 15 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 2/16

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Learning Objectives
§ Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
§ Control Unit (CU)
§ Central Processing Unit (CPU)
§ Computer as a system

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
The Five Basic Operations of a Computer System
§ Inputting. The process of entering data and instructions

into the computer system
§ Storing. Saving data and instructions to make them

readily available for initial or additional processing
whenever required
§ Processing. Performing arithmetic operations (add,

subtract, multiply, divide, etc.) or logical operations
(comparisons like equal to, less than, greater than, etc.)
on data to convert them into useful information

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
The Five Basic Operations of a Computer System
§ Outputting. The process of producing useful information

or results for the user such as a printed report or visual
display
§ Controlling. Directing the manner and sequence in which

all of the above operations are performed

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Basic Organization of a Computer System
Storage Unit
Secondary
Storage
Program Input Output Information

and Unit Unit (Results)
Data Primary
Storage
Control
Unit
Indicates flow of
instructions and data
Arithmetic Indicates the control
Logic Unit exercised by the
control unit
Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Input Unit
An input unit of a computer system performs the

following functions:
1. It accepts (or reads) instructions and data from outside

world
2. It converts these instructions and data in computer
acceptable form
3. It supplies the converted instructions and data to the
computer system for further processing

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Output Unit
An output unit of a computer system performs the

following functions:
1. It accepts the results produced by the computer, which

are in coded form and hence, cannot be easily
understood by us
2. It converts these coded results to human acceptable
(readable) form
3. It supplies the converted results to outside world

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Storage Unit
The storage unit of a computer system holds (or stores)

the following :
1. Data and instructions required for processing (received

from input devices)
2. Intermediate results of processing
3. Final results of processing, before they are released to
an output device

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Two Types of Storage
§ Primary storage
§ Used to hold running program instructions

§ Used to hold data, intermediate results, and
results of ongoing processing of job(s)
§ Fast in operation
§ Small Capacity
§ Expensive
§ Volatile (looses data on power dissipation)

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Two Types of Storage

§ Secondary storage
§ Used to hold stored program instructions

§ Used to hold data and information of stored jobs
§ Slower than primary storage
§ Large Capacity
§ Lot cheaper that primary storage
§ Retains data even without power

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
Arithmetic Logic Unit of a computer system is the place

where the actual executions of instructions takes place during
processing operation

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Control Unit (CU)
Control Unit of a computer system manages and coordinates

the operations of all other components of the computer
system

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Arithmetic Central
Logic Unit Control Unit = Processing
+ (CU)
(ALU) Unit (CPU)
§ It is the brain of a computer system
§ It is responsible for controlling the operations of

all other units of a computer system

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
The System Concept
A system has following three characteristics:
1. A system has more than one element

2. All elements of a system are logically related
3. All elements of a system are controlled in a manner to
achieve the system goal
A computer is a system as it comprises of integrated

components (input unit, output unit, storage unit, and CPU)
that work together to perform the steps called for in the
executing program

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Key Words/Phrases
§ Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) § Output interface

§ Auxiliary storage § Output unit
§ Central Processing Unit (CPU) § Outputting
§ Computer system § Primate storage
§ Control Unit (CU) § Processing
§ Controlling § Secondary storage
§ Input interface § Storage unit
§ Input unit § Storing
§ Inputting § System
§ Main memory

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Ref Page Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 1/40

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Learning Objectives
§ Non-positional number system

§ Positional number system
§ Decimal number system
§ Binary number system
§ Octal number system
§ Hexadecimal number system
Ref Page 20 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 2/40

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Learning Objectives
§ Convert a number’s base

§ Another base to decimal base
§ Decimal base to another base
§ Some base to another base
§ Shortcut methods for converting
§ Binary to octal number
§ Octal to binary number
§ Binary to hexadecimal number
§ Hexadecimal to binary number
§ Fractional numbers in binary number system

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Number Systems
Two types of number systems are:
§ Non-positional number systems
§ Positional number systems

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Non-positional Number Systems
§ Characteristics
§ Use symbols such as I for 1, II for 2, III for 3, IIII
for 4, IIIII for 5, etc
§ Each symbol represents the same value regardless
of its position in the number
§ The symbols are simply added to find out the value
of a particular number
§ Difficulty
§ It is difficult to perform arithmetic with such a
number system

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Positional Number Systems
§ Characteristics
§ Use only a few symbols called digits
§ These symbols represent different values depending

on the position they occupy in the number

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Positional Number Systems

§ The value of each digit is determined by:

1. The digit itself
2. The position of the digit in the number
3. The base of the number system
(base = total number of digits in the number

system)
§ The maximum value of a single digit is

always equal to one less than the value of
the base

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Decimal Number System
Characteristics
§ A positional number system
§ Has 10 symbols or digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 9). Hence, its base = 10
§ The maximum value of a single digit is 9 (one
less than the value of the base)
§ Each position of a digit represents a specific
power of the base (10)
§ We use this number system in our day-to-day
life

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Decimal Number System

Example
258610 = (2 x 103) + (5 x 102) + (8 x 101) + (6 x 100)
= 2000 + 500 + 80 + 6

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Binary Number System
Characteristics
§ Has only 2 symbols or digits (0 and 1). Hence its
base = 2
§ The maximum value of a single digit is 1 (one less
than the value of the base)
§ Each position of a digit represents a specific power
of the base (2)
§ This number system is used in computers

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Binary Number System

Example
101012 = (1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) x (1 x 20)
= 16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1
= 2110

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Representing Numbers in Different Number
Systems
In order to be specific about which number system we

are referring to, it is a common practice to indicate the
base as a subscript. Thus, we write:
101012 = 2110

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Bit
§ Bit stands for binary digit
§ A bit in computer terminology means either a 0 or a 1
§ A binary number consisting of n bits is called an n-bit

number

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Octal Number System
Characteristics
§ Has total 8 symbols or digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7).
Hence, its base = 8
than the value of the base
§ Each position of a digit represents a specific power of
the base (8)

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Octal Number System

§ Since there are only 8 digits, 3 bits (23 = 8) are

sufficient to represent any octal number in binary
Example
20578 = (2 x 83) + (0 x 82) + (5 x 81) + (7 x 80)
= 1024 + 0 + 40 + 7
= 107110

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Hexadecimal Number System
Characteristics
§ Has total 16 symbols or digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F). Hence its base = 16
§ The symbols A, B, C, D, E and F represent the
decimal values 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15
respectively
than the value of the base)

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Hexadecimal Number System

§ Each position of a digit represents a specific power

of the base (16)
§ Since there are only 16 digits, 4 bits (24 = 16) are
sufficient to represent any hexadecimal number in
binary
Example
1AF16 = (1 x 162) + (A x 161) + (F x 160)
= 1 x 256 + 10 x 16 + 15 x 1
= 256 + 160 + 15
= 43110

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Converting a Number of Another Base to a

Decimal Number
Method
Step 1: Determine the column (positional) value of

each digit
Step 2: Multiply the obtained column values by the

digits in the corresponding columns
Step 3: Calculate the sum of these products

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Converting a Number of Another Base to a

Decimal Number
Example
47068 = ?10
Common
values
multiplied
47068 = 4 x 83 + 7 x 82 + 0 x 81 + 6 x 80 by the
corresponding
= 4 x 512 + 7 x 64 + 0 + 6 x 1 digits
= 2048 + 448 + 0 + 6 Sum of these
products
= 250210

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Converting a Decimal Number to a Number of

Another Base
Division-Remainder Method
Step 1: Divide the decimal number to be converted by
the value of the new base
Step 2: Record the remainder from Step 1 as the

rightmost digit (least significant digit) of the
new base number
Step 3: Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the

new base

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Another Base
Step 4: Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next

digit (to the left) of the new base number
Repeat Steps 3 and 4, recording remainders from right to

left, until the quotient becomes zero in Step 3
Note that the last remainder thus obtained will be the most
significant digit (MSD) of the new base number

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Another Base
Example
95210 = ?8
Solution:
8 952 Remainder
119 s 0
14 7
1 6
0 1
Hence, 95210 = 16708

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Converting a Number of Some Base to a Number

of Another Base
Method
Step 1: Convert the original number to a decimal

number (base 10)
Step 2: Convert the decimal number so obtained to

the new base number

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

of Another Base
Example
5456 = ?4
Solution:
Step 1: Convert from base 6 to base 10
5456 = 5 x 62 + 4 x 61 + 5 x 60
= 5 x 36 + 4 x 6 + 5 x 1
= 180 + 24 + 5
= 20910

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

of Another Base
Step 2: Convert 20910 to base 4
4 209 Remainders
52 1
13 0
3 1
0 3
Hence, 20910 = 31014
So, 5456 = 20910 = 31014
Thus, 5456 = 31014

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Shortcut Method for Converting a Binary Number

to its Equivalent Octal Number
Method
Step 1: Divide the digits into groups of three starting
from the right
Step 2: Convert each group of three binary digits to

one octal digit using the method of binary to
decimal conversion

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Shortcut Method for Converting a Binary Number

to its Equivalent Octal Number
Example
11010102 = ?8
Step 1: Divide the binary digits into groups of 3 starting

from right
001 101 010
Step 2: Convert each group into one octal digit
0012 = 0 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 20 = 1
1012 = 1 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 20 = 5
0102 = 0 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 0 x 20 = 2
Hence, 11010102 = 1528

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Shortcut Method for Converting an Octal

Number to Its Equivalent Binary Number
Method
Step 1: Convert each octal digit to a 3 digit binary
number (the octal digits may be treated as
decimal for this conversion)
Step 2: Combine all the resulting binary groups

(of 3 digits each) into a single binary
number

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Shortcut Method for Converting an Octal

Number to Its Equivalent Binary Number
Example
5628 = ?2
Step 1: Convert each octal digit to 3 binary digits

58 = 1012, 68 = 1102, 28 = 0102
Step 2: Combine the binary groups

5628 = 101 110 010
5 6 2
Hence, 5628 = 1011100102

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Shortcut Method for Converting a Binary

Number to its Equivalent Hexadecimal Number
Method
Step 1: Divide the binary digits into groups of four

starting from the right
Step 2: Combine each group of four binary digits to

one hexadecimal digit

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Shortcut Method for Converting a Binary

Number to its Equivalent Hexadecimal Number
Example
1111012 = ?16
Step 1: Divide the binary digits into groups of four

starting from the right
0011 1101
Step 2: Convert each group into a hexadecimal digit

00112 = 0 x 23 + 0 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 1 x 20 = 310 = 316
11012 = 1 x 23 + 1 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 20 = 310 = D16
Hence, 1111012 = 3D16

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Shortcut Method for Converting a Hexadecimal

Number to its Equivalent Binary Number
Method
Step 1: Convert the decimal equivalent of each

hexadecimal digit to a 4 digit binary
number
Step 2: Combine all the resulting binary groups

(of 4 digits each) in a single binary number

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Example
2AB16 = ?2
Step 1: Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4 digit

binary number
216 = 210 = 00102

A16 = 1010 = 10102
B16 = 1110 = 10112

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Step 2: Combine the binary groups

2AB16 = 0010 1010 1011
2 A B
Hence, 2AB16 = 0010101010112

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Fractional Numbers
Fractional numbers are formed same way as decimal

number system
In general, a number in a number system with base b
would be written as:
an an-1… a0 . a-1 a-2 … a-m
And would be interpreted to mean:

an x bn + an-1 x bn-1 + … + a0 x b0 + a-1 x b-1 + a-2 x b-2 +
… + a-m x b-m
The symbols an, an-1, …, a-m in above representation

should be one of the b symbols allowed in the number
system

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Formation of Fractional Numbers in

Binary Number System (Example)
Binary Point
Position 4 3 2 1 0 . -1 -2 -3 -4
Position Value 24 23 22 21 20 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4
Quantity 16 8 4 2 1 1/
2
1/
4
1/
8
1/
16
Represented

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Binary Number System (Example)
Example
110.1012 = 1 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 0 x 20 + 1 x 2-1 + 0 x 2-2 + 1 x 2-3

= 4 + 2 + 0 + 0.5 + 0 + 0.125
= 6.62510

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Octal Number System (Example)
Octal Point
Position 3 2 1 0 . -1 -2 -3
Position Value 83 82 81 80 8-1 8-2 8-3
Quantity 512 64 8 1 1/
8
1/
64
1/
512
Represented

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Octal Number System (Example)
Example
127.548 = 1 x 82 + 2 x 81 + 7 x 80 + 5 x 8-1 + 4 x 8-2

= 64 + 16 + 7 + 5/8 + 4/64
= 87 + 0.625 + 0.0625
= 87.687510

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Key Words/Phrases
§ Base § Least Significant Digit (LSD)

§ Binary number system § Memory dump
§ Binary point § Most Significant Digit (MSD)
§ Bit § Non-positional number
§ Decimal number system system
§ Division-Remainder technique § Number system
§ Fractional numbers § Octal number system
§ Hexadecimal number system § Positional number system

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Ref. Page Chapter 4: Computer Codes Slide 1/30

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Learning Objectives
§ Computer data
§ Computer codes: representation of data in binary
§ Most commonly used computer codes
§ Collating sequence
Ref. Page 36 Chapter 4: Computer Codes Slide 2/30

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Data Types
§ Numeric Data consists of only numbers 0, 1, 2, …, 9

§ Alphabetic Data consists of only the letters A, B, C,
…, Z, in both uppercase and lowercase, and blank
character
§ Alphanumeric Data is a string of symbols where a
symbol may be one of the letters A, B, C, …, Z, in
either uppercase or lowercase, or one of the digits 0,
1, 2, …, 9, or a special character, such as + - * / , . (
) = etc.

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Computer Codes
§ Computer codes are used for internal representation of

data in computers
§ As computers use binary numbers for internal data
representation, computer codes use binary coding
schemes
§ In binary coding, every symbol that appears in the data
is represented by a group of bits
§ The group of bits used to represent a symbol is called a
byte

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Computer Codes
§ As most modern coding schemes use 8 bits to represent

a symbol, the term byte is often used to mean a group
of 8 bits
§ Commonly used computer codes are BCD, EBCDIC, and
ASCII

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
BCD
§ BCD stands for Binary Coded Decimal

§ It is one of the early computer codes
§ It uses 6 bits to represent a symbol
§ It can represent 64 (26) different characters

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Coding of Alphabetic and Numeric

Characters in BCD
BCD Code Octal BCD Code Octal
Char Char Zone Digit
Zone Digit
A 11 0001 61 N 10 0101 45
B 11 0010 62 O 10 0110 46
C 11 0011 63 P 10 0111 47
D 11 0100 64 Q 10 1000 50
E 11 0101 65 R 10 1001 51
F 11 0110 66 S 01 0010 22
G 11 0111 67 T 01 0011 23
H 11 1000 70 U 01 0100 24
I 11 1001 71 V 01 0101 25
J 10 0001 41 W 01 0110 26
K 10 0010 42 X 01 0111 27
L 10 0011 43 Y 01 1000 30
M 10 0100 44 Z 01 1001 31

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Characters in BCD
BCD Code Octal

Character Equivalent
Zone Digit
1 00 0001 01
2 00 0010 02
3 00 0011 03
4 00 0100 04
5 00 0101 05
6 00 0110 06
7 00 0111 07
8 00 1000 10
9 00 1001 11
0 00 1010 12

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
BCD Coding Scheme (Example 1)
Example
Show the binary digits used to record the word BASE in BCD
Solution:
B = 110010 in BCD binary notation
A = 110001 in BCD binary notation
S = 010010 in BCD binary notation
E = 110101 in BCD binary notation
So the binary digits
110010 110001 010010 110101

B A S E
will record the word BASE in BCD

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
BCD Coding Scheme (Example 2)
Example
Using octal notation, show BCD coding for the word DIGIT
Solution:
D = 64 in BCD octal notation
I = 71 in BCD octal notation
G = 67 in BCD octal notation
I = 71 in BCD octal notation
T = 23 in BCD octal notation
Hence, BCD coding for the word DIGIT in octal notation will be
64 71 67 71 23
D I G I T

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
EBCDIC
§ EBCDIC stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal

Interchange Code
§ It uses 8 bits to represent a symbol
§ It can represent 256 (28) different characters

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Characters in EBCDIC
EBCDIC Code EBCDIC Code
Hex Hex
Char Digit Zone Char
Digit Zone
A 1100 0001 C1
N 1101 0101 D5
B 1100 0010 C2 O 1101 0110 D6
C 1100 0011 C3 P 1101 0111 D7
D 1100 0100 C4 Q 1101 1000 D8
E 1100 0101 C5 R 1101 1001 D9
F 1100 0110 C6 S 1110 0010 E2
G 1100 0111 C7 T 1110 0011 E3
H 1100 1000 C8 U 1110 0100 E4
I 1100 1001 C9 V 1110 0101 E5
J 1101 0001 D1 W 1110 0110 E6
K 1101 0010 D2 X 1110 0111 E7
L 1101 0011 D3 Y 1110 1000 E8

Z 1110 1001 E9
M 1101 0100 D4

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Characters in EBCDIC
EBCDIC Code Hexadecima

Character Digit Zone l Equivalent
0 1111 0000 F0
1 1111 0001 F1
2 1111 0010 F2
3 1111 0011 F3
4 1111 0100 F4
5 1111 0101 F5
6 1111 0110 F6
7 1111 0111 F7
8 1111 1000 F8
9 1111 1001 F9

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Zoned Decimal Numbers
§ Zoned decimal numbers are used to represent numeric

values (positive, negative, or unsigned) in EBCDIC
§ A sign indicator (C for plus, D for minus, and F for
unsigned) is used in the zone position of the rightmost
digit
§ Zones for all other digits remain as F, the zone value
for numeric characters in EBCDIC
§ In zoned format, there is only one digit per byte

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Examples Zoned Decimal Numbers
Numeric Value EBCDIC Sign Indicator
345 F3F4F5 F for unsigned
+345 F3F4C5 C for positive
-345 F3F4D5 D for negative

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Packed Decimal Numbers
§ Packed decimal numbers are formed from zoned decimal

numbers in the following manner:
Step 1: The zone half and the digit half of

the rightmost byte are reversed
Step 2: All remaining zones are dropped out
§ Packed decimal format requires fewer number of bytes

than zoned decimal format for representing a number
§ Numbers represented in packed decimal format can be

used for arithmetic operations

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Examples of Conversion of Zoned

Decimal Numbers to Packed Decimal Format
Numeric Value EBCDIC Sign Indicator

345 F3F4F5 345F
+345 F3F4C5 345C
-345 F3F4D5 345D
3456 F3F4F5F6 03456F

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
EBCDIC Coding Scheme
Example
Using binary notation, write EBCDIC coding for the word BIT. How
many bytes are required for this representation?
Solution:
B = 1100 0010 in EBCDIC binary notation
I = 1100 1001 in EBCDIC binary notation
T = 1110 0011 in EBCDIC binary notation
Hence, EBCDIC coding for the word BIT in binary notation will be
11000010 11001001 11100011

B I T
3 bytes will be required for this representation because each letter

requires 1 byte (or 8 bits)

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
ASCII
§ ASCII stands for American Standard Code for

Information Interchange.
§ ASCII is of two types – ASCII-7 and ASCII-8
§ ASCII-7 uses 7 bits to represent a symbol and can

represent 128 (27) different characters
§ ASCII-8 uses 8 bits to represent a symbol and can

represent 256 (28) different characters
§ First 128 characters in ASCII-7 and ASCII-8 are same

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Coding of Numeric and

Alphabetic Characters in ASCII
ASCII-7 / ASCII-8 Hexadecimal

Character
Zone Digit Equivalent
0 0011 0000 30
1 0011 0001 31
2 0011 0010 32
3 0011 0011 33
4 0011 0100 34
5 0011 0101 35
6 0011 0110 36
7 0011 0111 37
8 0011 1000 38
9 0011 1001 39

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha


Character
A 0100 0001 41
B 0100 0010 42
C 0100 0011 43
D 0100 0100 44
E 0100 0101 45
F 0100 0110 46
G 0100 0111 47
H 0100 1000 48
I 0100 1001 49
J 0100 1010 4A
K 0100 1011 4B
L 0100 1100 4C
M 0100 1101 4D

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha


Character
N 0100 1110 4E
O 0100 1111 4F
P 0101 0000 50
Q 0101 0001 51
R 0101 0010 52
S 0101 0011 53
T 0101 0100 54
U 0101 0101 55
V 0101 0110 56
W 0101 0111 57
X 0101 1000 58
Y 0101 1001 59
Z 0101 1010 5A

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
ASCII-7 Coding Scheme
Example
Write binary coding for the word BOY in ASCII-7. How many bytes are required
for this representation?
Solution:
B = 1000010 in ASCII-7 binary notation

O = 1001111 in ASCII-7 binary notation
Y = 1011001 in ASCII-7 binary notation
Hence, binary coding for the word BOY in ASCII-7 will be
1000010 1001111 1011001

B O Y
Since each character in ASCII-7 requires one byte for its representation and
there are 3 characters in the word BOY, 3 bytes will be required for this
representation

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
ASCII-8 Coding Scheme
Example
Write binary coding for the word SKY in ASCII-8. How many bytes are
required for this representation?
Solution:
S = 01010011 in ASCII-8 binary notation

K = 01001011 in ASCII-8 binary notation
Y = 01011001 in ASCII-8 binary notation
Hence, binary coding for the word SKY in ASCII-8 will be
01010011 01001011 01011001

S K Y
Since each character in ASCII-8 requires one byte for its representation
and there are 3 characters in the word SKY, 3 bytes will be required for
this representation

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Unicode
§ Why Unicode:
§ No single encoding system supports all languages
§ Different encoding systems conflict
§ Unicode features:
§ Provides a consistent way of encoding multilingual
plain text
§ Defines codes for characters used in all major
languages of the world
§ Defines codes for special characters, mathematical
symbols, technical symbols, and diacritics

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Unicode
§ Unicode features (continued):

§ Capacity to encode as many as a million characters
§ Assigns each character a unique numeric value and
name
§ Reserves a part of the code space for private use
§ Affords simplicity and consistency of ASCII, even
corresponding characters have same code
§ Specifies an algorithm for the presentation of text
with bi-directional behavior
§ Encoding Forms
§ UTF-8, UTF-16, UTF-32

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Collating Sequence
§ Collating sequence defines the assigned ordering

among the characters used by a computer
§ Collating sequence may vary, depending on the

type of computer code used by a particular
computer
§ In most computers, collating sequences follow the

following rules:
1. Letters are considered in alphabetic order

(A < B < C … < Z)
2. Digits are considered in numeric order

(0 < 1 < 2 … < 9)

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Sorting in EBCDIC
Example
Suppose a computer uses EBCDIC as its internal

representation of characters. In which order will this
computer sort the strings 23, A1, 1A?
Solution:
In EBCDIC, numeric characters are treated to be greater

than alphabetic characters. Hence, in the said computer,
numeric characters will be placed after alphabetic
characters and the given string will be treated as:
A1 < 1A < 23
Therefore, the sorted sequence will be: A1, 1A, 23.

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Sorting in ASCII
Example
Suppose a computer uses ASCII for its internal representation of

characters. In which order will this computer sort the strings 23, A1,
1A, a2, 2a, aA, and Aa?
Solution:
In ASCII, numeric characters are treated to be less than alphabetic

characters. Hence, in the said computer, numeric characters will be
placed before alphabetic characters and the given string will be
treated as:
1A < 23 < 2a < A1 < Aa < a2 < aA
Therefore, the sorted sequence will be: 1A, 23, 2a, A1, Aa, a2, and
aA

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Key Words/Phrases
§ Alphabetic data
§ Alphanumeric data
§ American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)
§ Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) code
§ Byte
§ Collating sequence
§ Computer codes
§ Control characters
§ Extended Binary-Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC)
§ Hexadecimal equivalent
§ Numeric data
§ Octal equivalent
§ Packed decimal numbers
§ Unicode
§ Zoned decimal numbers

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Ref Page Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic Slide 1/29

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Learning Objectives
§ Reasons for using binary instead of decimal

numbers
§ Basic arithmetic operations using binary numbers
§ Addition (+)
§ Subtraction (-)
§ Multiplication (*)
§ Division (/)
Ref Page 49 Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic Slide 2/29

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Binary over Decimal
§ Information is handled in a computer by electronic/

electrical components
§ Electronic components operate in binary mode (can
only indicate two states – on (1) or off (0)
§ Binary number system has only two digits (0 and 1),
and is suitable for expressing two possible states
§ In binary system, computer circuits only have to handle
two binary digits rather than ten decimal digits causing:
§ Simpler internal circuit design
§ Less expensive
§ More reliable circuits
§ Arithmetic rules/processes possible with binary
numbers

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Examples of a Few Devices that work in

Binary Mode
Binary On (1) Off (0)

State
Bulb
Switch
Circuit
Pulse

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Binary Arithmetic
§ Binary arithmetic is simple to learn as binary number

system has only two digits – 0 and 1
§ Following slides show rules and example for the four

basic arithmetic operations using binary numbers

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Binary Addition
Rule for binary addition is as follows:
0 + 0 = 0
0 + 1 = 1
1 + 0 = 1
1 + 1 = 0 plus a carry of 1 to next higher column

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Binary Addition (Example 1)

Example
Add binary numbers 10011 and 1001 in both decimal and
binary form
Solution
Binary Decimal
carry 11 carry 1
10011 19
+1001 +9
11100 28
In this example, carry are generated for first and second columns

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Binary Addition (Example 2)
Example
Add binary numbers 100111 and 11011 in both decimal

and binary form
Solution
The addition of three 1s
Binary Decimal can be broken up into two
steps. First, we add only
carry 11111 carry 1 two 1s giving 10 (1 + 1 =
10). The third 1 is now
100111 39
added to this result to
+11011 +27 obtain 11 (a 1 sum with a 1
carry). Hence, 1 + 1 + 1 =
1000010 66 1, plus a carry of 1 to next
higher column.

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Binary Subtraction
Rule for binary subtraction is as follows:
0 - 0 = 0
0 - 1 = 1 with a borrow from the next column
1 - 0 = 1
1 - 1 = 0

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Binary Subtraction (Example)
Example
Subtract 011102 from 101012
Solution
12
0202
10101
-01110
00111
Note: Go through explanation given in the book

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Complement of a Number
Number of digits
in the number
C = Bn - 1 - N
Complement Base of the The number

of the number number

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Complement of a Number (Example 1)
Example
Find the complement of 3710
Solution
Since the number has 2 digits and the value of

base is 10,
(Base)n - 1 = 102 - 1 = 99
Now 99 - 37 = 62
Hence, complement of 3710 = 6210

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Complement of a Number (Example 2)
Example
Find the complement of 68
Solution
Since the number has 1 digit and the value of
base is 8,
(Base)n - 1 = 81 - 1 = 710 = 78
Now 78 - 68 = 18
Hence, complement of 68 = 18

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Complement of a Binary Number
Complement of a binary number can be obtained by

transforming all its 0’s to 1’s and all its 1’s to 0’s
Example
Complement of 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 is
0 1 0 0 1 0 1
Note: Verify by conventional complement

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Complementary Method of Subtraction
Involves following 3 steps:
Step 1: Find the complement of the number you

are subtracting (subtrahend)
Step 2: Add this to the number from which you

are taking away (minuend)
Step 3: If there is a carry of 1, add it to obtain

the result; if there is no carry, recomplement the
sum and attach a negative sign
Complementary subtraction is an additive approach of subtraction

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Complementary Subtraction (Example 1)
Example:
Subtract 5610 from 9210 using complementary method.
Solution
Step 1: Complement of 5610
= 102 - 1 - 56 = 99 – 56 = 4310 The result may be
verified using the
Step 2: 92 + 43 (complement of 56) method of normal
= 135 (note 1 as carry) subtraction:
Step 3: 35 + 1 (add 1 carry to sum) 92 - 56 = 36
Result = 36

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Complementary Subtraction (Example 2)
Example
Subtract 3510 from 1810 using complementary method.
Solution
Step 1: Complement of 3510 Step 3: Since there is no carry,

= 102 - 1 - 35 re-complement the sum and
= 99 - 35 attach a negative sign to
= 6410 obtain the result.
Result = -(99 - 82)

Step 2: 18 = -17
+ 64 (complement
of 35) The result may be verified using normal
82 subtraction:
18 - 35 = -17

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Binary Subtraction Using Complementary Method
(Example 1)
Example
Subtract 01110002 (5610) from 10111002 (9210) using
complementary method.
Solution
1011100
+1000111 (complement of 0111000)
10100011
1 (add the carry of 1)
0100100
Result = 01001002 = 3610

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Binary Subtraction Using Complementary Method
(Example 2)
Example
Subtract 1000112 (3510) from 0100102 (1810) using
complementary method.
Solution
010010
+011100 (complement of 100011)
101110
Since there is no carry, we have to complement the sum and

attach a negative sign to it. Hence,
Result = -0100012 (complement of 1011102)

= -1710

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Binary Multiplication
Table for binary multiplication is as follows:
0x0=0
0x1=0
1x0=0
1x1=1

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Binary Multiplication (Example 1)

Example
Multiply the binary numbers 1010 and 1001
Solution
1010 Multiplicand
x1001 Multiplier
1010 Partial Product

1011010 Final Product


Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Binary Multiplication (Example 2)

Whenever a 0 appears in the multiplier, a separate partial

product consisting of a string of zeros need not be generated
(only a shift will do). Hence,
1010
x1001
1010
1010SS (S = left shift)
1011010

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Binary Division
Table for binary division is as follows:
0 ÷ 0 = Divide by zero error

0 ÷ 1 = 0
1 ÷ 0 = Divide by zero error
1 ÷ 1 = 1
As in the decimal number system (or in any other number

system), division by zero is meaningless
The computer deals with this problem by raising an error

condition called ‘Divide by zero’ error

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Rules for Binary Division
1. Start from the left of the dividend

2. Perform a series of subtractions in which the divisor is
subtracted from the dividend
3. If subtraction is possible, put a 1 in the quotient and
subtract the divisor from the corresponding digits of
dividend
4. If subtraction is not possible (divisor greater than
remainder), record a 0 in the quotient
5. Bring down the next digit to add to the remainder
digits. Proceed as before in a manner similar to long
division

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Binary Division (Example 1)
Example
Divide 1000012 by 1102
Solution 0101 (Quotient)
110 100001 (Dividend)

110 1 Divisor greater than 100, so put 0 in quotient
1000 2 Add digit from dividend to group used above
110 3 Subtraction possible, so put 1 in quotient
100 4 Remainder from subtraction plus digit from dividend
110 5 Divisor greater, so put 0 in quotient
1001 6 Add digit from dividend to group
110 7 Subtraction possible, so put 1 in quotient
11 Remainder

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Additive Method of Multiplication and Division
Most computers use the additive method for performing

multiplication and division operations because it simplifies
the internal circuit design of computer systems
Example
4 x 8 = 8 + 8 + 8 + 8 = 32

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Rules for Additive Method of Division
§ Subtract the divisor repeatedly from the dividend until

the result of subtraction becomes less than or equal to
zero
§ If result of subtraction is zero, then:
§ quotient = total number of times subtraction was
performed
§ remainder = 0
§ If result of subtraction is less than zero, then:
§ quotient = total number of times subtraction was
performed minus 1
§ remainder = result of the subtraction previous to
the last subtraction

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Additive Method of Division (Example)
Example
Divide 3310 by 610 using the method of addition
Solution:
33 - 6 = 27
27 - 6 = 21 Since the result of the last
21 - 6 = 15 subtraction is less than zero,
15 - 6 = 9
9-6= 3 Quotient = 6 - 1 (ignore last
3 - 6 = -3 subtraction) = 5
Total subtractions = 6 Remainder = 3 (result of previous

subtraction)

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Key Words/Phrases
§ Additive method of division

§ Additive method of multiplication
§ Additive method of subtraction
§ Binary addition
§ Binary arithmetic
§ Binary division
§ Binary multiplication
§ Binary subtraction
§ Complement
§ Complementary subtraction
§ Computer arithmetic

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Ref. Page Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 1/78
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Learning Objectives
§ Boolean algebra
§ Fundamental concepts and basic laws of Boolean
algebra
§ Boolean function and minimization
§ Logic gates
§ Logic circuits and Boolean expressions
§ Combinational circuits and design
Ref. Page 60 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 2/78
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Boolean Algebra
§ An algebra that deals with binary number system

§ George Boole (1815-1864), an English mathematician, developed
it for:
§ Simplifying representation
§ Manipulation of propositional logic
§ In 1938, Claude E. Shannon proposed using Boolean algebra in
design of relay switching circuits
§ Provides economical and straightforward approach
§ Used extensively in designing electronic circuits used in computers
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Fundamental Concepts of Boolean Algebra
§ Use of Binary Digit

§ Boolean equations can have either of two possible
values, 0 and 1
§ Logical Addition
§ Symbol ‘+’, also known as ‘OR’ operator, used for
logical addition. Follows law of binary addition
§ Logical Multiplication
§ Symbol ‘.’, also known as ‘AND’ operator, used for
logical multiplication. Follows law of binary
multiplication
§ Complementation
§ Symbol ‘-’, also known as ‘NOT’ operator, used for
complementation. Follows law of binary compliment
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Operator Precedence
§ Each operator has a precedence level

§ Higher the operator’s precedence level, earlier it is evaluated
§ Expression is scanned from left to right
§ First, expressions enclosed within parentheses are evaluated
§ Then, all complement (NOT) operations are performed
§ Then, all ‘⋅’ (AND) operations are performed
§ Finally, all ‘+’ (OR) operations are performed
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Operator Precedence
X + Y ⋅ Z
1st 2nd 3rd
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Postulates of Boolean Algebra
Postulate 1:
(a) A = 0, if and only if, A is not equal to 1
(b) A = 1, if and only if, A is not equal to 0
Postulate 2:
(a) x + 0 = x
(b) x ⋅ 1 = x
Postulate 3: Commutative Law

(a) x + y = y + x
(b) x ⋅ y = y ⋅ x
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Postulates of Boolean Algebra

Postulate 4: Associative Law

(a) x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z
(b) x ⋅ (y ⋅ z) = (x ⋅ y) ⋅ z
Postulate 5: Distributive Law

(a) x ⋅ (y + z) = (x ⋅ y) + (x ⋅ z)
(b) x + (y ⋅ z) = (x + y) ⋅ (x + z)
Postulate 6:
(a) x + x = 1
(b) x ⋅ x = 0
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
The Principle of Duality
There is a precise duality between the operators . (AND) and +

(OR), and the digits 0 and 1.
For example, in the table below, the second row is obtained from
the first row and vice versa simply by interchanging ‘+’ with ‘.’
and ‘0’ with ‘1’
Column 1 Column 2 Column 3

Row 1 1+1=1 1+0=0+1=1 0+0=0
Row 2 0⋅0=0 0⋅1=1⋅0=0 1⋅1=1
Therefore, if a particular theorem is proved, its dual theorem

automatically holds and need not be proved separately
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Some Important Theorems of Boolean Algebra
Sr. Theorems/ Dual Theorems/ Name

No. Identities Identities (if any)
1 x+x=x x⋅x=x Idempotent Law
2 x+1=1 x⋅0=0
3 x+x⋅y=x x⋅x+y=x Absorption Law
4 x =x Involution Law
5 x⋅x +y=x⋅y x +x ⋅ y = x + y
6 x+y = x y⋅ x⋅y = x y+ De Morgan’s

Law
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Methods of Proving Theorems
The theorems of Boolean algebra may be proved by using
one of the following methods:
1. By using postulates to show that L.H.S. = R.H.S
2. By Perfect Induction or Exhaustive Enumeration method

where all possible combinations of variables involved in
L.H.S. and R.H.S. are checked to yield identical results
3. By the Principle of Duality where the dual of an already

proved theorem is derived from the proof of its
corresponding pair
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Proving a Theorem by Using Postulates
(Example)
Theorem:
x+x·y=x
Proof:
L.H.S.
= x+x⋅y
= x⋅1+x⋅y by postulate 2(b)
= x ⋅ (1 + y) by postulate 5(a)
= x ⋅ (y + 1) by postulate 3(a)
= x⋅1 by theorem 2(a)
= x by postulate 2(b)
= R.H.S.
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Proving a Theorem by Perfect Induction
(Example)
Theorem:
x + x ·y = x
=
x y x⋅y x+x⋅y
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Proving a Theorem by the

Principle of Duality (Example)
Theorem:
x+x=x
Proof:
L.H.S.
=x+x
= (x + x) ⋅ 1 by postulate 2(b)
= (x + x) ⋅ (x + X) by postulate 6(a)
= x + x ⋅X by postulate 5(b)
=x+0 by postulate 6(b)
=x by postulate 2(a)
= R.H.S.
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Proving a Theorem by the

Principle of Duality (Example)
Dual Theorem:
x⋅x=x
Proof:
L.H.S.
=x⋅x
=x⋅x+0 by postulate 2(a) Notice that each step of
the proof of the dual
= x ⋅ x+ x⋅X by postulate 6(b)
theorem is derived from
= x ⋅ (x + X ) by postulate 5(a) the proof of its
=x⋅1 by postulate 6(a) corresponding pair in
=x by postulate 2(b) the original theorem
= R.H.S.
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Boolean Functions
§ A Boolean function is an expression formed with:
§ Binary variables
§ Operators (OR, AND, and NOT)
§ Parentheses, and equal sign
§ The value of a Boolean function can be either 0 or 1
§ A Boolean function may be represented as:
§ An algebraic expression, or
§ A truth table
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Representation as an
Algebraic Expression
W = X + Y ·Z
§ Variable W is a function of X, Y, and Z, can also be
written as W = f (X, Y, Z)
§ The RHS of the equation is called an expression
§ The symbols X, Y, Z are the literals of the function
§ For a given Boolean function, there may be more than

one algebraic expressions
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Representation as a Truth Table
X Y Z W
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Representation as a Truth Table

§ The number of rows in the table is equal to 2n, where

n is the number of literals in the function
§ The combinations of 0s and 1s for rows of this table

are obtained from the binary numbers by counting
from 0 to 2n - 1
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Minimization of Boolean Functions
§ Minimization of Boolean functions deals with

§ Reduction in number of literals
§ Reduction in number of terms
§ Minimization is achieved through manipulating

expression to obtain equal and simpler expression(s)
(having fewer literals and/or terms)
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

F1 = x ⋅ y ⋅ z + x ⋅ y ⋅ z + x ⋅ y
F1 has 3 literals (x, y, z) and 3 terms
F2 = x ⋅ y + x ⋅ z
F2 has 3 literals (x, y, z) and 2 terms
F2 can be realized with fewer electronic components,

resulting in a cheaper circuit
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

x y z F1 F2
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0
Both F1 and F2 produce the same result
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Try out some Boolean Function

Minimization
(a ) x + x ⋅ y
(
(b ) x ⋅ x + y )
(c) x ⋅ y ⋅ z + x ⋅ y ⋅ z + x ⋅ y
(d ) x ⋅ y + x ⋅ z + y ⋅ z
(e) ( x + y ) ⋅ ( x + z ) ⋅ ( y +z )
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Complement of a Boolean Function
§ The complement of a Boolean function is obtained by

interchanging:
§ Operators OR and AND
§ Complementing each literal
§ This is based on De Morgan’s theorems, whose

general form is:
A +A +A +...+A = A ⋅ A ⋅ A ⋅...⋅ A
1 2 3 n 1 2 3 n
A ⋅ A ⋅ A ⋅...⋅ A = A +A +A +...+A
1 2 3 n 1 2 3 n
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Complementing a Boolean Function (Example)
F = x ⋅ y ⋅ z+ x ⋅ y ⋅ z
1
To obtain F1 , we first interchange the OR and the AND

operators giving
( x + y +z ) ⋅ ( x + y + z )
Now we complement each literal giving
F = ( x+ y +z) ⋅ ( x+ y+ z )
1
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Canonical Forms of Boolean Functions
Minterms : n variables forming an AND term, with

each variable being primed or unprimed,
provide 2n possible combinations called
minterms or standard products
Maxterms : n variables forming an OR term, with

each variable being primed or unprimed,
provide 2n possible combinations called
maxterms or standard sums
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Minterms and Maxterms for three Variables
Variables Minterms Maxterms

x y z Term Designation Term Designation
0 0 0
x ⋅y ⋅z m 0 x+y+z M 0
0 0 1
x ⋅y ⋅z m 1 x+y+z M 1
0 1 0
x ⋅y ⋅z m 2 x+y+z M 2
0 1 1
x ⋅y ⋅z m 3 x+y+z M 3
1 0 0
x ⋅y ⋅z m 4 x+y+z M 4
1 0 1
x ⋅y ⋅z m 5 x+y+z M 5
1 1 0
x ⋅y ⋅z m 6 x+ y+z M 6
1 1 1
x ⋅y ⋅z m 7 x+y+z M 7
Note that each minterm is the complement of its corresponding maxterm and vice-versa
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Sum-of-Products (SOP) Expression
A sum-of-products (SOP) expression is a product term

(minterm) or several product terms (minterms)
logically added (ORed) together. Examples are:
x x+ y
x+ y ⋅ z x ⋅ y+z
x⋅y + x⋅y x⋅y + x⋅ y⋅z
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Steps to Express a Boolean Function
in its Sum-of-Products Form
1. Construct a truth table for the given Boolean

function
2. Form a minterm for each combination of the

variables, which produces a 1 in the function
3. The desired expression is the sum (OR) of all the

minterms obtained in Step 2
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Expressing a Function in its
Sum-of-Products Form (Example)
x y z F1
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1
The following 3 combinations of the variables produce a 1:

001, 100, and 111
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Sum-of-Products Form (Example)
§ Their corresponding minterms are:
x ⋅ y ⋅ z, x ⋅ y ⋅ z, and x ⋅ y ⋅ z
§ Taking the OR of these minterms, we get
F1 =x ⋅ y ⋅ z+ x ⋅ y ⋅ z+ x ⋅ y ⋅ z=m1+m 4 + m7
F1 ( x ⋅ y ⋅ z ) = ∑ (1,4,7 )
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Product-of Sums (POS) Expression
A product-of-sums (POS) expression is a sum term

(maxterm) or several sum terms (maxterms) logically
multiplied (ANDed) together. Examples are:
x ( x+ y )⋅( x+ y )⋅( x+ y )
x+ y ( x + y )⋅( x+ y+z )
( x+ y ) ⋅ z ( x+ y )⋅( x+ y )
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Steps to Express a Boolean Function

in its Product-of-Sums Form
1. Construct a truth table for the given Boolean function
2. Form a maxterm for each combination of the variables,

which produces a 0 in the function
3. The desired expression is the product (AND) of all the

maxterms obtained in Step 2
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Product-of-Sums Form
x y z F1
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1
§ The following 5 combinations of variables produce a 0:

000, 010, 011, 101, and 110
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Product-of-Sums Form
§ Their corresponding maxterms are:
( x+y+ z ) , ( x+ y+ z ), ( x+ y+ z ) ,
( x+y+ z ) and ( x+ y+ z )
§ Taking the AND of these maxterms, we get:
F1 = ( x+y+z ) ⋅ ( x+ y+z ) ⋅ ( x+y+z ) ⋅ ( x+ y+z ) ⋅

( x+ y+z ) =M ⋅M ⋅M ⋅ M ⋅M0 2 3 5 6
F1 ( x,y,z ) = Π( 0,2,3,5,6 )
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Conversion Between Canonical Forms (Sum-of-
Products and Product-of-Sums)
To convert from one canonical form to another,

interchange the symbol and list those numbers missing
from the original form.
Example:
( ) ( ) (
F x,y,z = Π 0,2,4,5 = Σ 1,3,6,7 )
F( x,y,z ) = Σ (1,4,7 ) = Σ ( 0,2,3,5,6 )
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Logic Gates
§ Logic gates are electronic circuits that operate on

one or more input signals to produce standard output
signal
§ Are the building blocks of all the circuits in a

computer
§ Some of the most basic and useful logic gates are

AND, OR, NOT, NAND and NOR gates
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
AND Gate
§ Physical realization of logical multiplication (AND)

operation
§ Generates an output signal of 1 only if all input

signals are also 1
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
AND Gate (Block Diagram Symbol

and Truth Table)
A
C= A⋅B
B
Inputs Output
A B C=A⋅B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
OR Gate
§ Physical realization of logical addition (OR) operation
§ Generates an output signal of 1 if at least one of the

input signals is also 1
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
OR Gate (Block Diagram Symbol

and Truth Table)
A
C=A+B
B
Inputs Output
A B C=A +B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
NOT Gate
§ Physical realization of complementation operation
§ Generates an output signal, which is the reverse of

the input signal
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
NOT Gate (Block Diagram Symbol

and Truth Table)
A A
Input Output
A A
0 1
1 0
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
NAND Gate
§ Complemented AND gate
§ Generates an output signal of:
§ 1 if any one of the inputs is a 0
§ 0 when all the inputs are 1
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
NAND Gate (Block Diagram Symbol

and Truth Table)
A
B C= A ↑ B= A ⋅B=A +B
Inputs Output
A B C = A +B
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
NOR Gate
§ Complemented OR gate
§ Generates an output signal of:
§ 1 only when all inputs are 0
§ 0 if any one of inputs is a 1
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
NOR Gate (Block Diagram Symbol

and Truth Table)
A
B C= A ↓ B=A + B=A ⋅ B
Inputs Output
A B C =A ⋅ B
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Logic Circuits
§ When logic gates are interconnected to form a gating /

logic network, it is known as a combinational logic circuit
§ The Boolean algebra expression for a given logic circuit

can be derived by systematically progressing from input
to output on the gates
§ The three logic gates (AND, OR, and NOT) are logically
complete because any Boolean expression can be
realized as a logic circuit using only these three gates
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Finding Boolean Expression

of a Logic Circuit (Example 1)
A
A
NOT D= A ⋅ (B + C )
B B+C AND
C
OR
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Finding Boolean Expression
of a Logic Circuit (Example 2)
OR
A A +B
B
(
C= ( A +B ) ⋅ A ⋅ B )
A ⋅B A ⋅B AND
AND NOT
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Constructing a Logic Circuit from a Boolean

Expression (Example 1)
Boolean Expression = A ⋅B + C
AND
A A ⋅B
B
A ⋅B + C
C
OR
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Constructing a Logic Circuit from a Boolean

Expression (Example 2)
Boolean Expression = A ⋅B + C ⋅D + E ⋅F
AND NOT
A A ⋅B A ⋅B
B
AND AND
C C ⋅D
D A ⋅B + C ⋅D + E ⋅F
AND
E E ⋅F E ⋅F
F NOT
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Universal NAND Gate
§ NAND gate is an universal gate, it is alone

sufficient to implement any Boolean
expression
§ To understand this, consider:
§ Basic logic gates (AND, OR, and NOT) are

logically complete
§ Sufficient to show that AND, OR, and NOT

gates can be implemented with NAND
gates
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Implementation of NOT, AND and OR Gates by

NAND Gates
A ⋅A = A + A = A
A
(a) NOT gate implementation.
A A ⋅B A ⋅ B = A ⋅B
B
(b) AND gate implementation.
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Implementation of NOT, AND and OR Gates by

NAND Gates
A ⋅A = A
A
A ⋅B = A + B = A + B
B ⋅B = B
B
(c) OR gate implementation.
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Method of Implementing a Boolean Expression

with Only NAND Gates
Step 1: From the given algebraic expression, draw the logic

diagram with AND, OR, and NOT gates. Assume that
both the normal (A) and complement (A) inputs are
available
Step 2: Draw a second logic diagram with the equivalent NAND

logic substituted for each AND, OR, and NOT gate
Step 3: Remove all pairs of cascaded inverters from the

diagram as double inversion does not perform any
logical function. Also remove inverters connected to
single external inputs and complement the
corresponding input variable
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Implementing a Boolean Expression with Only

NAND Gates (Example)
Boolean Expression = A ⋅ B + C ⋅ ( A + B ⋅D )
A A ⋅B
A ⋅ B + C ⋅ ( A + B ⋅D )
B
B B ⋅D
D A +B ⋅D
A
C C ⋅ ( A +B ⋅D )
(a) Step 1: AND/OR implementation

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

AND
A A ⋅B OR
1
B
5
AND OR
B B ⋅D
2
D A+B ⋅D
A ⋅ B + C⋅ ( A+B ⋅D)
3
AND
C⋅ ( A+B ⋅D)
4
C
(b) Step 2: Substituting equivalent NAND functions

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

A
1
B A ⋅ B + C ⋅ ( A +B ⋅D )
5
B
2
D
3
A
4
C
(c) Step 3: NAND implementation.
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Universal NOR Gate
§ NOR gate is an universal gate, it is alone sufficient to

implement any Boolean expression
§ To understand this, consider:
§ Basic logic gates (AND, OR, and NOT) are logically

complete
§ Sufficient to show that AND, OR, and NOT gates can

be implemented with NOR gates
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Implementation of NOT, OR and AND Gates by

NOR Gates
A + A = A ⋅A = A
A
(a) NOT gate implementation.
A A +B A + B = A +B
B
(b) OR gate implementation.
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Implementation of NOT, OR and AND Gates by

NOR Gates
A A +A=A
A + B = A ⋅B = A ⋅B
B + B =B
B
(c) AND gate implementation.
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Method of Implementing a Boolean Expression

with Only NOR Gates
Step 1: For the given algebraic expression, draw the logic

diagram with AND, OR, and NOT gates. Assume that
both the normal ( A ) and complement A inputs are
available
( )
Step 2: Draw a second logic diagram with equivalent NOR logic
substituted for each AND, OR, and NOT gate
Step 3: Remove all parts of cascaded inverters from the

diagram as double inversion does not perform any
logical function. Also remove inverters connected to
single external inputs and complement the
corresponding input variable
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

NOR Gates (Examples)
Boolean Expression A ⋅ B + C ⋅ ( A +B ⋅D )
=
A A ⋅B
B A ⋅ B + C ⋅ ( A +B ⋅D )
B B ⋅D
D A +B ⋅D
A
C C ⋅ ( A +B ⋅D )
(a) Step 1: AND/OR implementation.
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

AN
A D
A ⋅B
1
OR
A ⋅ B + C ⋅ ( A +B ⋅D )
B
5 6
AN
B D
B ⋅D
2
D OR
AN
3 D
A
C ⋅ ( A +B ⋅D )
4
C
A +B ⋅D
(b) Step 2: Substituting equivalent NOR functions.
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

A 1
B A ⋅ B + C ⋅ ( A +B ⋅D )
5 6
B 2
D
3
A
4
C
(c) Step 3: NOR implementation.
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Exclusive-OR Function
A ⊕ B =A ⋅ B + A ⋅ B
A C = A ⊕ B = A ⋅B+ A ⋅B
B
A ⊕ C = A ⊕ B = A ⋅B+ A ⋅B
B
Also, ( A ⊕ B ) ⊕ C = A ⊕ (B ⊕ C ) = A ⊕ B ⊕ C
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Exclusive-OR Function (Truth Table)

Inputs Output
A B C =A ⊕B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Equivalence Function with Block Diagram

Symbol
A € B = A ⋅ B+ A ⋅ B
A C = A € B = A ⋅B+ A ⋅B
B
Also, (A € B) € = A € (B € C) = A € B € C
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Equivalence Function (Truth Table)
Inputs Output
A B C=A€B
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Steps in Designing Combinational Circuits
1. State the given problem completely and exactly
2. Interpret the problem and determine the available input

variables and required output variables
3. Assign a letter symbol to each input and output variables
4. Design the truth table that defines the required relations

between inputs and outputs
5. Obtain the simplified Boolean function for each output
6. Draw the logic circuit diagram to implement the Boolean

function
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Designing a Combinational Circuit

Example 1 – Half-Adder Design
Inputs Outputs
A B C S
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0
S = A ⋅B+ A ⋅B
Boolean functions for the two outputs.
C = A ⋅B
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Example 1 – Half-Adder Design
A A ⋅B
A
S = A ⋅B+ A ⋅B
B
B A ⋅B
A
B C = A ⋅B
Logic circuit diagram to implement the Boolean functions
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Example 2 – Full-Adder Design
Inputs Outputs
A B D C S
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1
Truth table for a full adder
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Boolean functions for the two outputs:
S = A ⋅B ⋅D+ A ⋅B ⋅D+ A ⋅B ⋅D+ A ⋅B ⋅D

C = A ⋅B ⋅D+ A ⋅B ⋅D+ A ⋅B ⋅D+ A ⋅B ⋅D
= A ⋅B+ A ⋅D+B ⋅D (when simplified)
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

A A ⋅B ⋅ D
B
D
A A ⋅B ⋅ D
B
D
S
A
B A ⋅B ⋅ D
D
A A ⋅B ⋅ D
B
D
(a) Logic circuit diagram for sums

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

A A ⋅B
B
A A ⋅D C
D
B B⋅D
D
(b) Logic circuit diagram for carry
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Key Words/Phrases
§ Absorption law § Equivalence function § NOT gate
§ AND gate § Exclusive-OR function § Operator precedence
§ Associative law § Exhaustive enumeration § OR gate
§ Boolean algebra method § Parallel Binary Adder
§ Boolean expression § Half-adder § Perfect induction
§ Boolean functions § Idempotent law method
§ Boolean identities § Involution law § Postulates of Boolean
§ Canonical forms for § Literal algebra
Boolean functions § Logic circuits § Principle of duality
§ Combination logic § Logic gates § Product-of-Sums
circuits § Logical addition expression
§ Cumulative law § Logical multiplication § Standard forms
§ Complement of a § Maxterms § Sum-of Products
function § Minimization of Boolean expression
§ Complementation functions § Truth table
§ De Morgan’s law § Minterms § Universal NAND gate
§ Distributive law § NAND gate § Universal NOR gate
§ Dual identities
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Ref Page Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 1/27

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Learning Objectives
§ Internal structure of processor

§ Memory structure
§ Determining the speed of a processor
§ Different types of processors available
§ Determining the capacity of a memory
§ Different types of memory available
§ Several other terms related to the processor and
main memory of a computer system
Ref Page 101 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 2/27

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Basic Processor & Memory Architecture

of a Computer System
ROM PROM Flash
Main Memory (RAM)
Cache
Memory
Accumulato
Decode r register
r I/
Program General- O
control register purpose register
D
Instruction General- E
register purpose V
register I
Memory
address register C
E
Memory buffer
S
register
Input/Output
register
General- General-purpose
purpose register register
Control Unit Arithmetic Logic Unit

Central Processing Unit

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
§ The brain of a computer system

§ Performs all major calculations and comparisons
§ Activates and controls the operations of other units of a
computer system
§ Two basic components are
§ Control Unit (CU)
§ Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
§ No other single component of a computer determines

its overall performance as much as the CPU

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Control Unit (CU)
§ One of the two basic components of CPU

§ Acts as the central nervous system of a computer
system
§ Selects and interprets program instructions, and
coordinates execution
§ Has some special purpose registers and a decoder to
perform these activities

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
§ One of the two basic components of CPU.

§ Actual execution of instructions takes place in ALU
§ Has some special purpose registers
§ Has necessary circuitry to carry out all the
arithmetic and logic operations included in the CPU
instruction set

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Instruction Set
§ CPU has built-in ability to execute a particular set of machine

instructions, called its instruction set
§ Most CPUs have 200 or more instructions (such as add,
subtract, compare, etc.) in their instruction set
§ CPUs made by different manufacturers have different
instruction sets
§ Manufacturers tend to group their CPUs into “families” having
similar instruction sets
§ New CPU whose instruction set includes instruction set of its
predecessor CPU is said to be backward compatible with its
predecessor

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Registers
§ Special memory units, called registers, are used to

hold information on a temporary basis as the
instructions are interpreted and executed by the CPU
§ Registers are part of the CPU (not main memory) of a
computer
§ The length of a register, sometimes called its word
size, equals the number of bits it can store
§ With all other parameters being the same, a CPU with
32-bit registers can process data twice larger than
one with 16-bit registers

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Functions of Commonly Used Registers
Sr.
Name of Register Function
No.
Holds address of the active memory
1 Memory Address (MAR)
location
Holds contents of the accessed
2 Memory Buffer (MBR)
(read/written) memory word
Holds address of the next instruction to
3 Program Control (PC)
be executed
Holds data to be operated upon,
4 Accumulator (A)
intermediate results, and the results
Holds an instruction while it is being
5 Instruction (I)
executed
Used to communicate with the I/O
6 Input/Output (I/O)
devices

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Processor Speed
§ Computer has a built-in system clock that emits millions of

regularly spaced electric pulses per second (known as
clock cycles)
§ It takes one cycle to perform a basic operation, such as
moving a byte of data from one memory location to
another
§ Normally, several clock cycles are required to fetch,
decode, and execute a single program instruction
§ Hence, shorter the clock cycle, faster the processor
§ Clock speed (number of clock cycles per second) is
measured in Megahertz (106 cycles/sec) or Gigahertz (109
cycles/sec)

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Types of Processor
Type of
Features Usage
Architecture
§ Large instruction set
CISC (Complex § Variable-length instructions Mostly used in
Instruction Set § Variety of addressing modes personal
Computer) § Complex & expensive to computers
produce
§ Small instruction set
RISC (Reduced
§ Fixed-length instructions Mostly used in
Instruction Set
§ Reduced references to workstations
Computer)
memory to retrieve operands

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Types of Processor
Type of
Features Usage
Architecture
§ Allows software to
communicate explicitly to the
processor when operations
are parallel
EPIC (Explicitly
§ Uses tighter coupling Mostly used in
Parallel
between the compiler and the high-end servers
Instruction
processor and workstations
Computing)
§ Enables compiler to extract
maximum parallelism in the
original code, and explicitly
describe it to the processor

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Types of Processor
Type of
Features Usage
Architecture
§ Processor chip has multiple
cooler-running, more energy-
efficient processing cores
§ Improve overall performance
Mostly used in
Multi-Core by handling more work in
high-end servers
Processor parallel
and workstations
§ can share architectural
components, such as memory
elements and memory
management

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Main Memory
§ Every computer has a temporary storage built into

the computer hardware
§ It stores instructions and data of a program mainly
when the program is being executed by the CPU.
§ This temporary storage is known as main memory,
primary storage, or simply memory.
§ Physically, it consists of some chips either on the
motherboard or on a small circuit board attached to
the motherboard of a computer
§ It has random access property.
§ It is volatile.

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Storage Evaluation Criteria
Primary Secondary
Property Desirable
storage storage
Storage
Large storage capacity Small Large
capacity
Access Time Fast access time Fast Slow

Cost per bit of
Lower cost per bit High Low
storage
Volatility Non-volatile Volatile Non-volatile
Pseudo-
random
Random
Access Random access access or
access
sequential
access

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Main Memory Organization
0
1
2
3
4
Addresses of The words
a memory 5
of a memory
(total N words)
N-2
N-1 Each word
contains the same
number of bits =
Bit 1 Bit 2 word length

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Main Memory Organization

§ Machines having smaller word-length are slower in

operation than machines having larger word-length
§ A write to a memory location is destructive to its previous
contents
§ A read from a memory location is non-destructive to its
previous contents

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Fixed Word-length Memory

Word
0501 B O M B A Y
0502 D E L H I
Address 0503
Numbers
1024
§ Storage space is always allocated in multiples of word-length

§ Faster in speed of calculation than variable word-length memory
§ Normally used in large scientific computers for gaining speed of
calculation

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Variable Word-length Memory
0025 B 0051 D § Each memory location

0026 O can store only a single
0052 E character
0027 M L
0053 § Slower in speed of
0028 B 0054 H calculation than fixed
Address Address world-length memory
0029 A 0055 I
Numbers Numbers
0030 Y § Used in small business
0056
computers for
0031 optimizing the use of
storage space
4096 4096
Note: With memory becoming cheaper and larger day-by-day, most

modern computers employ fixed-word-length memory organization

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Memory Capacity
§ Memory capacity of a computer is equal to the number

of bytes that can be stored in its primary storage
§ Its units are:
Kilobytes (KB) : 1024 (210) bytes
Megabytes (MB) : 1,048,576 (220) bytes
Gigabytes (GB) : 1,073,741824 (230) bytes

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Random Access Memory (RAM)
§ Primary storage of a computer is often referred to as RAM

because of its random access capability
§ RAM chips are volatile memory
§ A computer’s motherboard is designed in a manner that
the memory capacity can be enhanced by adding more
memory chips
§ The additional RAM chips, which plug into special sockets
on the motherboard, are known as single-in-line memory
modules (SIMMs)

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Read Only Memory (ROM)
§ ROM a non-volatile memory chip

§ Data stored in a ROM can only be read and used – they
cannot be changed
§ ROMs are mainly used to store programs and data, which
do not change and are frequently used. For example,
system boot program

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Types of ROMs
Type Usage
Data is burnt by the manufacturer
Manufacturer-programmed
of the electronic equipment in
ROM
which it is used.
User-programmed ROM
or The user can load and store
“read-only” programs and data in
Programmable ROM it
(PROM)
The user can erase information

stored in it and the chip can be
Erasable PROM (EPROM)
reprogrammed to store new
information

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Types of ROMs
Type Usage
A type of EPROM chip in which the

Ultra Violet EPROM stored information is erased by
(UVEPROM) exposing the chip for some time
to ultra-violet light
Electrically EPROM
(EEPROM) A type of EPROM chip in which the
or stored information is erased by
using high voltage electric pulses
Flash memory

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Cache Memory
§ It is commonly used for minimizing the memory-

processor speed mismatch.
§ It is an extremely fast, small memory between CPU
and main memory whose access time is closer to the
processing speed of the CPU.
§ It is used to temporarily store very active data and
instructions during processing.
Cache is pronounced as “cash”

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Key Words/Phrases
§ Accumulator Register (AR) § Flash Memory

§ Address § Input/Output Register (I/O)
§ Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) § Instruction Register (I)
§ Branch Instruction § Instruction set
§ Cache Memory § Kilobytes (KB)
§ Central Processing Unit (CPU) § Main Memory
§ CISC (Complex Instruction Set § Manufacturer-Programmed ROM
Computer) architecture § Megabytes (MB)
§ Clock cycles § Memory
§ Clock speed § Memory Address Register (MAR)
§ Control Unit § Memory Buffer Register (MBR)
§ Electrically EPROM (EEPROM) § Microprogram
§ Erasable Programmable Read- § Multi-core processor
Only Memory (EPROM) § Non-Volatile storage Processor
§ Explicitly Parallel Instruction § Program Control Register (PC)
Computing (EPIC) § Programmable Read-Only Memory
§ Fixed-word-length memory (PROM)
§ Random Access Memory (RAM)

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Key Words/Phrases
§ Read-Only Memory (ROM)

§ Register
§ RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer)
architecture
§ Single In-line Memory Module (SIMM)
§ Ultra Violet EPROM (UVEPROM)
§ Upward compatible
§ User-Programmed ROM
§ Variable-word-length memory
§ Volatile Storage
§ Word length
§ Word size

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Ref Page Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 1/98

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Learning Objectives
§ Secondary storage devices and their need

§ Classification of commonly used secondary storage
devices
§ Difference between sequential and direct access
storage devices
§ Basic principles of operation, types, and uses of
popular secondary storage devices such as magnetic
tape, magnetic disk, and optical disk
Ref Page 117 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 2/98

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Learning Objectives
§ Commonly used mass storage devices

§ Introduction to other related concepts such as RAID,
Jukebox, storage hierarchy, etc.

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Limitations of Primary Storage
§ Limited capacity because the cost per bit of storage

is high
§ Volatile - data stored in it is lost when the electric
power is turned off or interrupted

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Secondary Storage
§ Used in a computer system to overcome the limitations

of primary storage
§ Has virtually unlimited capacity because the cost per bit
of storage is very low
§ Has an operating speed far slower than that of the
primary storage
§ Used to store large volumes of data on a permanent
basis
§ Also known as auxiliary memory

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Classification of Commonly Used Secondary

Storage Devices
Secondary Storage
Devices
Sequential Access Direct Access Devices

Device
Magnetic Tape
Magnetic Optical Disks Memory Storage

Disks Devices
Flash Memory
Floppy Hard CD-ROM Card
WORM CD-RW DVD Drive
Disk Disks
(CD-R)
Zip Disk Disk Pack Winchester Disk

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Sequential-access Storage Devices
§ Arrival at the desired storage location may be preceded

by sequencing through other locations
§ Data can only be retrieved in the same sequence in which
it is stored
§ Access time varies according to the storage location of
the information being accessed
§ Suitable for sequential processing applications where
most, if not all, of the data records need to be processed
one after another
§ Magnetic tape is a typical example of such a storage
device

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Direct-access Storage Devices
§ Devices where any storage location may be selected

and accessed at random
§ Permits access to individual information in a more
direct or immediate manner
§ Approximately equal access time is required for
accessing information from any storage location
§ Suitable for direct processing applications such as on-
line ticket booking systems, on-line banking systems
§ Magnetic, optical, and magneto-optical disks are
typical examples of such a storage device

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Magnetic Tape Basics
§ Commonly used sequential-access secondary storage

device
§ Physically, the tape medium is a plastic ribbon, which
is usually ½ inch or ¼ inch wide and 50 to 2400 feet
long
§ Plastic ribbon is coated with a magnetizable recording
material such as iron-oxide or chromium dioxide
§ Data are recorded on the tape in the form of tiny
invisible magnetized and non-magnetized spots
(representing 1s and 0s) on its coated surface
§ Tape ribbon is stored in reels or a small cartridge or
cassette

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Magnetic Tape - Storage Organization

(Example 1)
A frame Characters for
Track/Channel
numbers corresponding codes
0 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F G
Parity bit 7
6 Each vertical
Zone
line represents
5
a binary 1 bit
4
Numeric 3
Illustrates the concepts of frames, tracks, parity bit, and character-by-character data
storage

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Magnetic Tape - Storage Organization (Example 2)
Track/ channel Characters for

numbers A frame for each corresponding codes
character
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B Each vertical
8’s digit line represents
9
a binary
Track 2’s digit 8
1 bit
representation Added zone 7
Added zone 6
Zone 5
Parity bit 4
Zone 3
Unit’s digit 2
4’s digit 1
Illustrates the concepts of frames, tracks, parity bit, and character-by-character data
storage

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Tape motion
IBG R1 IBG R2 IBG R3 IBG R4 IBG R5 IBG R6
(a) An unblocked tape. There is an IBG after each record.
Tape motion
IBG R1 R2 IBG R3 R4 IBG R5 R6 IBG R7 R8 IBG
(b) A tape which uses a blocking factor of two. There is an IBG after every two records.
Tape motion
IBG R1 R2 R3 IBG R4 R5 R6 IBG R7 R8 R9 IBG
(c) A tape which uses a blocking factor of three. There is an IBG after every three records.
Illustrates the concepts of blocking of records, inter-block gap (IBG), and blocking factor

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
File header
File header File trailer label of next
label label file
Tape motion
Block of Block of
IBG IBG IBG IBG
records records
Illustrates the concepts of multiple blocks of records forming a file that is

separated from other files by a file header label in the beginning and a file trailer
label at the end of the file

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Magnetic Tape-Storage Organization (Example 5)
Tape header
label File trailer
label of
BOT File header File trailer
label last file
marker label
unused IBG IB Blocks of records of IBG IBG IB unused

the file separated by
tape G G tape
IBGs
Tape motion
EOT marker
Illustrates the concepts of Beginning of Tape (BoT) and End of Tape

(EoT) markers, and tape header label

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Magnetic Tape Storage Capacity
§ Storage capacity of a tape =

Data recording density x Length
§ Data recording density is the amount of data that can be
stored on a given length of tape. It is measured in bytes
per inch (bpi)
§ Tape density varies from 800 bpi in older systems to
77,000 bpi in some of the modern systems
§ Actual storage capacity of a tape may be anywhere from
35% to 70% of its total storage capacity, depending on
the storage organization used

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Magnetic Tape – Data Transfer Rate
§ Refers to characters/second that can be transmitted to

the memory from the tape
§ Transfer rate measurement unit is bytes/second (bps)
§ Value depends on the data recording density and the
speed with which the tape travels under the read/write
head
§ A typical value of data transfer rate is 7.7 MB/second

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Magnetic Tape – Tape Drive
§ Used for writing/reading of data to/from a magnetic

tape ribbon
§ Different for tape reels, cartridges, and cassettes
§ Has read/write heads for reading/writing of data on
tape
§ A magnetic tape reel/cartridge/cassette has to be first
loaded on a tape drive for reading/writing of data on it
§ When processing is complete, the tape is removed
from the tape drive for off-line storage

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Magnetic Tape – Tape Controller
§ Tape drive is connected to and controlled by a tape

controller that interprets the commands for operating the
tape drive
§ A typical set of commands supported by a tape controller

are:
Read reads one block of data
Write writes one block of data
Write tape header label used to update the contents of tape header label
Erase tape erases the data recorded on a tape
Back space one block rewinds the tape to the beginning of previous block

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Magnetic Tape – Tape Controller

Forward space one block forwards the tape to the beginning

of next block
Forward space one file forwards the tape to the beginning

of next file
Rewind fully rewinds the tape
Unload releases the tape drive’s grip so

that the tape spool can be
unmountedfrom the tape drive

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Types of Magnetic Tape
§ ½-inch tape reel
§ ½-inch tape cartridge
§ ¼-inch streamer tape
§ 4-mm digital audio tape (DAT)

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Half-inch Tape Reel
§ Uses ½ inch wide tape ribbon stored on a tape reel

§ Uses parallel representation method of storing data, in
which data are read/written a byte at a time
§ Uses a read/write head assembly that has one
read/write head for each track
§ Commonly used as archival storage for off-line storage
of data and for exchange of data and programs
between organizations
§ Fast getting replaced by tape cartridge, streamer tape,
and digital audio tape they are more compact, cheaper
and easier to handle

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Half-inch Tape Reel

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Tape Drive of Half-inch Tape Reel

Supply Take-up
reel Magnetic tape reel
Read/write
head assembly
Vacuum
columns
Tape loops
varying in
length

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Half-inch Tape Cartridge
§ Uses ½ inch wide tape ribbon sealed in a cartridge

§ Has 36 tracks, as opposed to 9 tracks for most half-inch
tape reels
§ Stores data using parallel representation. Hence, 4 bytes
of data are stored across the width of the tape. This
enables more bytes of data to be stored on the same
length of tape
§ Tape drive reads/writes on the top half of the tape in
one direction and on the bottom half in the other
direction

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Half-inch Tape Cartridge

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Quarter-inch Streamer Tape
§ Uses ¼ inch wide tape ribbon sealed in a cartridge

§ Uses serial representation of data recording (data bits
are aligned in a row one after another in tracks)
§ Can have from 4 to 30 tracks, depending on the tape
drive
§ Depending on the tape drive, the read/write head
reads/writes data on one/two/four tracks at a time
§ Eliminates the need for the start/stop operation of
traditional tape drives

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Quarter-inch Streamer Tape

§ Can read/write data more efficiently than the

traditional tape drives because there is no start/stop
mechanism
§ Make more efficient utilization of tape storage area
than traditional tape drives because IBGs are not
needed
§ The standard data formats used in these tapes is
known as the QIC standard

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Quarter-inch Streamer Tape (Example)
Recording area Recording area

begins here ends here
Tracks
1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0.
2 ..
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1...
3 Unused Unused
4 portion portion
of the of the
5 tape tape
6
7
8

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
4mm Digital Audio Tape (DAT)
§ Uses 4mm wide tape ribbon sealed in a cartridge

§ Has very high data recording density
§ Uses a tape drive that uses helical scan technique for
data recording, in which two read heads and two write
heads are built into a small wheel
§ DAT drives use a data recording format called Digital
Data Storage (DDS), which provides three levels of
error-correcting code
§ Typical capacity of DAT cartridges varies from
4 GB to 14 GB

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
The Helical Scan Techniques

Used in DAT Drives
Write head B
Read head A
Spinning
Read head B
helical
scan
Write head A
Moving tape
Shaft

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Advantages of Magnetic Tapes
§ Storage capacity is virtually unlimited because as many

tapes as required can be used for storing very large
data sets
§ Cost per bit of storage is very low for magnetic tapes.
§ Tapes can be erased and reused many times
§ Tape reels and cartridges are compact and light in
weight
§ Easy to handle and store.
§ Very large amount of data can be stored in a small
storage space

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Advantages of Magnetic Tapes

§ Compact size and light weight

§ Magnetic tape reels and cartridges are also easily
portable from one place to another
§ Often used for transferring data and programs from
one computer to another that are not linked together

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Limitations of Magnetic Tapes
§ Due to their sequential access nature, they are not

suitable for storage of those data that frequently
require to be accessed randomly
§ Must be stored in a dust-free environment because
specks of dust can cause tape-reading errors
§ Must be stored in an environment with properly
controlled temperature and humidity levels
§ Tape ribbon may get twisted due to warping, resulting
in loss of stored data
§ Should be properly labeled so that some useful data
stored on a particular tape is not erased by mistake

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Uses of Magnetic Tapes
§ For applications that are based on sequential data

processing
§ Backing up of data for off-line storage
§ Archiving of infrequently used data
§ Transferring of data from one computer to another that
are not linked together
§ As a distribution media for software by vendors

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Magnetic Disk - Basics
§ Commonly used direct-access secondary storage device.

§ Physically, a magnetic disk is a thin, circular
plate/platter made of metal or plastic that is usually
coated on both sides with a magnetizable recording
material such as iron-oxide
§ Data are recorded on the disk in the form of tiny
invisible magnetized and non-magnetized spots
(representing 1s and 0s) on the coated surfaces of the
disk
§ The disk is stored in a specially designed protective
envelope or cartridge, or several of them are stacked
together in a sealed, contamination-free container

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Magnetic Disk – Storage Organization

Illustrates the Concept of Tracks
200 Track 000

§ A disk’s surface is divided into
Tracks
a number of invisible
concentric circles called tracks
§ The tracks are numbered

consecutively from outermost
to innermost starting from
zero
Track
§ The number of tracks on a
… …
199 disk may be as few as 40 on
small, low-capacity disks, to
several thousand on large,
high-capacity disks

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Illustrates the Concept of Sectors
A sector
§ Each track of a disk is

subdivided into sectors
§ There are 8 or more

sectors per track
§ A sector typically contains

512 bytes
§ Disk drives are designed to

read/write only whole
sectors at a time

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Illustrates Grouping of Tracks and Use of Different

Number of Sectors in Tracks of Different Groups for
Increased Storage Capacity
§ Innermost group of tracks

has 8 sectors/track
§ Next groups of tracks has

9 sectors/track
§ Outermost group of tracks

has 10 sectors/track

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Magnetic Disk – Disk Address or

Address of a Record on a Disk
§ Disk address represents the physical location of the

record on the disk
§ It is comprised of the sector number, track number,
and surface number (when double-sided disks are
used)
§ This scheme is called the CHS addressing or Cylinder-
Head-Sector addressing. The same is also referred to
as disk geometry

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

(Illustrates the Concept of Cylinder)
Central shaft
Upper surface
not used
Read/Write head
Surface - 0 Direction of
Surface - 1 movement of
access arms
Surface - 2 assembly
Cylinder
Surface - 3
Access arms
Surface - 4
assembly
Surface - 5
Lower surface
not used
No. of disk platters = 4, No. of usable surfaces = 6. A set of corresponding

tracks on all the 6 surfaces is called a cylinder.

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Magnetic Disk – Storage Capacity
Storage capacity of a disk system = Number of recording surfaces

× Number of tracks per surface
× Number of sectors per track
× Number of bytes per sector

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Magnetic Disk Pack – Access Mechanism
One read/write
head per surface Central shaft
Direction of
movement of
access arms
assembly
Access arms
assembly
Vertical cross section of a disk system. There is one read/write head per
recording surface

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Magnetic Disk – Access Time
§ Disk access time is the interval between the instant a

computer makes a request for transfer of data from a
disk system to the primary storage and the instant this
operation is completed
§ Disk access time depends on the following three

parameters:
– Seek Time: It is the time required to position the

read/write head over the desired track, as soon as
a read/write command is received by the disk unit
– Latency: It is the time required to spin the desired

sector under the read/write head, once the
read/write head is positioned on the desired track

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Magnetic Disk – Access Time
– Transfer Rate: It is the rate at which data are

read/written to the disk, once the read/write head
is positioned over the desired sector
§ As the transfer rate is negligible as compared to seek

time and latency,
Average access time
= Average seek time + Average latency

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Disk Formatting
§ Process of preparing a new disk by the computer

system in which the disk is to be used.
§ For this, a new (unformatted) disk is inserted in the disk
drive of the computer system and the disk formatting
command is initiated
§ Low-level disk formatting
§ Disk drive’s read/write head lays down a magnetic
pattern on the disk’s surface
§ Enables the disk drive to organize and store the
data in the data organization defined for the disk
drive of the computer

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Disk Formatting
§ OS-level disk formatting

§ Creates the File Allocation Table (FAT) that is a
table with the sector and track locations of data
§ Leaves sufficient space for FAT to grow
§ Scans and marks bad sectors
§ One of the basic tasks handled by the computer’s
operating system
§ Enables the use of disks manufactured by third party
vendors into one’s own computer system

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Magnetic Disk – Disk Drive
§ Unit used for reading/writing of data on/from a

magnetic disk
§ Contains all the mechanical, electrical and

electronic components for holding one or more
disks and for reading or writing of information on
to it

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Magnetic Disk – Disk Drive

§ Although disk drives vary greatly in their shape, size

and disk formatting pattern, they can be broadly
classified into two types:
– Those with interchangeable magnetic disks,

which allow the loading and unloading of
magnetic disks as and when they are needed for
reading/writing of data on to them
– Those with fixed magnetic disks, which come

along with a set of permanently fixed disks. The
disks are not removable from their disk drives

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Magnetic Disk – Disk Controller
§ Disk drive is connected to and controlled by a disk

controller, which interprets the commands for
operating the disk drive
§ Typically supports only read and write commands,
which need disk address (surface number,
cylinder/track number, and sector number) as
parameters
§ Connected to and controls more than one disk drive, in
which case the disk drive number is also needed as a
parameters of read and write commands

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Types of Magnetic Disks
Magnetic Disks
Floppy Disks Hard Disks
Zip/Bernoulli Disks Disk Packs Winchester

Disks

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Floppy Disks
§ Round, flat piece of flexible plastic disks coated with

magnetic oxide
§ So called because they are made of flexible plastic
plates which can bend
§ Also known as floppies or diskettes
§ Plastic disk is encased in a square plastic or vinyl jacket
cover that gives handling protection to the disk surface

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Floppy Disks
§ The two types of floppy disks in use today are:
§ 5¼-inch diskette, whose diameter is 5¼-inch.

It is encased in a square, flexible vinyl jacket
§ 3½-inch diskette, whose diameter is 3½-inch.

It is encased in a square, hard plastic jacket
§ Most popular and inexpensive secondary storage

medium used in small computers

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
A 5¼-inch Floppy Disk

User’s label for
Manufacturer’s
identification purpose
label
Write protect notch
Drive spindle
hole in disk
5¼ - inch
Drive access opening

in jacket
Aperture in the jacket

through which the
read/write head makes
direct contact with the
disk surface
5¼ - inch
A 5¼-inch floppy disk enclosed within jacket. The drive mechanism clamps
on to a portion of the disk exposed by the drive access opening in the jacket

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
A 3½-inch Floppy Disk

Opening for inserting the
Light indicator disk inside the drive
(blinks when
read/write
operation takes Floppy disk
place) (a) Front view of a floppy disk eject button
drive.
Sliding metal
piece cover
3½” - inch
User’s label for
identification
Write-protect
plastic tab
3½” - inch
(b) A 3½ - inch floppy disk.

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Storage Capacities of Various Types of Floppy

Disks
Size No. of Approximate

(Diameter No. of No. of No. of Capacity
surfaces tracks sectors/track bytes/sector in bytes capacity
in inches)
5¼ 2 40 9 512 3,68,640 360 KB
5¼ 2 80 15 512 12,28,800 1.2 MB
3½ 2 40 18 512 7,37,280 720 KB
3½ 2 80 18 512 14,74,560 1.4 MB
3½ 2 80 36 512 29,49,120 2.88 MB

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Hard Disks
§ Round, flat piece of rigid metal (frequently aluminium)

disks coated with magnetic oxide
§ Come in many sizes, ranging from 1 to 14-inch
diameter.
§ Depending on how they are packaged, hard disks are of
three types:
§ Zip/Bernoulli disks
§ Disk packs
§ Winchester disks
§ Primary on-line secondary storage device for most
computer systems today

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Zip/Bernoulli Disks
§ Uses a single hard disk platter encased in a plastic

cartridge
§ Disk drives may be portable or fixed type
§ Fixed type is part of the computer system, permanently
connected to it
§ Portable type can be carried to a computer system,
connected to it for the duration of use, and then can be
disconnected and taken away when the work is done
§ Zip disks can be easily inserted/removed from a zip drive
just as we insert/remove floppy disks in a floppy disk
drive

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Disk Packs
§ Uses multiple (two or more) hard disk platters

mounted on a single central shaft
§ Disk drives have a separate read/write head for each
usable disk surface (the upper surface of the top-most
disk and the lower surface of the bottom most disk is
not used)
§ Disks are of removable/interchangeable type in the
sense that they have to be mounted on the disk drive
before they can be used, and can be removed and
kept off-line when not in use

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Winchester Disks
§ Uses multiple (two or more) hard disk platters

mounted on a single central shaft
§ Hard disk platters and the disk drive are sealed

together in a contamination-free container and cannot
be separated from each other

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Winchester Disks
§ For the same number of disks, Winchester disks have

larger storage capacity than disk packs because:
– All the surfaces of all disks are used for data

recording
They employ much greater precision of data recording,

resulting in greater data recording density
§ Named after the .30-30 Winchester rifle because the

early Winchester disk systems had two 30-MB disks
sealed together with the disk drive

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Advantages of Magnetic Disks
§ More suitable than magnetic tapes for a wider range of

applications because they support direct access of data
§ Random access property enables them to be used
simultaneously by multiple users as a shared device. A
tape is not suitable for such type of usage due to its
sequential-access property
§ Suitable for both on-line and off-line storage of data

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

§ Except for the fixed type Winchester disks, the storage

capacity of other magnetic disks is virtually unlimited
as many disks can be used for storing very large data
sets
§ Due to their low cost and high data recording densities,
the cost per bit of storage is low for magnetic disks.
§ An additional cost benefit is that magnetic disks can be
erased and reused many times
§ Floppy disks and zip disks are compact and light in
weight. Hence they are easy to handle and store.
§ Very large amount of data can be stored in a small
storage space

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
§ Due to their compact size and light weight, floppy disks

and zip disks are also easily portable from one place to
another
§ They are often used for transferring data and programs
from one computer to another, which are not linked
together
§ Any information desired from a disk storage can be
accessed in a few milliseconds because it is a direct
access storage device

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

§ Data transfer rate for a magnetic disk system is

normally higher than a tape system
§ Magnetic disks are less vulnerable to data corruption
due to careless handling or unfavorable temperature
and humidity conditions than magnetic tapes

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Limitations of Magnetic Disks
§ Although used for both random processing and

sequential processing of data, for applications of the
latter type, it may be less efficient than magnetic
tapes
§ More difficult to maintain the security of information
stored on shared, on-line secondary storage devices,
as compared to magnetic tapes or other types of
magnetic disks

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

§ For Winchester disks, a disk crash or drive failure often

results in loss of entire stored data. It is not easy to
recover the lost data. Suitable backup procedures are
suggested for data stored on Winchester disks
§ Some types of magnetic disks, such as disk packs and
Winchester disks, are not so easily portable like
magnetic tapes
§ On a cost-per-bit basis, the cost of magnetic disks is
low, but the cost of magnetic tapes is even lower

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

§ Must be stored in a dust-free environment

§ Floppy disks, zip disks and disk packs should be
labeled properly to prevent erasure of useful data by
mistake

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Uses of Magnetic Disks
§ For applications that are based on random data

processing
§ As a shared on-line secondary storage device.
Winchester disks and disk packs are often used for
this purpose
§ As a backup device for off-line storage of data. Floppy
disks, zip disks, and disk packs are often used for this
purpose

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Uses of Magnetic Disks

§ Archiving of data not used frequently, but may be

used once in a while. Floppy disks, zip disks, and
disk packs are often used for this purpose
§ Transferring of data and programs from one
computer to another that are not linked together.
Floppy disks and zip disks are often used for this
purpose
§ Distribution of software by vendors. Originally sold
software or software updates are often distributed by
vendors on floppy disks and zip disks

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Optical Disk – Basics
§ Consists of a circular disk, which is coated with a thin

metal or some other material that is highly reflective
§ Laser beam technology is used for recording/reading
of data on the disk
§ Also known as laser disk / optical laser disk, due to
the use of laser beam technology
§ Proved to be a promising random access medium for
high capacity secondary storage because it can store
extremely large amounts of data in a limited space

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Optical Disk – Storage Organization
§ Has one long spiral track, which starts at the outer edge
and spirals inward to the center
§ Track is divided into equal size sectors
(a) Track pattern on an optical disk (b) Track pattern on a magnetic disk
Difference in track patterns on optical and magnetic disks.

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Optical Disk – Storage Capacity
Storage capacity of an optical disk
= Number of sectors
× Number of bytes per sector
The most popular optical disk uses a disk of 5.25 inch

diameter with storage capacity of around 650 Megabytes

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Optical Disk – Access Mechanism
Laser Laser
beam beam
source source
Prism Prism
Sensor Sensor
Laser beam gets Laser beam gets
scattered by a pit reflect by a land
(represents 0) (represents1)
Land Land
Pit Land
Pit Pit

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Optical Disk – Access Time
§ With optical disks, each sector has the same length

regardless of whether it is located near or away from
the disk’s center
§ Rotation speed of the disk must vary inversely with
the radius. Hence, optical disk drives use a constant
linear velocity (CLV) encoding scheme
§ Leads to slower data access time (larger access time)
for optical disks than magnetic disks
§ Access times for optical disks are typically in the
range of 100 to 300 milliseconds and that of hard
disks are in the range of 10 to 30 milliseconds

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Optical Disk Drive
§ Uses laser beam technology for reading/writing of data

§ Has no mechanical read/write access arm
§ Uses a constant linear velocity (CLV) encoding scheme,
in which the rotational speed of the disk varies inversely
with the radius

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Optical Disk Drive
Volume control button used

Light
when the drive is used to Optical disk
indicator
play a music CD
A headphone socket Is placed on

enables the user to top of this
plug-in head-phones groove
and listen to recorded Tray eject Direction of
sound when the drive button movement of
is used to play music the tray
CDs. Optical disk tray

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Types of Optical Disks
The types of optical disks in use today are:
CD-ROM
§ Stands for Compact Disk-Read Only Memory

§ Packaged as shiny, silver color metal disk of 5¼
inch (12cm) diameter, having a storage capacity of
about 650 Megabytes
§ Disks come pre-recorded and the information
stored on them cannot be altered
§ Pre-stamped (pre-recorded) by their suppliers, by a
process called mastering

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

§ Provide an excellent medium to distribute large

amounts of data in electronic dorm at low cost.
§ A single CD-ROM disk can hold a complete
encyclopedia, or a dictionary, or a world atlas, or
biographies of great people, etc
§ Used for distribution of electronic version of
conference proceedings, journals, magazines,
books, and multimedia applications such as video
games
§ Used by software vendors for distribution of
software to their customers

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
WORM Disk / CD-Recordable (CD-R)
§ Stands for Write Once Read Many. Data can be written

only once on them, but can be read many times
§ Same as CD-ROM and has same storage capacity
§ Allow users to create their own CD-ROM disks by using
a CD-recordable (CD-R) drive that can be attached to
a computer as a regular peripheral device
§ Data to be recorded can be written on its surface in
multiple recording sessions

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

§ Sessions after the first one are always additive

and cannot alter the etched/burned information of
earlier sessions
§ Information recorded on them can be read by any
ordinary CD-ROM drive
§ They are used for data archiving and for making a
permanent record of data. For example, many
banks use them for storing their daily transactions

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
CD-Read/Write (CD-RW)
§ Same as CD-R and has same storage capacity

§ Allow users to create their own CD-ROM disks by
using a CD-recordable (CD-R) drive that can be
attached to a computer as a regular peripheral
device
§ Data to be recorded can be written on its surface in
multiple recording sessions
§ Made of metallic alloy layer whose chemical
properties are changed during burn and erase
§ Can be erased and written afresh

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Digital Video / Versatile Disk (DVD)
§ Looks same as CD-ROM but has capacity of 4.7 GB or

8.5 GB
§ Designed primarily to store and distribute movies
§ Can be used for storage of large data
§ Allows storage of video in 4:3 or 16:9 aspect-ratios in
MPEG-2 video format using NTSC or PAL resolution
§ Audio is usually Dolby® Digital (AC-3) or Digital
Theater System (DTS) and can be either monaural or
5.1 Surround Sound

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Advantages of Optical Disks
§ The cost-per-bit of storage for optical disks is very low

because of their low cost and enormous storage density.
§ The use of a single spiral track makes optical disks an ideal
storage medium for reading large blocks of sequential data,
such as music.
§ Optical disk drives do not have any mechanical read/write
heads to rub against or crash into the disk surface. This
makes optical disks a more reliable storage medium than
magnetic tapes or magnetic disks.
§ Optical disks have a data storage life in excess of 30 years.
This makes them a better storage medium for data
archiving as compared to magnetic tapes or magnetic disks.

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Advantages of Optical Disks
§ As data once stored on an optical disk becomes

permanent, danger of stored data getting
inadvertently erased/overwritten is removed
§ Due to their compact size and light weight, optical
disks are easy to handle, store, and port from one
place to another
§ Music CDs can be played on a computer having a CD-
ROM drive along with a sound board and speakers.
This allows computer systems to be also used as
music systems

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Limitations of Optical Disks
§ It is largely read-only (permanent) storage medium.

Data once recorded, cannot be erased and hence the
optical disks cannot be reused
§ The data access speed for optical disks is slower than
magnetic disks
§ Optical disks require a complicated drive mechanism

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Uses of Optical Disks
§ For distributing large amounts of data at low cost

§ For distribution of electronic version of conference
proceedings, journals, magazines, books, product
catalogs, etc
§ For distribution of new or upgraded versions of
software products by software vendors

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Uses of Optical Disks

§ For storage and distribution of a wide variety of

multimedia applications
§ For archiving of data, which are not used frequently,
but which may be used once in a while
§ WORM disks are often used by end-user companies to
make permanent storage of their own proprietary
information

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Memory Storage Devices
Flash Drive (Pen Drive)
§ Relatively new secondary storage device based on

flash memory, enabling easy transport of data from
one computer to another
§ Compact device of the size of a pen, comes in
various shapes and stylish designs and may have
different added features
§ Plug-and-play device that simply plugs into a USB
(Universal Serial Bus) port of a computer, treated as
removable drive
§ Available storage capacities are 8MB, 16MB, 64MB,
128MB, 256MB, 512MB, 1GB, 2GB, 4GB, and 8GB

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Memory Storage Devices
Memory Card (SD/MMC)
§ Similar to Flash Drive but in card shape

§ Plug-and-play device that simply plugs into a port
of a computer, treated as removable drive
§ Useful in electronic devices like Camera, music
player
§ Available storage capacities are 8MB, 16MB, 64MB,
128MB, 256MB, 512MB, 1GB, 2GB, 4GB, and 8GB

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Mass Storage Devices
§ As the name implies, these are storage systems

having several trillions of bytes of data storage
capacity
§ They use multiple units of a storage media as a single
secondary storage device
§ The three commonly used types are:
1. Disk array, which uses a set of magnetic disks
2. Automated tape library, which uses a set of
magnetic tapes
3. CD-ROM Jukebox, which uses a set of CD-ROMs
§ They are relatively slow having average access times
in seconds

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Disk Array
§ Set of hard disks and hard disk drives with a

controller mounted in a single box, forming a single
large storage unit
§ It is commonly known as a RAID (Redundant Array
of Inexpensive Disks)
§ As a secondary storage device, provides enhanced
storage capacity, enhanced performance, and
enhanced reliability

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Disk Array
§ Enhanced storage capacity is achieved by using

multiple disks
§ Enhanced performance is achieved by using parallel
data transfer technique from multiple disks
§ Enhanced reliability is achieved by using techniques
such as mirroring or striping
§ In mirroring, the system makes exact copies of files
on two hard disks
§ In striping, a file is partitioned into smaller parts and
different parts of the file are stored on different disks

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
A RAID Unit
Multiple
disks
RAID Controller
Computer

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Automated Tape Library
§ Set of magnetic tapes and magnetic tape drives with

a controller mounted in a single box, forming a
single large storage unit
§ Large tape library can accommodate up to several
hundred high capacity magnetic tapes bringing the
storage capacity of the storage unit to several
terabytes
§ Typically used for data archiving and as on-line data
backup devices for automated backup in large
computer centers

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
CD-ROM Jukebox
§ Set of CD-ROMs and CD-ROM drives with a

controller mounted in a single box, forming a single
large storage unit
§ Large CD-ROM jukebox can accommodate up to
several hundred CD-ROM disks bringing the storage
capacity of the storage unit to several terabytes
§ Used for archiving read-only data in such
applications as on-line museums, on-line digital
libraries, on-line encyclopedia, etc

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Storage Hierarchy
As a single type of storage is not superior in speed of access, capacity, and
cost, most computer systems make use of a hierarchy of storage
technologies as shown below.
Smaller capacity, faster Cache Larger capacity,

access time, and higher memory slower access time,
cost per bit stored Main and lower cost per
memory bit stored
On-line, direct-access and
sequential-access secondary
storage device such as hard disk
Off-line, direct-access and sequential-access
secondary storage devices such as magnetic
tape, floppy disk, zip disk, WORM disk, etc.
Mass storage devices such as tape library, CD juke box, etc.

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Key Words/Phrases
§ Automated tape library § Floppy disk

§ Auxiliary memory § Hard disk
§ Block § Inter-block gap (IBG)
§ Blocking § Inter-record gap (IRG)
§ Blocking factory § Land
§ CD-ROM § Latency
§ CD-ROM jukebox § Magnetic disk
§ Check bit § Magnetic tape
§ Cylinder § Magnetic tape drive
§ Data transfer rate § Mass storage devices
§ Direct access device § Master file
§ Disk array § Odd parity
§ Disk controller § Off-line storage
§ Disk drive § On-line storage
§ Disk formatting § Optical disk
§ Disk pack § Parallel representation
§ DVD § Parity bit
§ Even parity § Pit
§ File Allocation Tube (FAT)

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Key Words/Phrases
§ QIC Standard
§ Record
§ Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks (RAID)
§ Secondary storage
§ Sector
§ Seek time
§ Sequential access device
§ Storage hierarchy
§ Tape controller
§ Track
§ Transaction file
§ Winchester disk
§ WORM disk
§ Zip disk

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Ref Page Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 1/58

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Learning Objectives
§ Input/Output (I/O) devices

§ Commonly used input devices
§ Commonly used output devices
§ Other concepts related to I/O devices
Ref Page 148 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 2/58

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
I/O Devices
§ Provide means of communication between a computer

and outer world
§ Also known as peripheral devices because they
surround the CPU and memory of a computer system
§ Input devices are used to enter data from the outside
world into primary storage
§ Output devices supply results of processing from
primary storage to users

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Role of I/O Devices
Input Results of
data CPU processing
Input Output
from and in human
Devices Devices
external Memory acceptable
world form
Input data coded Processed data

in internal form in internal form

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Commonly Used Input Devices
§ Keyboard devices
§ Point-and-draw devices
§ Data scanning devices
§ Digitizer
§ Electronic cards based devices
§ Speech recognition devices
§ Vision based devices

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Keyboard Devices
§ Allow data entry into a computer system by pressing a

set of keys (labeled buttons) neatly mounted on a
keyboard connected to a computer system
§ 101-keys QWERTY keyboard is most popular

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
The Layout of Keys on a
QWERTY Keyboard
Print Screen Scroll Screen Pause

Esc F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9 F10 F11 F12 Num Lock Caps Lock Scroll Lock
! @ # 3 $ % ^ & * ( ) _ + Page Up Num Lock

~
- ← Backspace Insert Home / * -
` 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 =
← Q W E R T Y U I O P { } |
Delete
Page Down 7 8 9
→ ↑
Tab [ ] \ End Pg Up
Home
A S : 4 6
Caps Lock D F G H J K L “ ← Enter 5
; ← →
‘
< > ? ? 1 2 3
Z X C V B N M Shift ↑
Shift , . / / End ↓ Pg Dn
Enter
0 .
Ctrl Alt Alt Ctrl ← ↓ → Ins
Del

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Point-and-Draw Devices
§ Used to rapidly point to and select a graphic icon or

menu item from multiple options displayed on the
Graphical User Interface (GUI) of a screen
§ Used to create graphic elements on the screen such as
lines, curves, and freehand shapes
§ Some commonly used point-and-draw devices are
mouse, track ball, joy stick, light pen, and touch screen

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Mouse
Commonly used in personal computers and workstations

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Trackball
Click buttons
Ball to be
rolled with
fingers
Commonly used in laptop (notebook) computers

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Joystick
Click button
Stick
Light
Ball
indicator Socket
Commonly used for video games, flight simulators,

training simulators, and for controlling industrial robots

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Electronic Pen
§ Pen-based point-and-draw device

§ Used to directly point with it on the screen to select
menu items or icons or directly draw graphics on the
screen
§ Can write with it on a special pad for direct input of
written information to a system
§ Pressure on tip of a side button is used to cause same
action as right-button-click of a mouse

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Touch Screen
§ Most simple, intuitive, and easiest to learn of all input

devices
§ Enables users to choose from available options by simply
touching with their finger the desired icon or menu item
displayed on the screen
§ Most preferred human-computer interface used in
information kiosks (unattended interactive information
systems such as automatic teller machine or ATM)

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Data Scanning Devices
§ Input devices that enable direct data entry into a computer

system from source documents
§ Eliminate the need to key in text data into the computer
§ Due to reduced human effort in data entry, they improve
data accuracy and also increase the timeliness of the
information processed
§ Demand high quality of input documents
§ Some data scanning devices are also capable of recognizing
marks or characters
§ Form design and ink specification usually becomes more
critical for accuracy

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Image Scanner
§ Input device that translates paper documents into an

electronic format for storage in a computer
§ Electronic format of a scanned image is its bit map
representation
§ Stored image can be altered or manipulated with an
image-processing software

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Two Common Types of Image Scanners
A flat-bed scanner A hand-held scanner

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Optical Character
Recognition (OCR) Device
§ Scanner equipped with a character recognition software

(called OCR software) that converts the bit map images
of characters to equivalent ASCII codes
§ Enables word processing of input text and also requires
less storage for storing the document as text rather than
an image
§ OCR software is extremely complex because it is difficult
to make a computer recognize an unlimited number of
typefaces and fonts
§ Two standard OCR fonts are OCR-A (American standard)
and OCR-B (European standard)

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
§ Scanner capable of recognizing a pre-specified type of

mark by pencil or pen
§ Very useful for grading tests with objective type
questions, or for any input data that is of a choice or
selection nature
§ Technique used for recognition of marks involves focusing
a light on the page being scanned and detecting the
reflected light pattern from the marks

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Sample Use of OMR

For each question, four options are given out of which only one is
correct. Choose the correct option and mark your choice against
the corresponding question number in the given answer sheet by
darkening the corresponding circle with a lead pencil.
1. The binary equivalent of decimal 4 is:

a) 101
b) 111
c) 001
d) 100
Indicates direction in which the
2. The full form of CPU is: sheet should be fed to the OMR
a) Cursor Positioning Unit
b) Central Power Unit 1.
c) Central Processing Unit a b c d
d) None of the above 2.
a b c d
3. Which is the largest unit of storage among the following:
a) Terabyte 3.
b) Kilobyte a b c d
c) Megabyte
d) Gigabyte (b) Pre-printed answer sheet
(a) Question sheet

A sample use of OMR for grading tests with objective type questions

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Bar-code Reader
§ Scanner used for reading (decoding) bar-coded

data
§ Bar codes represent alphanumeric data by a
combination of adjacent vertical lines (bars) by
varying their width and the spacing between them
§ Scanner uses laser-beam to stroke across pattern
of bar code. Different patterns of bars reflect the
beam in different ways sensed by a light-sensitive
detector
§ Universal Product Code (UPC) is the most widely
known bar coding system

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
An Example of UPC Bar Code
Product category character

0 – grocery products
3 – drugs and health related 0
products, etc.
21000 67520
Manufacturer/supplier
identification number Specific product code
number

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Magnetic-Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
§ MICR is used by banking industry for faster processing

of large volume of cheques
§ Bank’s identification code (name, branch, etc.), account
number and cheque number are pre-printed (encoded)
using characters from a special character set on all
cheques
§ Special ink is used that contains magnetizable particles
of iron oxide
§ MICR reader-sorter reads data on cheques and sorts
them for distribution to other banks or for further
processing

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
MICR Character Set (E13B Font)
§ It consists of numerals 0 to 9 and four special characters

§ MICR is not adopted by other industries because it supports only
14 symbols

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Digitizer
§ Input device used for converting (digitizing) pictures,

maps and drawings into digital form for storage in
computers
§ Commonly used in the area of Computer Aided
Design (CAD) by architects and engineers to design
cars, buildings medical devices, robots, mechanical
parts, etc.
§ Used in the area of Geographical Information System
(GIS) for digitizing maps available in paper form

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
A Digitizer
Digitizing tablet
Stylus in the form
of cross-hair cursor
Table top

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Electronic-card Reader
§ Electronic cards are small plastic cards having encoded

data appropriate for the application for which they are
used
§ Electronic-card reader (normally connected to a
computer) is used to read data encoded on an
electronic card and transfer it to the computer for
further processing
§ Used together as a means of direct data entry into a
computer system
§ Used by banks for use in automatic teller machines
(ATMs) and by organizations for controlling access of
employees to physically secured areas

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Speech Recognition Devices
§ Input device that allows a person to input data to a

computer system by speaking to it
§ Today’s speech recognition systems are limited to
accepting few words within a relatively small
domain and can be used to enter only limited kinds
and quantities of data

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Types of Speech Recognition Systems

§ Single word recognition systems can recognize only a

single spoken words, such as YES, NO, MOVE, STOP, at
a time. Speaker-independent systems are mostly of
this type
§ Continuous speech recognition systems can recognize
spoken sentences, such as MOVE TO THE NEXT
BLOCK. Such systems are normally speaker-
dependent

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Uses of Speech Recognition Systems
§ For inputting data to a computer system by a person in

situations where his/her hands are busy, or his/her eyes
must be fixed on a measuring instrument or some other
object
§ For data input by dictation of long text or passage for
later editing and review
§ For authentication of a user by a computer system based
on voice input
§ For limited use of computers by individuals with physical
disabilities

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Vision-Input Systems
§ Allow computer to accept input just by seeing an object.

§ Input data is normally an object’s shape and features in
the form of an image
§ Mainly used today in factories for designing industrial
robots that are used for quality-control and assembly
processes

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Commonly Used Output Devices
§ Monitors
§ Printers
§ Plotters
§ Screen image projector
§ Voice response systems

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Types of Output
§ Soft-copy output
§ Not produced on a paper or some material that can be touched
and carried for being shown to others
§ Temporary in nature and vanish after use
§ Examples are output displayed on a terminal screen or spoken out
by a voice response system
§ Hard-copy output
§ Produced on a paper or some material that can be touched and
carried for being shown to others
§ Permanent in nature and can be kept in paper files or can be
looked at a later time when the person is not using the computer
§ Examples are output produced by printers or plotters on paper

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Monitors
§ Monitors are the most popular output devices used for

producing soft-copy output
§ Display the output on a television like screen
§ Monitor associated with a keyboard is called a video
display terminal (VDT). It is the most popular I/O
device

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Monitors
Monitor
Keyboard
A video display terminal consists of a monitor and a keyboard

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Types of Monitors
§ Cathode-ray-tube (CRT) monitors look like a television

and are normally used with non-portable computer
systems
§ Flat-panel monitors are thinner and lighter and are
commonly used with portable computer systems like
notebook computers. Now they are also used with non-
portable desktop computer systems because they
occupy less table space.

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Printers
Most common output devices for producing hard-copy

output

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Dot-Matrix Printers
§ Character printers that form characters and all kinds of

images as a pattern of dots
§ Print many special characters, different sizes of print and
graphics such as charts and graphs
§ Impact printers can be used for generating multiple copies
by using carbon paper or its equivalent
§ Slow, with speeds usually ranging between 30 to 600
characters per second
§ Cheap in both initial cost and cost of operation

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Formation of Characters as a pattern of dots
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNO
PQRSTUVWXYZ
0123456789-.,
&/$*#%@=(+)

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
A Dot Matrix Printer

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Inkjet Printers
§ Character printers that form characters and all kinds of

images by spraying small drops of ink on to the paper
§ Print head contains up to 64 tiny nozzles that can be
selectively heated up in a few micro seconds by an
integrated circuit register
§ To print a character, the printer selectively heats the
appropriate set of nozzles as the print head moves
horizontally
§ Can print many special characters, different sizes of print,
and graphics such as charts and graphs

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Inkjet Printers
§ Non-impact printers. Hence, they cannot produce

multiple copies of a document in a single printing
§ Can be both monochrome and color
§ Slower than dot-matrix printers with speeds usually
ranging between 40 to 300 characters per second
§ More expensive than a dot-matrix printer

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
An Inkjet Printers

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Drum Printers
§ Line printers that print one line at a time

§ Have a solid cylindrical drum with characters embossed
on its surface in the form of circular bands
§ Set of hammers mounted in front of the drum in such a
manner that an inked ribbon and paper can be placed
between the hammers and the drum
§ Can only print a pre-defined set of characters in a pre-
defined style that is embossed on the drum
§ Impact printers and usually monochrome
§ Typical speeds are in the range of 300 to 2000 lines per
minute

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Printing Mechanism of a Drum Printer
Hammers (one for each band)

Paper
Ribbon
WW W WWWWWWWWWWW
V V V V V V V V V V VV V V
Solid U U U U U U U U U U U U U U
cylindrical T T T T T T T T T T T T T T
S S S S S S S S S S S S S S
drum with R R R R R R R R R R R R R R
embossed QQ Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q
characters P P P P P P P P P P P P P P
O O O O O O O O O O O O O O
N N N N N N N N N N NN N N
Total number of bands is equal to the maximum

number of characters (print positions) on a line

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Chain/Band Printers
§ Line printers that print one line at a time

§ Consist of a metallic chain/band on which all
characters of the character set supported by the
printer are embossed
§ Also have a set of hammers mounted in front of
the chain/band in such a manner that an inked
ribbon and paper can be placed between the
hammers and the chain/band

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Chain/Band Printers
§ Can only print pre-defined sets of characters that

are embossed on the chain/band used with the
printer
§ Cannot print any shape of characters, different
sizes of print, and graphics such as charts and
graphs
§ Are impact printers and can be used for generating
multiple copies by using carbon paper or its
equivalent
§ Are usually monochrome
§ Typical speeds are in the range of 400 to 3000
lines per minute

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Laser Printers
§ Page printers that print one page at a time

§ Consist of a laser beam source, a multi-sided mirror, a
photoconductive drum and toner (tiny particles of oppositely
charged ink)
§ To print a page, the laser beam is focused on the electro
statically charged drum by the spinning multi-sided mirror
§ Toner sticks to the drum in the places the laser beam has
charged the drum’s surface.
§ Toner is then permanently fused on the paper with heat and
pressure to generate the printer output
§ Laser printers produce very high quality output having
resolutions in the range of 600 to 1200 dpi

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Laser Printers
§ Can print many special characters, different sizes of

print, and graphics such as charts and graphs
§ Are non-impact printers
§ Most laser printers are monochrome, but color laser
printers are also available
§ Low speed laser printers can print 4 to 12 pages per
minute. Very high-speed laser printers can print 500
to 1000 pages per minute
§ More expensive than other printers

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
A Laser Printers

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Plotters
§ Plotters are an ideal output device for architects,

engineers, city planners, and others who need to
routinely generate high-precision, hard-copy graphic
output of widely varying sizes
§ Two commonly used types of plotters are:
– Drum plotter, in which the paper on which the
design has to be made is placed over a drum that
can rotate in both clockwise and anti-clockwise
directions
– Flatbed plotter, in which the paper on which the
design has to be made is spread and fixed over a
rectangular flatbed table

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
A Drum Plotter
Paper
Design drawn
on the paper

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
A Flatbed Plotter
Design
drawn on
the paper
Paper

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Screen Image Projector
§ An output device that can be directly plugged to a

computer system for projecting information from a
computer on to a large screen
§ Useful for making presentations to a group of people
with direct use of a computer
§ Full-fledged multimedia presentation with audio,
video, image, and animation can be prepared and
made using this facility

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Voice Response Systems
§ Voice response system enables a computer to talk to

a user
§ Has an audio-response device that produces audio
output
§ Such systems are of two types:
§ Voice reproduction systems
§ Speech synthesizers

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Voice Reproduction Systems

§ Produce audio output by selecting an appropriate

audio output from a set of pre-recorded audio
responses
§ Applications include audio help for guiding how
to operate a system, automatic answering
machines, video games, etc.

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Speech Synthesizers
§ Converts text information into spoken sentences

§ Used for applications such as:
§ Reading out text information to blind persons
§ Allowing those persons who cannot speak to
communicate effectively
§ Translating an entered text into spoken words in
a selected language

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Key Words/Phrases
§ Bard code reader § Information Kiosk

§ Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) § Inkjet printer
§ Chain/Band printer § Input/Output device
§ Data scanning device § Joystick
§ Digitizer § Keyboard device
§ Digitizing tablet § Laser printer
§ Dot-Matrix printer § Magnetic-Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
§ Drum plotter § Monitor
§ Drum printer § Mouse
§ Electronic card reader § Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
§ Electronic Pen § Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
§ Flatbed plotter § Peripheral device
§ Flatbed Scanner § Phonemes
§ Graphical User Interface § Plotter
§ Hand-held scanner § Point-and-draw device
§ Hard-copy output § Printer
§ Image Scanner § QWERTY keyboard
§ Screen Image Projector

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Key Words/Phrases
§ Soft-copy output
§ Speech synthesizer
§ Stylus
§ Touch Screen
§ Trackball
§ Universal Product Code (UPC)
§ Video Display Terminal (VDT)
§ Vision-input system
§ Voice recognition device
§ Voice reproduction system
§ Voice response system

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Ref Page Chapter 10: Computer Software Slide 1/17

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Learning Objectives
§ Term “Software” and its relationship with “Hardware”

§ Various types of software and their examples
§ Relationship among hardware, system software,
application software, and users of a computer system
§ Different ways of acquiring software
§ Various steps involved in software development
§ Firmware
§ Middleware
Ref Page 172 Chapter 10: Computer Software Slide 2/17

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Software
§ Hardware refers to the physical devices of a

computer system.
§ Software refers to a collection of programs
§ Program is a sequence of instructions written in a
language that can be understood by a computer
§ Software package is a group of programs that solve
a specific problem or perform a specific type of job

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Relationship Between Hardware and

Software
§ Both hardware and software are necessary for a

computer to do useful job. They are complementary
to each other
§ Same hardware can be loaded with different software
to make a computer system perform different types
of jobs
§ Except for upgrades, hardware is normally a one-
time expense, whereas software is a continuing
expense
§ Upgrades refer to renewing or changing components
like increasing the main memory, or hard disk
capacities, or adding speakers, modems, etc.

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Types of Software
Most software can be divided into two major categories:

§ System software are designed to control the
operation and extend the processing capability of a
computer system
§ Application software are designed to solve a
specific problem or to do a specific task

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
System Software
§ Make the operation of a computer system more effective

and efficient
§ Help hardware components work together and provide

support for the development and execution of application
software
§ Programs included in a system software package are

called system programs and programmers who
prepare them are called system programmers
§ Examples of system software are operating systems,

programming language translators, utility programs, and
communications software

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Application Software
§ Solve a specific problem or do a specific task

§ Programs included in an application software
package are called application programs and the
programmers who prepare them are called
application programmers
§ Examples of application software are word
processing, inventory management, preparation of
tax returns, banking, etc.

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Logical System Architecture
HARDWARE
(Physical devices/components
of the computer system)
SYSTEM SOFTWARE
(Software that constitute the operating and
programming environment of the computer system)
APPLICATION SOFTWARE
(Software that do a specific task or solve a specific problem)
USERS
(Normally interact with the system via the user
interface provided by the application software)
Relationship among hardware, system software, application software, and users of a

computer system.

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Ways of Acquiring Software
§ Buying pre-written software

§ Ordering customized software
§ Developing customized software
§ Downloading public-domain software
Each of these ways of acquiring software has its own

advantages and limitations

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Advantages and Limitations of
Buying Pre-written Software
§ Usually costs less

§ Planned activity can be stared almost immediately
§ Often, operating efficiency and the capability to meet
specific needs of user more effectively in not as good
for pre-written software packages as for in-house
developed software packages

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Advantages & Limitations of Ordering

Customized Software
§ User need not maintain its own software development team,

which is an expensive affair
§ User needs to always depend on the vendor for carrying out
the changes and the vendor may separately charge for
every request for change

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Advantages & Limitations of Developing

Customized Software
§ Easier to carry out changes in the software, if it is

developed in-house
§ Developing software in-house means a major
commitment of time, money, and resources
§ In-house software development team needs to be
maintained and managed

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Advantage & Limitations of Downloading

Public-domain Software
§ Available for free or as shareware, and are usually accompanied

with source code
§ Usually community-supported as author does not support users
directly
§ Can be downloaded and used immediately
§ They may not be properly tested before release
§ Open Source Software (OSS) are becoming popular due to:
§ Allows any user to download, view, modify, and redistribute
§ User can fix bugs or change software to suit needs
§ Copyright is protected for both original and subsequent
authors
§ Not all open source software are free and vise-verse

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Software Development Steps
Developing a software and putting it to use is a complex

process and involves following steps:
§ Analyzing the problem at hand and planning the
program(s) to solve the problem
§ Coding the program(s)
§ Testing, debugging, and documenting the program(s)
§ Implementing the program(s)
§ Evaluating and maintaining the program(s)

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Firmware
§ Firmware is software substituted for hardware and stored

in read-only memory
§ Firmware technology has enabled production of various
types of smart machines having microprocessor chips
with embedded software

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Middleware
§ Basic idea is to have a separate software layer to:

§ Act as “glue” between client and server parts of
application
§ Provide programming abstraction
§ Mask heterogeneity of underlying network, hardware,
and OS
§ Encourages three-tier software architecture against two-
tier popularized by Server-Client architecture

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Key Words/Phrases
§ Application programmers § Pre-written software

§ Application programs § Public-domain software
§ Application software § Shareware
§ Computer program § Software
§ Customized software § Software package
§ Database § Spreadsheet
§ Education software § System programmers
§ End-to-end solution § System programs
§ Entertainment software § System software
§ Firmware § Turnkey solution
§ Graphics software § User-supported
§ Hardware software
§ Middleware § Utilities
§ Open Source Software § Word-processing
§ Personal assistance software

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Ref Page Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program Slide 1/44
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Learning Objectives
§ Programs must be planned before they are written

§ Algorithm
§ Flowchart
§ Pseudocode
§ Plan the logic of a computer program
§ Commonly used tools for program planning and
their use
Ref Page 183 Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program Slide 2/44
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Purpose of Program Planning
§ To write a correct program, a programmer must write

each and every instruction in the correct sequence
§ Logic (instruction sequence) of a program can be very
complex
§ Hence, programs must be planned before they are
written to ensure program instructions are:
§ Appropriate for the problem
§ In the correct sequence
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Algorithm
§ Refers to the logic of a program and a step-by-step

description of how to arrive at the solution of a given
problem
§ In order to qualify as an algorithm, a sequence of
instructions must have following characteristics:
§ Each and every instruction should be precise and
unambiguous
§ Each instruction should be such that it can be performed in
a finite time
§ One or more instructions should not be repeated infinitely.
This ensures that the algorithm will ultimately terminate
§ After performing the instructions, that is after the algorithm
terminates, the desired results must be obtained
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Sample Algorithm (Example 1)
There are 50 students in a class who appeared in their

final examination. Their mark sheets have been given to
you.
The division column of the mark sheet contains the

division (FIRST, SECOND, THIRD or FAIL) obtained by the
student.
Write an algorithm to calculate and print the total number

of students who passed in FIRST division.
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

(contd…)
Step 1: Initialize Total_First_Division and
Total_Marksheets_Checked to zero.
Step 2: Take the mark sheet of the next student.
Step 3: Check the division column of the mark sheet to see if it is

FIRST, if no, go to Step 5.
Step 4: Add 1 to Total_First_Division.
Step 5: Add 1 to Total_Marksheets_Checked.
Step 6: Is Total_Marksheets_Checked = 50, if no, go to Step 2.
Step 7: Print Total_First_Division.
Step 8: Stop.
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
There are 100 employees in an organization. The organization

wants to distribute annual bonus to the employees based on their
performance. The performance of the employees is recorded in
their annual appraisal forms.
Every employee’s appraisal form contains his/her basic salary and
the grade for his/her performance during the year. The grade is of
three categories – ‘A’ for outstanding performance, ‘B’ for good
performance, and ‘C’ for average performance.
It has been decided that the bonus of an employee will be 100% of
the basic salary for outstanding performance, 70% of the basic
salary for good performance, 40% of the basic salary for average
performance, and zero for all other cases.
Write an algorithm to calculate and print the total bonus amount to
be distributed by the organization.
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Step 1: Initialize Total_Bonus and Total_Employees_Checked to zero. (contd…)
Step 2: Initialize Bonus and Basic_Salary to zero.
Step 3: Take the appraisal form of the next employee.
Step 4: Read the employee’s Basic_Salary and Grade.
Step 5: If Grade = A, then Bonus = Basic_Salary. Go to Step 8.
Step 6: If Grade = B, then Bonus = Basic_Salary x 0.7. Go to Step 8.
Step 7: If Grade = C, then Bonus = Basic_Salary x 0.4.
Step 8: Add Bonus to Total_Bonus.
Step 9: Add 1 to Total_Employees_Checked.
Step 10: If Total_Employees_Checked < 100, then go to Step 2.
Step 11: Print Total_Bonus.
Step 12: Stop.
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Representation of Algorithms
§ As programs
§ As flowcharts
§ As pseudocodes
When an algorithm is represented in the form of a

programming language, it becomes a program
Thus, any program is an algorithm, although the

reverse is not true
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Flowchart
§ Flowchart is a pictorial representation of an algorithm

§ Uses symbols (boxes of different shapes) that have
standardized meanings to denote different types of
instructions
§ Actual instructions are written within the boxes
§ Boxes are connected by solid lines having arrow marks to
indicate the exact sequence in which the instructions are
to be executed
§ Process of drawing a flowchart for an algorithm is called
flowcharting
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Basic Flowchart Symbols
Terminal Input/Output Processing
Decision Flow lines Connectors
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Examples of Decision Symbol
No A<B Compare A>B

Is I = 10?
A&B
Yes A=B
(a) A two-way branch decision. (b) A three-way branch decision.
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Examples of Decision Symbol

(contd…)
I=?
=0 =1 =2 =3 =4 =5 = Other
(c) A multiple-way branch decision.
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Sample Flowchart (Example 3)
A student appears in an examination, which consists of

total 10 subjects, each subject having maximum marks
of 100.
The roll number of the student, his/her name, and the
marks obtained by him/her in various subjects are
supplied as input data.
Such a collection of related data items, which is treated
as a unit is known as a record.
Draw a flowchart for the algorithm to calculate the
percentage marks obtained by the student in this
examination and then to print it along with his/her roll
number and name.
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Start (contd…)
Read input data
Add marks of all

subjects giving Total
Percentage = Total / 10
Write output data
Stop
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
50 students of a class appear in the examination of

Example 3.
Draw a flowchart for the algorithm to calculate and print
the percentage marks obtained by each student along
with his/her roll number and name.
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Start (contd…)
Read input data
Flowchart for the solution

Add marks of all
of Example 4 with an
infinite (endless) process
loop.
Write output data
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Start (contd…)
Count = 0
Read input data
Add marks of all subjects giving Total
Percentage = Total/10
Write output data

Flowchart for the solution
Add 1 to Count
of Example 4.
No
Is Count = 50?
Yes
Stop
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Start (contd…)
Read input data
Yes
Is Rollno = 0000000?
Generalized flowchart
No for the solution of
Add marks of all subjects Example 4 using the
Stop
giving Total concept of trailer
record. Here the
process loop is
Percentage = Total / 10 terminated by detecting
a special non-data
record.
Write output data
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
For the examination of Example 3, we want to make a

list of only those students who have passed (obtained
30% or more marks) in the examination.
In the end, we also want to print out the total number of
students who have passed.
Assuming that the input data of all the students is
terminated by a trailer record, which has sentinel value
of 9999999 for Rollno, draw a flowchart for the
algorithm to do this.
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Start (contd…)
Count = 0
Read input data
Yes
Is Rollno = 9999999?
No Write Count
Add marks of all subjects giving Total Stop
Percentage = Total/10
Is Percentage = > 30?

No
Yes
Write output data
Add 1 to Count
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Suppose the input data of each student for the examination of

Example 3 also contains information regarding the sex of the
candidate in the field named Sexcode having values M (for
male) or F (for female).
We want to make a list of only those female students who have
passed in second division (obtained 45% or more but less than
60% marks).
In the end, we also want to print out the total number of such
students.
Assuming that the input data of all the students is terminated
by a trailer record, which has a sentinel value of Z for Sexcode,
draw a flowchart for the algorithm to do this.
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Start
Count = 0
1 Read input data
Yes 2
Is Sexcode = Z?
No
1 No Is Sexcode = F?
Yes
Add marks of all subjects giving Total
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

(contd…)
3
No
1 Is Percentage = > 45?
Yes
2
No
1 Is Percentage < 60?
Write Count
Yes
Write output data
Stop
Add 1 to Count
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Levels of Flowchart
§ Flowchart that outlines the main segments of a program

or that shows less details is a macro flowchart
§ Flowchart with more details is a micro flowchart, or

detailed flowchart
§ There are no set standards on the amount of details that

should be provided in a flowchart
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Example of Micro Flowchart
Part of a macro 1
flowchart
I=1 A micro
Flowchart
Total = 0
Total = Total + Marks (I)

Add marks of all
I=I+1
No
Is I > 10?
Yes
1
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Flowcharting Rules
§ First chart the main line of logic, then incorporate detail
§ Maintain a consistent level of detail for a given flowchart
§ Do not chart every detail of the program. A reader who is

interested in greater details can refer to the program itself
§ Words in the flowchart symbols should be common

statements and easy to understand
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Flowcharting Rules
(contd…)
§ Be consistent in using names and variables in the
flowchart
§ Go from left to right and top to bottom in

constructing flowcharts
§ Keep the flowchart as simple as possible. Crossing of

flow lines should be avoided as far as practicable
§ If a new flowcharting page is needed, it is

recommended that the flowchart be broken at an
input or output point.
§ Properly labeled connectors should be used to link

the portions of the flowchart on different pages
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Advantages of Flowchart
§ Better Communication
§ Proper program documentation
§ Efficient coding
§ Systematic debugging
§ Systematic testing
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Limitations of Flowchart
§ Flowcharts are very time consuming and laborious to

draw (especially for large complex programs)
§ Redrawing a flowchart for incorporating changes/
modifications is a tedious task
§ There are no standards determining the amount of detail
that should be included in a flowchart
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Pseudocode
§ A program planning tool where program logic is written in

an ordinary natural language using a structure that
resembles computer instructions
§ “ Pseudo” means imitation or false and “ Code” refers to

the instructions written in a programming language.
Hence, pseudocode is an imitation of actual computer
instructions
§ Because it emphasizes the design of the program,

pseudocode is also called Program Design Language
(PDL)
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Basic Logic (Control) Structures
Any program logic can be expressed by using only

following three simple logic structures:
1. Sequence logic,
2. Selection logic, and
3. Iteration (or looping) logic
Programs structured by using only these three logic

structures are called structured programs, and the
technique of writing such programs is known as
structured programming
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Sequence Logic
It is used for performing instructions one after another

in sequence.
Process 1
Process 1
Process 2
Process 2
(a) Flowchart (b) Pseudocode
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Selection Logic
• Also known as decision logic, it is used for making

decisions
• Three popularly used selection logic structures are

1. IF…THEN…ELSE
2. IF…THEN
3. CASE
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Selection Logic (IF…THEN…ELSE Structure)
Yes No IF Condition
IF (condition)
THEN Process 1
THEN ELSE ELSE Process 2
Process 1 Process 2
ENDIF
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Selection Logic (IF…THEN Structure)
Yes No
IF (condition)
IF Condition
THEN
THEN Process 1
Process 1
ENDIF
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Selection Logic (CASE Structure)
Yes
Type 1 Process 1
No
Yes
Type 2 Process 2 CASE Type
Case Type 1: Process 1

No
Case Type 2: Process 2
Yes
Type n Process n
Case Type n: Process n
No
ENDCASE
(a) Flowchart
(b) Pseudocode
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Iteration (or Looping) Logic
§ Used to produce loops in program logic when one or

more instructions may be executed several times
depending on some conditions
§ Two popularly used iteration logic structures are
1. DO…WHILE
2. REPEAT…UNTIL
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
(DO…WHILE Structure)
False
Condition?
True
Process 1 DO WHILE Condition
Process 1
Block
Process n
Process n ENDDO
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

(REPEAT…UNTIL Structure)
Process 1
REPEAT
Process 1
Process n
Process n
False
Condition? UNTIL Condition
True
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Sample Pseudocode (for Example 6)
Set Count to zero

Read first student record
DO WHILE Sexcode is not equal to Z
IF Sexcode = F THEN
Calculate Percentage
IF Percentage = > 45 THEN
IF Percentage < 60 THEN
Write output data
Add 1 to Count
ENDIF
ENDIF
ENDIF
Read next student record
ENDDO
Write Count
Stop
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Advantages of Pseudocode
§ Converting a pseudocode to a programming language

is much more easier than converting a flowchart to a
programming language
§ As compared to a flowchart, it is easier to modify the

pseudocode of a program logic when program
modifications are necessary
§ Writing of pseudocode involves much less time and

effort than drawing an equivalent flowchart as it has
only a few rules to follow
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Limitations of Pseudocode
§ In case of pseudocode, a graphic representation of

program logic is not available
§ There are no standard rules to follow in using

pseudocode
§ Different programmers use their own style of writing

pseudocode and hence communication problem
occurs due to lack of standardization
§ For a beginner, it is more difficult to follow the logic

of or write pseudocode, as compared to flowcharting
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Key Words/Phrases
§ Algorithm
§ Basic logic structures
§ Control structures
§ Flowchart
§ Iteration logic
§ Looping logic
§ Micro flowchart
§ Macro flowchart
§ Pseudocode
§ Program Design Language (PDL)
§ Sequence logic
§ Selection logic
§ Sentinel value
§ Structured programming
§ Trailer record
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Ref Page Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 1/59

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Learning Objectives

§ Computer languages or programming languages
§ Three broad categories of programming languages –
machine, assembly, and high-level languages
§ Commonly used programming language tools such as
assembler, compiler, linker, and interpreter
§ Concepts of object-oriented programming languages
§ Some popular programming languages such as
FORTRAN, COBOL, BASIC, Pascal, C, C++, C#, Java,
RPG, LISP and SNOBOL
§ Related concepts such as Subprogram, Characteristics of
a good programming language, and factors to consider
while selecting a language for coding an application
Ref Page 208 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 2/59

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Broad Classification of
Computer Languages
§ Machine language
§ Assembly language
§ High-level language

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Machine Language
§ Only language of a computer understood by it

without using a translation program
§ Normally written as strings of binary 1s and 0s
§ Written using decimal digits if the circuitry of
the computer being used permits this

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
A Typical Machine Language
Instruction Format
OPCODE OPERAND
(operation code) (Address/Location)
§ OPCODE tells the computer which operation to perform

from the instruction set of the computer
§ OPERAND tells the address of the data on which the
operation is to be performed

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
A Sample Machine Language Program
001000000000001100111001 10001471
001100000000010000100001 14002041
011000000000011100101110 30003456
101000111111011100101110 50773456
000000000000000000000000 00000000
In Binary In Decimal
(Difficult to read and understand) (Easier to read and understand)

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Advantages & Limitations of

Machine Language
Advantage
§ Can be executed very fast
Limitations
§ Machine Dependent
§ Difficult to program
§ Error prone
§ Difficult to modify

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Assembly/Symbolic Language
Programming language that overcomes the limitations of machine

language programming by:
§ Using alphanumeric mnemonic codes instead of numeric codes for

the instructions in the instruction set
e.g. using ADD instead of 1110 (binary) or 14 (decimal) for
instruction to add
§ Allowing storage locations to be represented in form of alphanumeric
addresses instead of numeric addresses
e.g. representing memory locations 1000, 1001, and 1002 as FRST,
SCND, and ANSR respectively
§ Providing pseudo-instructions that are used for instructing the
system how we want the program to be assembled inside the
computer’s memory
e.g. START PROGRAM AT 0000; SET ASIDE AN ADRESS FOR FRST

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Assembler
§ Software that translates as assembly language

program into an equivalent machine language program
of a computer
Assembly Input Output Machine

language language
Assembler program
program
One-to-one correspondence
(Source Program) (Object Program)

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
An Example of Assembly
Language Program
Mnemonic Opcode Meaning
HLT 00 Halt, used at the end of program to stop

CLA 10 Clear and add into A register
ADD 14 Add to the contents of A register
SUB 15 Subtract from the contents of A register
STA 30 Store A register
A subset of the set of instructions supported by a computer

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Language Program
START PROGRAM AT 0000

START DATA AT 1000
SET ASIDE AN ADDRESS FOR FRST
SET ASIDE AN ADDRESS FOR SCND
SET ASIDE AN ADDRESS FOR ANSR
CLA FRST
ADD SCND
STA ANSR
HLT
Sample assembly language program for adding two numbers and

storing the result

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Language Program
Symbolic name Memory location
FRST 1000
SCND 1001
ANSR 1002
Mapping table set up by the assembler for the data items

of the assembly language program

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Language Program
Memory Contents Comments

location
Opcode Address
0000 10 1000 Clear and add the number stored at FRST to A register
0001 14 1001 Add the number stored at SCND to the contents of A
register
0002 30 1002 Store the contents of A register into ANSR
0003 00 Halt
-
-
-
1000 Reserved for FRST
1001 Reserved for SCND
1002 Reserved for ANSR
Equivalent machine language program for the assembly language program

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Advantages of Assembly Language

Over Machine Language
§ Easier to understand and use

§ Easier to locate and correct errors
§ Easier to modify
§ No worry about addresses
§ Easily relocatable
§ Efficiency of machine language

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Limitations of Assembly Language
§ Machine dependent
§ Knowledge of hardware required
§ Machine level coding

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Typical Uses of Assembly Language
§ Mainly used today to fine-tune important parts of

programs written in a high-level language to improve
the program’s execution efficiency

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Assembly Languages with
Macro Instructions
§ Any assembly language instruction that gets translated

into several machine language instructions is called a
macro instruction
§ Several assembly languages support such macro
instructions to speed up the coding process
§ Assemblers of such assembly languages are designed to
produce multiple machine language instructions for each
macro instruction of the assembly language

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
High-Level Languages
§ Machine independent
§ Do not require programmers to know anything about the
internal structure of computer on which high-level
language programs will be executed
§ Deal with high-level coding, enabling the programmers
to write instructions using English words and familiar
mathematical symbols and expressions

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Compiler
§ Translator program (software) that translates a high-

level language program into its equivalent machine
language program
§ Compiles a set of machine language instructions for
every program instruction in a high-level language

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Compiler
High-level Input Output Machine

language Compiler language
program program
One-to-many correspondence
(Source (Object
Program) Program)

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Compiler
Program P1 in
Compiler for
high-level Machine code
language L1
language L1 for P1
Program P2 in Compiler for

high-level language L2 Machine code
language L2 for P2
A computer supporting languages L1 and L2
Illustrating the requirement of a separate compiler for each

high-level language supported by a computer

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Compiler
Compiler for
language L1 Machine code for Executed on
on computer A P1 that will run computer A
on computer A
Program P1 in high-
level language L1 Same results
obtained
Compiler for Machine code for

language L1 Executed on
P1 that will run on
on computer B computer B
computer B
Illustrating the machine independence characteristic of a

high-level language. Separate compilers are required for the
same language on different computers

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Syntax Errors
In addition to doing translation job, compilers also

automatically detect and indicate syntax errors
Syntax errors are typically of following types:
§ Illegal characters
§ Illegal combination of characters
§ Improper sequencing of instructions in a program
§ Use of undefined variable names
Note : A compiler cannot detect logic errors in a program

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
The Process of Removing Syntax Errors

From A Source Program
START
Edit
source program
Source program
Compile
source program
Syntax
errors No Generate
detected? object program
Yes Object program

Generate list of coded STOP
error messages

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Linker
§ For a large software, storing all the lines of program

code in a single source file will be:
– Difficult to work with

– Difficult to deploy multiple programmers to
concurrently work towards its development
– Any change in the source program would require the
entire source program to be recompiled
§ Hence, a modular approach is generally adapted to

develop large software where the software consists of
multiple source program files
§ No need to write programs for some modules as it might
be available in library offering the same functionality

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Linker
§ Each source program file can be independently

modified and compiled to create a corresponding
object program file
§ Linker program (software) is used to properly
combine all the object program files (modules)
§ Creates the final executable program (load module)

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Interpreter
§ Interpreter is a high-level language translator

§ Takes one statement of a high-level language
program, translates it into machine language
instructions
§ Immediately executes the resulting machine language
instructions
§ Compiler simply translates the entire source program
into an object program and is not involved in its
execution

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Role of an Interpreter
Interpreter
(translates and
High-level language executes
program Input Output Result of
statement-by-
(Source Program) program
statement)
execution

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Intermediate Language Compiler &
Interpreter
§ New type of compiler and interpreter combines the

speed, ease, and control of both compiler and
interpreter
§ Compiler first compiles the source program to an
intermediate object program
§ Intermediate object program is not a machine
language code but written in an intermediate
language that is virtually machine independent
§ Interpreter takes intermediate object program,
converts it into machine language program and
executes it

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Benefits of Intermediate Language
Compiler & Interpreter
§ Intermediate object program is in compiled form and thus is

not original source code, so safer and easier to share
§ Intermediate object program is based on a standard
Intermediate Definition Language (IDL)
§ Interpreter can be written for any computer architecture and
operating system providing virtual machine environment to the
executing program
§ Newer Interpreter compiles intermediate program, in memory,
into final host machine language program and executes it
§ This technique is called Just-In-Time (JIT) Compilation

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Advantages of High-Level Languages
§ Machine independent
§ Easier to learn and use
§ Fewer errors during program development
§ Lower program preparation cost
§ Better documentation
§ Easier to maintain

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Limitations of High-Level Languages
§ Lower execution efficiency

§ Less flexibility to control the computer’s CPU, memory
and registers

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Object-Oriented Programming Languages
§ Programming languages are used for simulating real-

world problems on computers
§ Much of the real world is made up of objects
§ Essence of OOP is to solve a problem by:
§ Identifying the real-world objects of the problem
§ Identifying processing required of them
§ Creating simulations of objects, processes, and their
communications

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
FORTRAN
§ Stands for FORmula TRANslation

§ Originally developed by John Backus and his team at
IBM followed by several revisions
§ Standardized by ANSI as FORTRAN-77 and FORTRAN-90
§ Designed for solving scientific & engineering problems
§ Oriented towards solving problems of a mathematical
nature
§ Popular language amongst scientists and engineers

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
A Sample FORTRAN Program
C FORTRAN PROGRAM TO COMPUTE

C THE SUM OF 10 NUMBERS
SUM = 0
DO 50 I = 1, 10
READ (5, 10) N
SUM = SUM + N
50 CONTINUE
WRITE (6, 20) SUM
10 FORMAT (F6.2)
20 FORMAT (1X, ’THE SUM OF GIVEN NUMBERS = ’,
F10.2)
STOP
END

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
COBOL
§ Stands for COmmon Business Oriented Language

§ Originally developed started under Grace Hopper
followed by COnference on DAta SYstems Languages
(CODASYL)
§ Standardized by ANSI as COBOL-74, COBOL-85, and
COBOL-2002
§ Designed for programming business data processing
applications
§ Designed to have the appearance and structure of a
business report written in English, hence often referred
to as a self-documenting language

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
A Sample COBOL Program
IDENTIFICATION DIVISION.
PROGRAM_ID. SUMUP.
AUTHOR. P K SINHA.
* THIS PROGRAM COMPUTES AND PRINTS
* THE SUM OF GIVEN NUMBERS.
ENVIROMENT DIVISION.
CONFIGURATION SECTION.
SOURCE_COMPUTER. BURROUGHS_6700.
OBJECT_COMPUTER. BURROUGHS_6700.
INPUT_OUTPUT SECTION.
FILE_CONTROL.
SELECT DATA_FILE ASSIGN TO DISK.
SELECT OUTPUT_FILE ASSIGN TO PRINTER.
DATA DIVISION.
FILE SECTION.

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

FD DATA_FILE
RECORD CONTAINS 80 CHARACTERS
LABEL RECORD IS OMITTED
DATA RECORD IS INPUT_DATA_
RECORD.
01 INPUT_DATA_RECORD.
05 NPICTURE 9(6)V99.
05 FILLER PICTURE X(72).
FD OUTPUT_FILE
RECORD CONTAINS 132 CHARACTERS
LABEL RECORD IS OMITTED
DATA RECORD IS OUTPUT_RECORD.

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

01 OUTPUT_RECORD.
05 FILLER PICTURE X.
05TITLE PICTURE X(25).
05 SUM PICTURE 9(10)V99.
05 FILLER PICTURE X(94).
WORKING_STORAGE SECTION.
77MESSAGE PICTURE X(25)
VALUE IS “THE SUM OF GIVEN NUMBERS=”.
PROCEDURE DIVISION.
OPEN_FILES.
OPEN INPUT DATA_FILE.
OPEN OUTPUT OUTPUT_FILE.
INITIALIZATION.
MOVE SPACES TO OUTPUT_RECORD.
MOVE ZERO TO SUM.

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

PROCESS_LOOP.
READ DATA_FILE AT END GO TO
PRINT_PARA.
ADD N TO SUM.
GO TO PROCESS_LOOP.
PRINT_PARA.
MOVE MESSAGE TO TITLE.
WRITE OUTPUT_RECORD.
END_OF_JOB.
CLOSE DATA_FILE.
CLOSE OUTPUT_FILE.
STOP RUN.

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
BASIC
§ Stands for Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction

Code
§ Developed by Professor John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz
at Darmouth College in the United States
§ Standardized by ANSI as BASIC-78
§ Designed to be an interactive language and to use an
interpreter instead of a compiler
§ Simple to implement, learn and use language. Hence, it
is a widely used language on personal computers
§ Flexible and reasonably powerful language and can be
used for both business and scientific applications

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
A Sample BASIC Program
5 REM PROGRAM TO COMPUTE

6 REM THE SUM OF 10 NUMBERS
10 LET S = 0
20 FOR I = 1 TO 10
30 READ N
40 LET S = S + N
50 NEXT I
60 PRINT “THE SUM OF GIVEN NUMBERS = ”; S
70 DATA 4, 20, 15, 32, 48
80 DATA 12, 3, 9, 14, 44
90 END;

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Pascal
§ Named after the famous seventeenth-century French

mathematician Blaise Pascal
§ Developed by Professor Nicklaus Wirth of Federal Institute of
Technology in Zurich
§ Encourages programmers to write well-structured, modular
programs, instills good program practices
§ Recognized as an educational language and is used to teach
programming to beginners
§ Suitable for both scientific & business applications
§ Has features to manipulate numbers, vectors, matrices,
strings, sets, records, files, and lists

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
A Sample Pascal Program

PROGRAM SUMNUMS (INPUT, OUTPUT);
(* PROGRAM TO COMPUTE THE SUM OF 10 NUMBERS *)
(* DECLARATION OF VARIABLES *)
VAR SUM, N : REAL;
VAR I : INTEGER;
(* MAIN PROGRAM LOGIC STARTS HERE *)

BEGIN
SUM := 0;
FOR I := 1 TO 10 DO
BEGIN
READ (N);
SUM := SUM + N;
END;
WRITELN (‘THE SUM OF GIVEN NUMBERS=’, SUM);
END;

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
§ Developed in 1972 at AT&T’s Bell laboratories, USA

by Dennis Ritchie and Brian Kernighan
§ Standardized by ANSI and ISO as C89, C90, C99
§ High-level programming languages (mainly machine
independence) with the efficiency of an assembly
language
§ Language of choice of programmers for portable
systems software and commercial software packages
like OS, compiler, spreadsheet, word processor, and
database management systems

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
A Sample C Program
/* PROGRAM TO COMPUTE THE SUM OF 10 NUMBERS */

/* Directives to include standard library and header */
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>
/* Main function starts here */
void main ( )
{
/* Declaration of variables */
float Sum = 0.0, N = 0.0;
int Count = 0;
for (Count = 0; Count < 10; Count++)
{
printf(“\nGive a number:”);
scanf(“%f”, N);
Sum += N;
}
printf(“THE SUM OF GIVEN NUMBERS = %f”, &Sum);
}

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
C++
§ Named C++ as ++ is increment operator and C

language is incremented to its next level with C++
§ Developed by Bjarne Stroustrup at Bell Labs in the
early 1980s
§ Contains all elements of the basic C language
§ Expanded to include numerous object-oriented
programming features
§ Provides a collection of predefined classes, along with
the capability of user-defined classes

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Java
§ Development started at Sun Microsystems in 1991 by a

team led by James Gosling
§ Developed to be similar to C++ with fewer features to
keep it simple and easy to use
§ Compiled code is machine-independent and developed
programs are simple to implement and use
§ Uses just-in-time compilation
§ Used in embedded systems such as hand-held devices,
telephones and VCRs
§ Comes in two variants – Java Runtime Engine (JRE) and
Java Software Development Kit (SDK)

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
C# (C Sharp)
§ Object-oriented programming language developed by

Anders Hejlsberg and released by Microsoft as part of
Microsoft’s .NET technology initiative
§ Standardized by ECMA and ISO
§ Syntactically and semantically very close to C++ and
adopts various object-oriented features from both C++
and Java
§ Compilers target the Common Language Infrastructure
(CLI) implemented by Common Language Runtime (CLR)
of .NET Framework
§ CLR provides important services such as, memory
management, exception handling, and security

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
RPG
§ Stands for Report Program Generator

§ Developed by IBM to meet customer requests for an
easy and economic mechanism for producing reports
§ Designed to generate the output reports resulting from
the processing of common business applications
§ Easier to learn and use as compared to COBOL
§ Programmers use very detailed coding sheets to write
specifications about input, calculations, and output

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
LISP
§ Stands for LISt Processing

§ Developed in 1959 by John McCarthy of MIT
§ Designed to have features for manipulating non-
numeric data, such as symbols and strings of text
§ Due to its powerful list processing capability, it is
extensively used in the areas of pattern recognition,
artificial intelligence, and for simulation of games
§ Functional programming language in which all
computation is accomplished by applying functions to
arguments

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
SNOBOL
§ Stands for StriNg Oriented symBOlic Language

§ Used for non-numeric applications
§ Powerful string manipulation features
§ Widely used for applications in the area of text
processing

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Characteristics of a Good
Programming Language
§ Simplicity
§ Naturalness
§ Abstraction
§ Efficiency
§ Structured Programming Support
§ Compactness
§ Locality
§ Extensibility
§ Suitability to its environment

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Factors for Selecting a Language for

Coding an Application
§ Nature of the application

§ Familiarity with the language
§ Ease of learning the language
§ Availability of program development tools
§ Execution efficiency
§ Features of a good programming language

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Subprogram
§ Program written in a manner that it can be brought into

use in other programs and used whenever needed
without rewriting
§ Also referred to as subroutine, sub-procedure, or function
§ Subprogram call statement contains the name of the
subprogram followed by a list of parameters enclosed
within a pair of parentheses
§ Intrinsic subprograms (also called built-in-functions) are
those provided with the programming language
§ Programmer-written subprograms are written and used
as and when they are needed

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Structure of a Subprogram
Subprogram name Parameter
Subprogram header
sqrt (x)
Set of instructions that perform Subprogram body

the intended task

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Flow of Control in Case of Subprogram Calls
subprogram header 2 1
subprogram call statement
3
6 4 next statement
subprogram body 7
5
subprogram call statement

8 next statement
9
A subprogram Flow of control A program that calls

the subprogram twice

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Key Words/Phrases
§ Assembler § Just-in-time compilation

§ Assembly language § Language processor
§ BASIC § Linker
§ Built-in function § LISP
§ C § Load module
§ C++ § Logic error
§ C# § Low-level language
§ COBOL § Machine language
§ Coding § Macro instructions
§ Compiler § Object program
§ Computer language § Object-oriented programming
§ FORTRAN § Opcode
§ Function § Operand
§ High-level language § Pascal
§ HotJava Interpreter § Programmer
§ Intrinsic subprogram § Programming
§ Intermediate compiler and § Programming language
Interpreter § Pseudo instruction
§ Java § RPG
§ Self-documenting language

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Key Words/Phrases
§ SNOBOL
§ Source program
§ Sub-procedure
§ Subprogram
§ Subroutine
§ Symbolic language
§ Syntax error
§ Syntax rules
§ Written subprograms

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Ref Page Chapter 13: System Implementation and Operation Slide 1/17
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Learning Objectives
§ Main activities of implementation and operation

phase
§ Testing and debugging of programs
§ Complete documentation of the system
§ Change over to the new system
§ System evaluation and
§ System maintenance
Ref Page 239 Chapter 13: System Implementation and Operation Slide 2/17
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Testing and Debugging
§ Program errors are known as bugs

§ Process of detecting and correcting these errors is called
debugging
§ Testing is the process of making sure that the program
performs the intended task
§ Debugging is the process of locating and eliminating
program errors
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Types of Program Errors
§ Syntax errors
§ Occurs when the rules or syntax of the programming
language are not followed
§ For example, incorrect punctuation, incorrect word
sequence, undefined terms, and misuse of terms
§ Syntax errors are detected by a language processor
§ Logic errors
§ Occurs due to errors in planning a program’s logic
§ Such errors cause the program to produce incorrect
output.
§ These errors cannot be detected by a language
processor
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Testing of a Program
§ Testing procedure involves running program to

process input test data, and comparing obtained
results with correct results
§ Test data must test each logical function of the
program, and should include all types of possible
valid and invalid data
§ Program internally released for testing is known as
alpha version and the test conducted on it is called
alpha testing
§ Program released for additional testing to a selected
set of external users is beta version and test
conducted on it called is beta testing
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Debugging a Program for Syntax Errors
§ Relatively easier to detect and correct syntax errors

than logic errors in a program
§ Language processors are designed to automatically
detect syntax errors
§ Single syntax error often causes multiple error
messages to be generated by the language processor
§ Removal of the syntax error will result in the removal
of all associated error messages
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Debugging a Program for Logic Errors
§ Logic errors are more difficult to detect than syntax

errors as computer does not produce any error
message for such errors
§ One or more of following methods are commonly used
for locating logic errors:
§ Doing hand simulation of the program code
§ Putting print statements in the program code
§ Using a debugger (a software tool that assists a
programmer in following the program’s execution
step-by-step)
§ Using memory dump (printout of the contents of
main memory and registers)
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Difference Between Testing and
Debugging
Sr. No. Testing Debugging
§ Testing is the process of

validating the § Debugging is the process of
correctness of a program eliminating errors in a program
1 § Its objective is to § Its objective is to detect the exact
demonstrate that the cause and remove known errors
program meets its in the program
design specifications
§ Testing is complete § Debugging is complete when all

when all desired known errors in the program have
verifications against been fixed
2 specifications have been § Note that debugging process ends
performed only temporarily as it must be
restarted whenever a new error is
found in the program
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Difference Between Testing and

Debugging
Sr. No. Testing Debugging
§ Testing is a definable process § Debugging being a reactive process cannot

which can and should be be planned ahead of time
3 planned and scheduled § It must be carried out as and when errors
properly are found in a program
§ Testing can begin in the § Debugging can begin only after the program
early stages of software is coded
development. § The approach used for debugging largely
§ Although the test runs of a depends on the personal choice of the
program can be done only programmer and the type of problem in the
4 after the program is coded, program
but the decision of what to
test, how to test, and with
what kind of data to test, can
and should be done before
the coding is started
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Documentation
§ Process of collecting, organizing, storing, and otherwise

maintaining a complete historical record of programs
and other documents used or prepared during the
different phases of the life cycle of a software
§ Three commonly used forms of documentation are:
§ Program comments
§ System manual
§ User manual
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Changeover to the New System
§ When a software is ready for use, it is deployed at site for use

by the intended users
§ At this stage, a changeover from the old system of operation
to the new system takes place
§ Three normally followed methods to carry out the changeover
process are:
§ Immediate changeover
§ Parallel run
§ Phased conversion
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Old system in New system in

operation operation
Old system New system
Cut-off date
Time
(a) Immediate changeover
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Old system
in operation
New
system in
operation
Overlapping period of
complete operation of
Old system
both the old and the new
systems
New system
Time
(b) Parallel run
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Old system Old and new systems New system

completely in operation in parts completely
operational operational
Old system
New system
Time
(c) Phased conversion
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
System Evaluation
§ Process of evaluating a system (after it is put in

operation) to verify whether or not it is meeting its
objectives
§ Points normally considered for evaluating a system are:
§ Performance evaluation
§ Cost analysis
§ Time analysis
§ User satisfaction
§ Ease of modification
§ Failure rate
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
System Maintenance
§ Process of incorporating changes in an existing system to

enhance, update, or upgrade its features
§ On an average, maintenance cost of a computerized
system is two to four times more than the initial
development cost
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Key Words/Phrases
§ Beta testing
§ Bugs
§ Comments
§ Debugger
§ Debugging
§ Documentation
§ Immediate changeover
§ Logic errors
§ Memory dump
§ Parallel run
§ Phased conversion
§ Syntax errors
§ System evaluation
§ System maintenance
§ System manual
§ Testing
§ User manual
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Chapter 14
Operating Systems
Ref Page Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 1/54

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Learning Objectives

§ Definition and need for operating system
§ Main functions of an operating system
§ Commonly used mechanisms for:
§ Process management
§ Memory management
§ File management
§ Security
§ Command interpretation module
§ Some commonly used OS capability enhancement software
§ Some popular operating systems
Ref Page 251 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 2/54

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Definition and Need for OS
§ Integrated set of programs that controls the resources

(the CPU, memory, I/O devices, etc.) of a computer
system
§ Provides its users with an interface or virtual machine
that is more convenient to use than the bare machine
§ Two primary objectives of an OS are:
§ Making a computer system convenient to use
§ Managing the resources of a computer system

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Logical
Logical Architecture
Architecture of
of a
a Computer
Computer System
System
Users
Other
System Software and
Application Programs
Operating System
The operating system

Computer layer hides the details of
Hardware
the hardware from the
programmer and
provides the programmer
with convenient interface
for using the system

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Main Functions of an OS
§ Process management
§ Memory management
§ File management
§ Security
§ Command interpretation

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Parameters
Parameters for
for Measuring
Measuring System
System
Performance
Performance
§ Throughput: Amount of work that the system is able to

do per unit time
§ Turnaround time: Interval from the time of submission
of a job to the system for processing to the time of
completion of the job
§ Response time: Interval from the time of submission of a
job to the system for processing to the time the first
response for the job is produced by the system

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Process Management
§ A process (also called job) is a program in execution

§ Process management manages the processes
submitted to a system in a manner to minimize idle time
of processors (CPUs, I/O processors, etc.) of the system

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Process
Process Management
Management Mechanisms
Mechanisms in
in
Early
Early Systems
Systems
§ Manual loading mechanism: Jobs were manually

loaded one after another in a computer by the
computer operator
§ Batch processing mechanism: Batch of jobs was
submitted together to the computer and job-to-job
transition was done automatically by the operating
system
§ Job Control Language (JCL): Control statements
were used to facilitate job loading and unloading

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Use
Use of
of Job
Job Control
Control Statements
Statements in
in Batch
Batch
Processing
Processing (An
(An Example)
Example)
$END
Data for program
$RUN
$LOAD
COBOL program
$COBOL
$JOB, ONGC05839,
USER=SINHA

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Multiprogramming
§ Uniprogramming: Only one job is processed at a

time and all system resources are available exclusively
for the job until its completion
§ Multiprogramming: Interleaved execution of two or
more different and independent programs by a
computer
§ Types of Multiprogramming:
§ Multiprogramming with fixed tasks (MFT): Fixed
number of jobs can be processed concurrently
§ Multiprogramming with variable tasks (MVT):
Number of jobs can vary
§ Area occupied by each job residing simultaneously in
the main memory is known as a memory partition

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Job
§ CPU bound: Mostly perform computations with little

I/O operations. Scientific and engineering
computations usually fall in this category
§ I/O bound: Mostly perform I/O operations with little
computation. Commercial data processing applications
usually fall in this category

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Uniprogramming System
Main memory
Operating OS area
system
User job User program area
Execution in
progress
CPU
Only one job is processed by the system at a time and all

the system resources are exclusively available for the job
until it completes

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Multiprogramming System
Main memory
Operating system
Writing output data Job A
Job B
Job C
Secondary disk storage (Waiting for CPU)
Execution in
progress
CPU

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Process
Process States
States in
in Multiprogramming
Multiprogramming
Job is allocated the

New CPU for execution Job
job Ready Running processing
completed
I/O completed Job must wait for I/O

Blocked completion

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Requirements
Requirements of
of Multiprogramming
Multiprogramming Systems
Systems
§ Large memory
§ Memory protection
§ Job status preservation
§ Proper job mix (CPU and I/O bound jobs)
§ CPU scheduling

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Process
Process Control
Control Block
Block (PCB)
(PCB)
process identifier
process state
program counter
values of various CPU
registers
accounting and scheduling
information
I/O status information
PCB is used to preserve the job status of each loaded

process in a multiprogramming system

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Multitasking
§ Interleaved execution of multiple jobs (often referred

to as tasks of same user) in a single-user system
§ Computer systems used for multitasking are
uniprocessor systems (having only one CPU)
§ Treated differently from multiprogramming that refers
to interleaved execution of multiple jobs in a multi-
user system

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Multithreading
§ Thread is basic unit of CPU utilization. Threads

share a CPU in the same way as processes do
§ All threads of a process also share the same set of
operating system resources
§ All threads of a process inherit parent’s address
space and security parameters
§ Each thread of a process has its own program
counter, its own register states, and its own stack
§ Referred as mini-process or lightweight process

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Multithreading System
Address space
Address space
Thread
Thread Thread Thread
(a) Single-threaded and (b) multithreaded processes. A

single-threaded process corresponds to a process of a
traditional operating system. [Reproduced with
permission, from the book titled Distributed Operating
Systems: Concepts and Design by Pradeep K. Sinha.
© 1997 IEEE, USA].

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Multiprocessing
§ System with two or more CPUs having ability to execute

multiple processes concurrently
§ Multiple CPUs are used to process either instructions from
different and independent programs or different
instructions from the same program simultaneously
§ Types of multiprocessing:
§ Tightly-coupled: Single system-wide primary memory
shared by all processors
§ Loosely-coupled: Each processor has its own local
memory

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
CPU,
CPU, Memory,
Memory, and
and I/O
I/O Processors
Processors of
of a
a
Computer
Computer System
System
Main
memory
I/O Units I/O

CPU
Processors

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Multiprocessing
Multiprocessing System
System
Main
CPU-1 CPU-2
memory
I/O I/O
processors processors
I/O units I/O units

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Time-sharing
Time-sharing
§ Simultaneous interactive use of a computer system by

many users in such a way that each one feels that
he/she is the sole user of the system
§ User terminals connected to the same computer
simultaneously
§ Uses multiprogramming with a special CPU scheduling
algorithm
§ Short period during which a user process gets to use
CPU is known as time slice, time slot, or quantum
§ CPU is taken away from a running process when the
allotted time slice expires

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Process
Process State
State Diagram
Diagram for
for a
a Time-Sharing
Time-Sharing
System
System
Job is allocated to
Job
New CPU for execution Running
Ready processing
Job
completed
Allotted time slice is over
I/O completed Job must wait
for I/O
completion
Blocked

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Advantages
Advantages of
of Time-sharing
Time-sharing Systems
Systems
§ Reduces CPU idle time

§ Provides advantages of quick response time
§ Offers good computing facility to small users

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Memory
Memory Management
Management
§ Memory is important resource of a computer system

that must be properly managed for the overall system
performance
§ Memory management module:
§ Keeps track of parts of memory in use and parts not
in use
§ Allocates memory to processes as needed and
deallocates when no longer needed

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Uniprogramming
Uniprogramming Memory
Memory Model
Model
§ Used in systems that process one job only at a time, and

all system resources are available exclusively for the job
until it completes
§ Simple and easy to implement
§ Does not lead to proper utilization of the main memory as
unoccupied memory space by the currently active user
process remains unused
§ Used only on very small or dedicated computer systems

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Uniprogramming
Uniprogramming Memory
Memory Model
Model
Operating system area Operating system
User process
User area
Unused

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Multiprogramming
Multiprogramming Memory
Memory Models
Models
Two memory management schemes used to facilitate this

are:
§ Multiprogramming with fixed number of memory

partitions: User area of the memory is divided into a
number of fixed-sized partitions
§ Multiprogramming with variable number of memory
partitions: Number, size and location of the partitions
vary dynamically as processes come and go

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Multiprogramming
Multiprogramming with
with Fixed
Fixed Number
Number of
of Memory
Memory
Partition
Partition
Operating system Operating

area system
Partition 1
Partition 2
User area divided

into n equal-sized Partition 3
partitions
Partition n

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Multiprogramming
with Variable
Variable Number
Number of
of
Memory
Memory Partitions
Partitions
Time
Operating Operating Operating Operating
system system system system
P1 P1 P1
P1 P2 P3
comes comes comes
P2 P2
User
Free
area Free
P3
Free
Free
(a) (b) (c) (d)

The number, size, and location of the partitions vary
dynamically as processes come and go. (contd…)

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Multiprogramming
with Variable
Variable Number
Number of
of
Memory
Memory Partitions
Partitions
Operating Operating Operating Operating

system system system system
P5
P1 P1 Free 3
P4 Free 3
P2 P1 P5
P2
Comes which P4
terminates terminates P4 comes P4
cannot fit in
Free 2 which can
Free 1 so is
allocated fit in
Free 2 Free 2 Free 3 Free 2
space from
Free 2
P3 P3 P3 P3
Free 1 Free 1 Free 1 Free 1
(e) (f) (g) (h)
The number, size, and location of the partitions vary dynamically as processes come and go.

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Virtual Memory
Memory management scheme that allows execution of

processes that might not be completely loaded in the main
memory.
It does not require the entire process to be in memory

before the process can execute

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Virtual Memory Realization
Three basic concepts used for its realization are:

§ On-line secondary storage: Used to keep a process’s
address space ready to be loaded into the memory
§ Swapping: Process of transferring a block of data from
the on-line secondary storage to main memory
(swapping in) or vice-versa (swapping out)
§ Demand paging: Scheme of swapping in of pages of a
process as and when needed during execution of the
process, rather than loading all the pages before
starting the process’s execution

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Advantages of Virtual Memory
§ Provides a large virtual memory to programmers on a

system having smaller physical memory
§ Enables execution of a process on a system whose main
memory size is less than the total memory required by the
process
§ Enables a process’s execution to be started even when
sufficient free memory for loading the entire process is not
available
§ Makes programming easier there no longer need to worry
about the memory size limitations
§ Often leads to less I/O activity resulting in better
throughput, turnaround time, and response time

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Disadvantages
Disadvantages of
of Virtual
Virtual Memory
Memory
§ Difficult to implement because it requires algorithms to

support demand paging
§ If used carelessly, it may substantially decrease
performance due to high page fault rate

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
File Management
§ A file is a collection of related information

§ Every file has a name, its data and attributes
§ File’s name uniquely identifies it in the system and is used
by its users to access it
§ File’s data is its contents
§ File’s attributes contain information such as date & time of
its creation, date & time of last access, date & time of last
update, its current size, its protection features, etc.
§ File management module of an operating system takes
care of file-related activities such as structuring,
accessing, naming, sharing, and protection of files

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
File Access Methods
Two commonly supported file access methods are:

§ Sequential access: Information stored in a file can be
accessed sequentially (in the order in which they are
stored, starting at the beginning)
§ Random access: Information stored in a file can be
accessed randomly irrespective of the order in which
the bytes or records are stored

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
File Operations
§ Set of commands provided by an operating system to

deal with files and their contents
§ Typical file operations include create, delete, open,
close, read, write, seek, get attributes, set attributes,
rename, and copy

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
File Naming
File naming deals with the rules for naming files in an

operating system. This may include such rules as:
§ Maximum number of characters that a file name may
have
§ Special characters allowed in a file name
§ Distinction between upper case and lower case letters
§ Multi-part file names allow file extensions to be part of a
file name. File extensions indicate something about the
file and its content
§ Used by applications to check for the intended type of
file before operating on it

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
File
File Extensions
Extensions (Example)
(Example)
File extension Its meaning
.bas Basic source program file
.c C source program file

.ftn Fortran source program file
.pas Pascal source program file
.obj Object file (compiler output, not yet linked)
.bin Executable binary program file

.lib Library of .obj files used by the linker
.dat Data file
.hlp Text file for HELP command
.man Online manual page file

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
File
File Extensions
Extensions (Example)
(Example)
(Continued from previous slide)
File extension Its meaning
.man Online manual page file
.txt General text file
.bak Backup file
.doc Microsoft word document file
.wav Microsoft windows sound file
.wk4 Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheet file
.xls Microsoft Excel spreadsheet file
.jpg JPEG graphics file
.gif GIF graphics file

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Security
§ Deals with protecting the various resources and information

of a computer system against destruction and unauthorized
access
§ External security: Deals with securing computer against

external factors such as fires, floods, earthquakes, stolen
disks/tapes, etc. by maintaining adequate backup, using
security guards, allowing access to sensitive information to
only trusted employees/users, etc.
§ Internal security: Deals with user authentication, access
control, and cryptography mechanisms

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Security
§ User authentication: Deals with the problem of

verifying the identity of a user (person or program)
before permitting access to the requested resource
§ Access Control: Once authenticated, access control
mechanisms prohibit a user/process from accessing those
resources/information that he/she/it is not authorized to
access
§ Cryptography: Means of encrypting private information
so that unauthorized access cannot use information

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Command Interpretation
§ Provides a set of commands using which the user can give

instructions to the computer for getting some job done by
it
§ Commands supported by the command interpretation
module are known as system calls

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Command Interpretation
Two types of user interfaces supported by various operating

systems are:
§ Command-line interface: User gives instructions to
the computer by typing the commands
§ Graphical User Interface (GUI): User gives
commands to the system by selecting icon or menu
item displayed on the screen with the use of a point-
and-draw device

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
OS
OS Capability
Capability Enhancement
Enhancement Software
Software
§ Perform several tasks of routine nature, frequently

needed by users but are not provided as part of the OS
§ They are primarily grouped into three categories:

§ Translating programs: Translate a source program
into an object program
§ Library programs: Consist of frequently used
functions and operations
§ Utility programs: Assist users with system
maintenance tasks such as disk formatting, data
compression, data backups, antivirus utilities

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
UNIX
UNIX OS
OS
§ Developed in the early 1970s at Bell Laboratories by Ken

Thompson and Dennis Ritchie
§ Written in C high-level language, hence, highly portable
§ Multi-user, time-sharing OS
§ Used on a wide variety of computers ranging from
notebook computers to super computers
§ Especially prevalent on RISC workstations such as those
from Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, and
Silicon Graphics
§ Structured in three layers – kernel, shell, and utilities

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
MS-DOS
§ Stands for Microsoft Disk Operating System.

§ Single-user OS for IBM and IBM-compatible personal
computers (PC)
§ Structured in three layers – BIOS (Basic Input Output
System), kernel, and shell
§ Very popular in the 1980s, now not in much use and
development with the launch of Microsoft Windows OS in
1990s

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Microsoft Windows
§ Developed by Microsoft to overcome limitations of MS-

DOS operating system
§ Single-user, multitasking OS
§ Native interface is a GUI
§ Designed to be not just an OS but also a complete
operating environment
§ OS of choice for most PCs after 1990

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Microsoft Windows NT
§ Multi-user, time-sharing OS developed by Microsoft

§ Designed to have UNIX-like features so that it can be
used for powerful workstations, network, and database
servers
§ Supports multiprogramming and is designed to take
advantage of multiprocessing on systems having
multiple processors
§ Native interface is a GUI
§ Built-in networking and communications features
§ Provides strict system security
§ Rich set of tools for software development

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Linux
§ Open-source OS enhanced and backed by thousands of

programmers world-wide
§ Multi-tasking, multiprocessing OS, originally designed to
be used in PCs
§ Name “Linux” is derived from its inventor Linus Torvalds
§ Several Linux distributions available (Red Hat, SuSE).
Difference in distribution is mostly set of tools, number
and quality of applications, documentation, support, and
service

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Keywords/Phrases
§ Access control § Memory management
§ Batch processing § Memory partition
§ Command interpretation § Microsoft Windows
§ Command-line interface (CLI) § Microsoft Windows NT
§ CPU-bound jobs § MS-DOS
§ Cryptography § Multiprocessing
§ Demand paging § Multiprogramming
§ External security § Multiprogramming with fixed tasks (MFT)
§ File § Multiprogramming with variable tasks
§ File attributes (MVT)
§ File extensions § Operating systems
§ File management § Multithreading
§ Graphical User Interface (GUI) § Process
§ I/O-bound jobs § Process Control Block (PCB) Multitasking
§ Internal security § Process management
§ Job control language (JCL) § Random access files
§ Library programs § Response time
§ Linux § Security
§ Loosely coupled system § Sequential access files
§ Swapping

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Keywords/Phrases
§ Throughput
§ Tightly coupled system
§ Time-sharing
§ Time slice
§ Time slot
§ Translating programs
§ Turnaround time
§ Unix
§ User authentication
§ Utility programs
§ Virtual machine
§ Virtual memory

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Ref. Page Chapter 15: Application Software Packages Slide 1/22

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Learning Objectives
In this chapter you will learn about :
§ Word-processing package
§ Spreadsheet package
§ Graphics package
§ Personal assistance package
Ref. Page 278 Chapter 15: Application Software Packages Slide 2/22
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Word-Processing Package
§ Word-processing describes use of hardware and software to

create, edit, view, format, store, retrieve, and print documents
(written material such as letters, reports, books, etc.)
§ Word-processing package enables us to do all these on a
computer system
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Commonly Supported Features in a

Word-Processing Package
§ Entering text § Printing documents
§ Editing text § Importing text, graphics and

images
§ Formatting page style
§ Searching and replacing text
§ Formatting text string
§ Entering mathematical § Checking spelling
symbols
§ Checking grammar and style
§ Displaying documents
§ Saving, retrieving and
deleting documents
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Word-Processing (Few Terminologies)
§ Style sheet: Pre-stored page format that can be used

while creating a new document or can be applied to an
existing document
§ Font: Complete set of characters with the same style
and size. A word-processing package comes with
several standard fonts
§ Points: A point is 1/72 of an inch, and the size refers to
the distance from the top of the tallest character to the
bottom of the character that extends the lowest. Font
size is measured in points
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Word-Processing (Few Terminologies)
§ Three commonly used font styles are italic, bold and

underline.
§ Justification: Alignment of text on the left or the
right margin, or on both margins. Four types of
justification are:
§ Left-justification
§ Right-justification
§ Center-justification
§ Full-justification
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Different Font Types
This sentence is written in Times New Roman font.
This sentence is written in Helvetica font.
This sentence is written in Palatino font.
This sentence is written in Courier New font.
This sentence is written in Antique Olive font.
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Different Font Sizes
This sentence is written in 10 point Times New Roman font.
This sentence is written in 36 point Times

New Roman font.
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Different Font Styles
This sentence is written in italic style.
This sentence is written in bold style.
This sentence is written in underline style.
You can even make individual words italic, bold,

or underline.
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Different Justification Styles
The term hardware refers to the physical devices of a

computer system. Thus, the input, storage, processing,
control, and output devices are hardware.
(a) Left Justified text

(b) Right Justified text

(c) Centered text
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Mathematical Symbols
 (2)   
 (S (u ) ∧ ¬ u [1 ] = u [2 ])
(u)
 t R (t ) ∧ ∃ u
   
{< a, b, c > ∃ < a, b > (< a, b >∈ r ∧ < a, c >∈ s)}
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Spreadsheet Package
§ Spreadsheet package is a numeric data analysis tool

that allows us to create a computerized ledger
§ Useful for any numerical analysis problem whose data
can be organized as rows and columns
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Uses of Spreadsheet Package
§ Maintaining and analyzing inventory, payroll, and other

accounting records by accountants
§ Preparing budgets and bid comparisons by business analysts
§ Recording grades of students and carrying out various types
of analysis of the grades by educators
§ Analyzing experimental results by scientists and researchers
§ Tracking stocks and keeping records of investor accounts by
stockbrokers
§ Creating and tracking personal budgets, loan payments, etc.
by individuals
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Common Features of Spreadsheet
Package
§ Support for a large number of cells

§ Support for addressing a range of cells by the addresses of
the endpoint cells
§ Support for different types of cell data (such as label,
numeric value, formula, and date & time)
§ Support for use of relative and absolute cell addresses in
formula
§ Support for a wide range of commands
§ Support for displaying numeric data in the form of graphs
and charts
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Sample Spreadsheet
A label running across
Row numbers
multiple columns
Column
letters A B C E E F
1 FINAL EXAM MARKS SHEET(CLASS-X: 2001)
2
3 NAME PHYS CHEM MATHS TOTAL PERCE A label
4 T
Cell F4
5 P. Davis 92 95 88 275 91.66
6 A. Raje 86 82 94 262 87.33

7 D. Rana 75 83 85 243 81.00
8 M. Ray 77 75 72 224 74.66
9 J. Smith 94 92 96 282 94.00
10
11
Result of the
Alphabetic Value Numeric Cell C11 Result of the function formula +
in a Cell Value in a @SUM(B9..D9) E9/3
Cell
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Examples of a Line Graph, a Bar Chart

and a Pie Chart
15% 40%
35% 10%
(a) A line graph (b) A bar chart (c) A pie chart
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Graphics Package
Graphics package enables us to use a computer system

for creating, editing, viewing, storing, retrieving and
printing designs, drawings, pictures, graphs and anything
else that can be drawn in the traditional manner
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Common Features of Graphics Package
§ Drawing designs
§ Painting drawings and pictures
§ Presenting graphs and charts
§ Dragging-and-dropping graphic objects
§ Importing graphic objects
§ Capturing screen snapshots
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Computer Graphics (Few Terminologies)
§ Computer-aided-design (CAD): Integration of

computers and graphics design packages for the purpose
of automating the design and drafting process
§ Vector graphics: Graphic object composed of patterns of
lines, points, circles, arcs and other geometric shapes
that can be easily represented by few geometric
parameters
§ Raster graphics: Graphic object composed of patterns of
dots called pixels
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Personal-assistance Package
Personal-assistance package allows individuals to:

§ Use personal computers for storing and retrieving their
personal information
§ Planning and managing their schedules, contacts,
finances and inventory of important items
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Common Features of Personal
Assistance Package
§ Calendar
§ To-do list
§ Address book
§ Investments book
§ Inventory bookf
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Key Words/Phrases
§ Bit-mapped image § Style sheet

§ Bold § Underline
§ Cell § Vector graphics
§ Center justification § What You See Is What you Get
§ Clip art library (WYSIWYG)
§ Computer Aided Design § Word-processing
(CAD) § Word-processing package
§ Font
§ Full justification
§ Graphics package
§ Italic
§ Justification
§ Landscape mode
§ Left justification
§ Personal assistance package
§ Portrait mode
§ Raster graphics
§ Right justification
§ Spreadsheet package
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Ref. Page Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 1/32

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Learning Objectives

§ Difference between data and information
§ Data processing converts raw data into useful information
§ Data storage hierarchy commonly used to facilitate data
processing
§ Standard methods of organizing data
§ Basic concepts of database systems
Ref. Page 295 Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 2/32
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Data
Data Processing
Processing
§ Data is a collection of facts – unorganized but able to

be organized into useful information
§ Information is data arranged in an order and form that
is useful to the people who receive it
§ Data processing is a series of actions or operations
that converts data into useful information
§ A data processing system includes resources such as
people, procedures, and devices used to process input
data for producing desirable output
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Data
Data Storage
Storage Hierarchy
Hierarchy
Level 0 Bit A single binary digit (0 or 1)
Multiple related bits are combined to

Level 1 Character form a character (byte)
Level 2 Multiple related characters are combined to

Field form a field
Level 3 Record Multiple related fields are combined to

form a record
Level 4 File Multiple related records are combined to

form a file
Level 5 Database Multiple related files are integrated to

form a database
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Relationship
Relationship Among
Among
Character,
Character, Field,
Field, Record,
Record, and
and File
File
A field having Employee CodeFirst Name Last NameHours workedHourly rateTax rate
4 characters 0004 Kumar Rana 40 14.00 0.09
Employee CodeFirst Name Last NameHours workedHourly rateTax rate
0003 Pratap Singh 43 15.00 0.10
0002 Ravi Patel 42 10.00 0.07

0001 Pradeep Sinha 45 12.00 0.08
A record
Records
Fields
of a file
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Standard
Standard Methods
Methods of
of Organizing
Organizing Data
Data
§ File-oriented approach: Application’s data is organized

into one or more files and application program processes
them to generate the desired output
§ Database-oriented approach: Data from multiple
related files are integrated together to form a database:
§ Provides greater query flexibility
§ Reduces data redundancy
§ Solves data integrity (inconsistency) problem
§ Makes data independent of the application programs
§ Includes data security features at database level,
record level, and field level

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
File
File Management
Management System
System
§ In file-oriented approach of organizing data, an

application’s data is organized into one or more files
§ Application program processes the data stored in these
files to generate the desired output
§ Set of programs is provided to facilitate the users in
organizing, creating, deleting, updating, and
manipulating their files
§ All these programs together form a File Management
System (FMS)
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
File
File Types
Types
A file management system supports following file types:

§ Transaction file: Stores input data until it can be
processed
§ Master file: Contains all current data relevant to an
application
§ Output file: Stores output produced by one program
that is used as input to another program
§ Report file: Holds a copy of a report generated by an
application
§ Backup file: Copy of a file, created as a safety
precaution against loss of data
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
File
File Organizations
Organizations
§ File organization is the physical organization of the

records of a file for convenience of storage and retrieval
of data records
§ Three commonly used file organizations are:
§ Sequential: Records are stored one after another in
ascending or descending order determined by the
value of the key field of the records
§ Direct/random: Desired record pertaining to current
transaction can be directly located by its key field
value without having to navigate through sequence of
other records
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
File
File Organizations
Organizations
§ Indexed sequential: There are two files for every

data file – the data file which contains the records
stored in the file, and the smaller index file which
contains the key and disk address of each record
stored in the data file
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Organization
Organization of
of An
An Indexed
Indexed
Sequential
Sequential File
File
Employee Address Address

Code (key) Location Employee Record
Location
0001 1003 1001 0002 R. S. Patel …
0002 1001 1002 0004 R. K. Rana …
0003 1004 1003 0001 K. P. Sinha …
0004 1002 1004 0003 N. P. Singh …
Index file Data file
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
File
File Utilities
Utilities
§ Routines to perform a variety of generalized operations

on data files
§ Operations performed by some commonly used file
utilities are Sorting, Searching, Merging, Copying,
Printing, and Maintenance
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Sorting
Sorting On
On One
One Key
Key
Employee Department Other fields (Name,

Code Code Address, Qualification,
Basic Salary, etc.)
101 2 ---
123 3 ---
124 1 ---
176 2 ---
178 1 ---
202 3 ---
213 1 ---
Sorting on ascending employee code sequence
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Sorting
Sorting On
On Two
Two Key
Key
Employee Department Other fields (Name, Address,

Code Code Qualification, Basic Salary,
etc.)
124 1 ---
178 1 ---
213 1 ---
101 2 ---
176 2 ---
123 3 ---
202 3 ---
Sorting on a ascending employee code (secondary

key) within ascending department code (primary key)
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Merging
Merging of
of Two
Two Files
Files
Input file Output file Input file
Employee Other Employee Other Employee Other
code fields code fields code fields
… … …
125 112 112
… … …
127 119 119
… … …
137 125 129
… … …
146 127 139
… …
159 129 150 …
… …
File A 137 152
…
139
File B
…
146
…
150
…
152
…
159
File C
Merging of files A and B to produce file C
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Database
Database Management
Management System
System
§ In database-oriented approach of organizing data, a

set of programs is provided to facilitate users in
organizing, creating, deleting, updating, and
manipulating data in a database
§ All these programs together form a Database
Management System (DBMS)
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Database
Database Models
Models
§ Database model defines the manner in which the

various files of a database are linked together.
§ Four commonly used database models are:
§ Hierarchical
§ Network
§ Relational
§ Object-oriented
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Hierarchical
Hierarchical Database
Database
Organization A parent element
Personnel Finance Technical

Department Department Department
Managers Support Support Support

Managers Managers Engineers Technicians
Staff Staff Staff
A child element
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Network
Network Database
Database
College
English Hindi Maths Computer

Science
Seeta Geeta Ram Mohan Sohan Raju
A child element can have more This child element has no

than one parent element parent element
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Relational
Relational Database
Database
Membership Member’s Member’s Address Borrower Book No. Due Date
No. name (Membership No.) (ISBN) (DD-MM-YYYY)
83569 K. N. Raina C-15, Sarita Vihar, Pune-7 12859 27-21675-2 10-12-2007
62853 D. P. Singh A-22, Anand Park, Pune-5 11348 89303-530-0 08-11-2007
12859 R. Pandey D-18, Vrindavan, Pune-7 32228 13-201702-5 10-11-2007
32228 R. S. Gupta A-12, Nandanvan, Pune-2 16185 22-68111-7 05-12-2007
23466 S. K. Ray B-05, Royal Villa, Pune-3 12859 71606-214-0 06-11-2007
11348 P. K. Sen B-16, Anand Park, Pune-5 62853 13-48049-8 15-11-2007
16185 T. N. Murli A-11, Vrindavan, Pune-7 11348 18-23614-1 12-11-2007
(a) Members data table. (b) Borrowed books data table
Book No. (ISBN) Book Title Author

13-201702-5 Concepts of Physics H. C. Verma
13-48049-8 Concepts of Chemistry S. S. Dubey
18-23614-1 Astrology for You N. K. Sharma
(c) Books data table
22-68111-7 Fundamentals of Computers K. Ramesh
27-21675-2 C++ Programming R. P. Rajan
71606-214-0 Computer Networks A. N. Rai
89303-530-0 Database Systems P. N. Dixit
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Sample
Sample Report
Report
List of overdue books as on 10-11-2007

Membership Member’s Member’s Due Book No. Book Title Book
No. Name Address Date Author
11348 P. K. Sen B-16, 08-11 89303-530-0 Database P. N. Dixit
Anand Park, Systems
Pune-5
32228 R. S. Gupta A-12, 10-11 13-201702-5 Concepts of H. C. Verma
Nandanvan, Physics
Pune-2
12859 R. Pandey D-18, 06-11 71606-214-0 Computer A. N. Rai
Vrindavan, Networks
Pune-7
A report of overdue books as of 10-11-2007 from the

sample database of previous slide
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Object-Oriented
Object-Oriented Database
Database
Vehicle VehicleSpecs
Id Length
Color Width
Specifications Height
Manufacturer Engine Type
Fuel Type
Fuel Tank Capacity
No. of Wheels
TwoWheeler FourWheeler
Other details Other details

of the vehicle of the vehicle Company Employee
like with/ like no. of
without gear, doors, seating Name Id
seating capacity, etc. Location Name
capacity, etc. President Age
DomesticCompany ForeignCompany
Class/subclass link Other details of Other details of

Attribute/domain link the company the company
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Main
Main Components
Components of
of a
a DBMS
DBMS
§ DBMS allows users to organize, process and retrieve

selected data from a database without knowing about
the underlying database structure
§ Four major components of a DBMS that enable this
are:
§ Data Definition Language (DDL): Used to define the
structure (schema) of a database
§ Data Manipulation Language (DML): Provides
commands to enable the users to enter and
manipulate the data
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Main
Main Components
Components of
of a
a DBMS
DBMS
§ Query Language: Enables users to define their

requirements for extracting the desired information
from the database in the form of queries
§ Report generator: Enables the users of a database
to design the layout of a report so that it can be
presented in the desired format
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Creating
Creating a
a Database
Database
Creation of a database is a three step process:

§ Defining its structure (schema)
§ Designing forms (custom screens) for displaying and
entering data
§ Entering the data into it
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Sample
Sample Database
Database Form
Form
EMPLOYEE DATABASE DATA ENTRY FORM
EMPLOYEE ID: 856392 SEX: M AGE: 42
EMPLOYEE NAME: LAST NAME: SINHA
FIRST NAME: PRADEEP
MIDDLE NAME: KUMAR
CONTACT ADDRESS: ADDRESS 1: F/8, ANAND PARK
ADDRESS 2: SOCIETY, AUNDH
CITY: PUNE
STATE: MH
POSTAL CODE: 411007
TELEPHONE NO.: (020) 5680-489
ANY OTHER INFORMATION: IS FLUENT IN JAPANESE LANGUAGE
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Viewing,
Viewing, Modifying,
Modifying, Deleting,
Deleting, and
and
Adding
Adding Records
Records
§ All database systems provide commands to view,

modify, delete, or add records of an already
established database
§ Many database systems also provide a facility to set up
a filter allowing user to browse through and view only
those records that meet some criterion
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Searching
Searching a
a Database
Database
Commonly supported features for enabling a user to

search for desired information in a database are:
§ Find command: Used for simple database queries

§ Query language: Used for more complex database
queries
§ Query By Example (QBE): Provides a simple user
interface for specifying search criteria
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Creating
Creating Reports
Reports
§ Reports are generated by using report generator of a

database system to assemble the output of a database
query in desired format
§ Report generator enables user to specify layout of the
report, titles & subtitles for the report, column
headings for various fields, and other elements to
make the report appear more presentable
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Sample
Sample Output
Output of
of Report
Report
LIST OF EMPLOYEES WHO BELONG TO PUNE

DATE: DECEMBER 15, 2007
LAST FIRST ADDRESS-1 ADDRESS-2 TELEPHONE

NAME NAME NUMBER
Gupta Rajiv A-12, Nandanvan M. G. Road 4623-4892
Murli Tapan A-11, Vrindavan Pashan Road 5863-4905
Pandey Rupa D-18, Vrindana Pashan Road 5865-3236
Raina Pushpa C-15, Sarita Vihar Aundh Road 5755-8328
Ray Suhas B-05, Royal Villa M. G. Road 4685-6356
Sen Prakash B-16, Anand Park Aundh Road 5762-3333

Singh Deepak A-22, Anand Park Aundh Road 5728-6287
The report is sorted to present the list in alphabetical order of their last
name
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Key
Key Words/Phrases
Words/Phrases
§ Activity ratio § Database model

§ Backup file § Direct file
§ Collision § Field
§ Copying § File
§ Data § File Management System (FMS)
§ Data Definition Language (DDL) § File utilities
§ Data dependence § Filter
§ Data dictionary § Hashing
§ Data file § Hashing algorithm
§ Data integrity § Hierarchical database
§ Data Manipulation Language § Index file
(DML) § Indexed sequential file
§ Data processing § Information
§ Data redundancy § Master file
§ Data storage hierarchy § Merging
§ Database § Network database
§ Database administrator § Output file
§ Database Management System § Peripheral Interchange Program
(DBMS) § Primary key
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Key
Key Words/Phrases
Words/Phrases

§ Query By Example
§ Query language
§ Record
§ Relational database
§ Report file
§ Report Generator
§ Schema
§ Searching
§ Secondary key
§ Secondary key
§ Sequential file
§ Sorting
§ Transaction file
§ Tuple
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Ref. Page Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks Slide 1/57
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Learning Objectives

§ Basic elements of a communication system
§ Techniques, channels, and devices used to transmit
data between distant locations
§ Types of computer networks
§ Communication protocols and their use in computer
networks
§ Internetworking tools and their use in building large
computer networks
§ Characteristics and advantages of distributed data
processing
Ref. Page 320 Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks Slide 2/57
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Basic Elements of a Communication

System
Sender Medium Receiver

(source) Carries the message (sink)
Creates and sends Receives the

a message message
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Data Transmission Modes
Sender Receiver
(a) Simplex
Sender OR Receiver
(or Receiver) (or Sender)
(b) Half-duplex
Sender Receiver
AND
(and Receiver) (and Sender)
(c) Full-duplex
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Data Transmission Speed
§ Bandwidth: Range of frequencies available for data

transmission. It refers to data transmission rate. Higher
the bandwidth, the more data it can transmit
§ Baud: Unit of measurement of data transfer rate.
Measured in bits per second (bps)
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Data Transmission Speed Category
§ Narrowband: Sub-voice grade channels in range from

45 to 300 baud. Mainly used for telegraph lines and
low-speed terminals
§ Voiceband: Voice grade channels with speed up to
9600 baud. Mainly used for ordinary telephone voice
communication and slow I/O devices
§ Broadband: High speed channels with speed up to 1
million baud or more. Mainly used for high-speed
computer-to-computer communication or for
simultaneous transmission of data
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Data Transmission Media
The most commonly used ones are:

§ Twisted-pair wire (UTP cable)
§ Coaxial cable
§ Microwave system
§ Communications satellite
§ Optical fibers
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP)
Cable
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Coaxial Cable
Central copper wire

PVC insulation
Copper mesh
Outer PVC shield
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Microwave Communication System
Transmitting antennas Receiving

antennas
In between
Transmitting repeaters Receiving
station station
Line of sight Line of sight Line of sight
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Satellite Communication System
Satellite in space
6 GHz 4 GHz
Uplink Downlink
Transmitting Receiving
station on earth station on earth
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Optical Fiber Communication System
Electrical Optical fiber Electrical

Electrical to Light to signal
signal
light wave electrical wave
converter converter
Amplifier
Sender Receiver
Light waves
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Digital and Analog Data Transmission
§ Analog signal: Transmitted power varies over a

continuous range. Example: sound, light, and radio
waves
§ Digital signal: Sequence of voltage pulses represented
in binary form
§ Computer generated data signal is digital, whereas
telephone lines carry analog signals
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Digital and Analog Data Transmission

§ When digital data is to be sent over an analog facility,
digital signals must be converted to analog form
§ Conversion of digital signal to analog form is known as
modulation
§ Conversion of analog signal to digital form is known as
demodulation
§ Digital transmission of data is preferred over analog
transmission of data due to lower cost, higher
transmission speeds, and lower error rate
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Analog and Digital Signals
Voltage
+v
0 t
1/f 2/f
-v
(a) Analog signal
v
1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0
t
(b) Digital signal
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Modulation Techniques
§ Amplitude Modulation (AM): Two binary values (0 and

1) of digital data are represented by two different
amplitudes of the carrier signal, keeping frequency and
phase constant
§ Frequency Modulation (FM): Two binary values of
digital data are represented by two different frequencies,
while amplitude and phase are kept constant
§ Phase Modulation (PM): Two binary values of digital
data are represented by shift in phase of carrier signal
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Modems
§ Modem is short for MOdulator/DEModulator

§ Special device used for conversion of digital data to
analog form (modulation) and vice-versa (demodulation)
§ Essential piece of hardware where two digital devices
(say two computers) want to communicate over an
analog transmission channel (say a telephone line)
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Use of Modems in Data Communications
Analog signals on
Digital signals Digital signals
telephone line
01 1 0 Modulator Demodulator 0 1 1 0
Sender Receiver
Computer Modulator Computer
Demodulator
0 100 0 1 00
modem at modem at
sender receiver
computer end computer end
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Factors for Modem Selection
§ Transmission speed
§ Internal versus external
§ Facsimile facility
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Data Transmission Services
§ Data transmission service providers are popularly

known as common carriers
§ Various types of services offered by common carriers
are:
§ Dial-up line: Operates in a manner similar to a
telephone line
§ Leased line: Special conditioned telephone line
that directly and permanently connects two
computers
§ Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN):
Telephone system that provides digital (not analog)
telephone and data services

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Data Transmission Services
§ Value Added Network (VAN): Provides value-added

data transmission service. Value added over and
above the standard services of common carriers may
include e-mail, data encryption/decryption, access to
commercial databases, and code conversion for
communication between computers
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Multiplexing
§ Method of dividing physical channel into many logical

channels so that a number of independent signals may
be simultaneously transmitted
§ Electronic device that performs multiplexing is known
as a multiplexer
§ Multiplexing enables a single transmission medium to
concurrently transmit data between several
transmitters and receivers
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Two Basic Methods of Multiplexing
§ Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM): Available

bandwidth of a physical medium is divided into several
smaller, disjoint logical bandwidths. Each component
bandwidth is used as a separate communication line
§ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM): Total time
available in a channel is divided among several users,
and each user of the channel is allotted a time slice
during which he/she may transmit a message
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Frequency-Division Multiplexing
Modulator Demodulator
Signal-1 40 KHz 40 KHz Signal-1
Sending end Receiving end

Signal-3 60 KHz Channel 60 KHz Signal-3
Frequency-Division Multiplexing
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Time-Division Multiplexing
Time sliced Reassembled

signals signals
Signal A3 A2 A1 A3 A2 A1
A
Sending Receiving
end end
Demulti-
Signal B3 B2 B1 Channel plexer B3 B2 B1
B
… C2 B2 A2 C1 B1 A1
Signal C3 C2 C1 C3 C2 C1
C
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Asynchronous and Synchronous

Transmission
§ Two modes of data transmission on a communication

line are asynchronous and synchronous
§ Asynchronous transmission
§ Sender can send data at any convenient time and
the receiver will accept it
§ Data is transmitted character by character at
irregular intervals
§ Well suited to many keyboard type terminals
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Asynchronous and Synchronous

Transmission
§ Synchronous transmission
§ Sender and receiver must synchronize with each
other to get ready for data transmission before it
takes place
§ Entire blocks of characters are framed and
transmitted together
§ Well suited to remote communication between a
computer and such devices as buffered terminals
and printers
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Data Transmission
Irregular time intervals Each character framed by

between two characters start and stop bits
Character Character Character
(a) Asynchronous transmission
A block of characters may

Indefinite time interval consist of hundreds of
between two blocks of data characters
Char Char Char Char Char Char
Trailer containing end of block Header containing synchronizing

indication and other information
(b) Synchronous transmission
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Switching Techniques
§ Data is often transmitted from source to destination

through a network of intermediate nodes
§ Switching techniques deal with the methods of
establishing communication links between the sender
and receiver in a communication network
§ Three commonly used switching techniques are:
§ Circuit switching: Dedicated physical path is
established between sending and receiving stations
through nodes of the network for the duration of
communication
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Switching Techniques
§ Message switching: Sender appends receiver’s

destination address to the message and it is
transmitted from source to destination either by
store-and-forward method or broadcast method
§ Packet switching: Message is split up into fixed size
packets and each packet is transmitted independently
from source to destination node. Either store-and-
forward or broadcast method is used for transmitting
the packets. All the packets of a message are re-
assembled into original message at the destination
node
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Circuit Switching Method
Switching
nodes
Dotted line
indicates
establishment of
physical path
Source
node Destination
node
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Store-and-Forward Method of
Message Switching
4 B
A 1
3
2
C
C
Either path 1-2-3-4 or 1-5-4 may be used to

transmit a message from A to B.
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Broadcast Method of Message
Switching
Nodes 1 2 3 n
Message
Broadcast Channel
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Routing Techniques
§ In a WAN, when multiple paths exist between the source

and destination nodes of a packet, any one of the paths
may be used to transfer the packet
§ Selection of path to be used for transmitting a packet is
determined by the routing technique used
§ Two popularly used routing algorithms are:
§ Source routing: Source node selects the entire path
before sending the packet
§ Hop-by-hop routing: Each node along the path
decides only the next node for the path
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Network Topologies
§ Term network topology refers to the way in which

the nodes of a network are linked together
§ Although number network topologies are possible,
four major ones are:
§ Star network
§ Ring network
§ Completely connected network
§ Multi-access bus network
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Star Network
Host
Node
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Ring Network
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Completely Connected Network
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Multi-Access Bus Network
Computers (nodes)
Single communication line shared by all nodes
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Hybrid Network
Ring Completely
Star connected
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Network Types
§ Networks are broadly classified into two types: Local

Area Network (LAN) and Wide Area Network (WAN)
§ Local Area Network (LAN) as compared to WAN:
§ Limited to a small geographic coverage
§ Has much higher data transmission rate
§ Experiences fewer data transmission errors
§ Has lower data communication cost
§ Typically owned by a single organization
§ Networks that share some of the characteristics of both
LANs and WANs are referred to as Metropolitan Area
Network (MAN)
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Communication Protocols
§ Protocol is a set of formal operating rules, procedures,

or conventions that govern a given process
§ Communication protocol describes rules that govern
transmission of data over communication networks
§ Roles of communication protocol:
§ Data sequencing
§ Data routing
§ Data formatting
§ Flow control
§ Error control
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Communication Protocols
§ Precedence and order of transmission

§ Connection establishment and termination
§ Data security
§ Log information.
§ Communication protocols are normally split up into a
series of modules logically composed of a succession of
layers.
§ Terms protocol suite, protocol family, or protocol stack
are used to refer to the collection of protocols (of all
layers) of a network system
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Network Interface Card (NIC)
§ Hardware device that allows a computer to be

connected to a network, both functionally and
physically
§ Printed circuit board installed on to one of the
expansion slots of computer
§ Provides a port on the back to which network cable is
attached
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
The OSI Model
§ The Open System Interconnection (OSI) model is

framework for defining standards for linking
heterogeneous computers in a packet switched
network
§ Standardized OSI protocol makes it possible for any
two heterogeneous computer systems, located
anywhere in the world, to easily communicate with
each other
§ Separate set of protocols is defined for each layer in its
seven-layer architecture. Each layer has an
independent function
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Layers, Interfaces, and Protocols

in the OSI Model
Node 1 Node 2
Process A Process B
Layer 7 Application protocol Layer 7

(application) (application)
Interface Interface
Layer 6 Presentation protocol Layer 6
(presentation) (presentation)
Interface Interface
Layer 5 Session protocol Layer 5
(session) (session)
Interface Interface
Layer 4 Transport protocol Layer 4
(transport) (transport)
Interface Interface
Layer 3 Network protocol Layer 3
(network) (network)
Interface Interface
Layer 2 Data-link protocol Layer 2
(data link) (data link)
Interface Interface
Layer 1 Physical protocol Layer 1
(physical) (physical)
Network
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
An
An example
example illustrating
illustrating transfer
transfer of
of message
message M M from
from sending
sending node
node to to the
the
receiving
receiving node
node in
in the
the OSI
OSI model:
model: H
Hnn,, header
header added
added by
by layer
layer n:T
n:Tnn,, trailer
trailer
added
added by
by layer
layer n.
n.
Sending node Receiving node
Process A Process B
H7 M H7 M
H6 H M H6 H7 M
7
H5 H6 H7 M H5 H6 H7 M
H 4 H 5 H 6 H 7 M1 H 4 H 5 H 6 H 7 M2 H 4 H 5 H 6 H 7 M1 H 4 H 5 H 6 H 7 M2
H 3 H 4 H 5 H 6 H 7 M1 H 3 H 4 H 5 H 6 H 7 M2 H 3 H 4 H 5 H 6 H 7 M1 H 3 H 4 H 5 H 6 H 7 M2
H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 M1 T2 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 M2 T2 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 M1 T2 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 M2 T2
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Internetworking
§ Interconnecting two or more networks to form a single

network is called internetworking, and the resulting
network is called an internetwork
§ Goal of internetworking is to hide details of different
physical networks, so that resulting internetwork
functions as a single coordinated unit
§ Tools such as bridges, routers, brouters, and gateways
are used for internetworking
§ The Internet is the best example of an internetwork
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Bridges
§ Operate at bottom two layers of the OSI model

§ Connect networks that use the same communication
protocols above data-link layer but may use different
protocols at physical and data-link layers
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Routers
§ Operates at network layer of the OSI model

§ Used to interconnect those networks that use the same
high-level protocols above network layer
§ Smarter than bridges as they not only copy data from
one network segment to another, but also choose the
best route for the data by using routing table
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Gateways
§ Operates at the top three layers of the OSI model

(session, presentation and application)
§ Used for interconnecting dissimilar networks that use
different communication protocols
§ Since gateways interconnect dissimilar networks,
protocol conversion is the major job performed by
them
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Wireless Computing Systems
§ Wireless computing system uses wireless communication

technologies for interconnecting computer systems
§ Enhances functionality of computing equipment by freeing
communication from location constraints of wired
computing systems
§ Wireless computing systems are of two types:
§ Fixed wireless systems: Support little or no
mobility of the computing equipment associated with
the wireless network
§ Mobile wireless systems: Support mobility of the
computing equipment to access resources associated
with the wireless network
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Wireless Technologies
§ 2G and 3G
§ Wireless LAN
§ WiMAX
§ Wireless Local Loop (WLL)
§ Radio-router
§ Multihop Wireless Network
§ Wireless Application Protocol (WAP)
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Distributed Computing Systems
§ Configuration where many independent computer

systems are connected, and messages, processing task,
programs, data, and other resources are transmitted
between cooperating computer systems
§ Such an arrangement enables sharing of many
hardware and software resources as well as information
among several users who may be sitting far away from
each other
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Main Advantages of Distributed
Computing Systems
§ Inherently distributed applications

§ Information sharing among distributed users
§ Resource sharing
§ Shorter response times and higher throughput
§ Higher reliability
§ Extensibility and incremental growth
§ Better flexibility in meeting users’ needs
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Keywords/Phrases
§ Amplifier § Dial-up line

§ Amplitude Modulation (AM) § Distributed Computing System
§ Application layer § Ethernet
§ ARPANET § Fax modem
§ Asynchronous transmission § File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
§ Bandwidth § Font-End Processors (FEP)
§ Baud § Frequency Modulation (FM)
§ Bridge § Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)
§ Broadband § Full duplex
§ Broadcast § Gateway
§ C-band transmission § Half duplex
§ Circuit switching § Hop-by-hop routing
§ Coaxial cable § Hybrid network
§ Common Carriers § Internet Protocol (IP)
§ Communication protocol § Internetworking
§ Communications satellite § ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
§ Completely connected network § Ku-band transmission
§ Computer network § Leased line
§ Concentrators § Local Area Network (LAN)
§ Data-link layer § Message switching
§ Demodulation
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Keywords/Phrases
§ Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) § Protocol suite (Continued from previous slide)
§ Microwave system § Repeater
§ Mobile computing § Ring network
§ Modem § Router
§ Modulation § Session layer
§ Multi-access Bus network § Simplex
§ Multiplexer § Source routing
§ Narrowband § Star network
§ Network Interface Card (NIC) § Store-and-forward
§ Network layer § Synchronous transmission
§ Network topology § Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
§ Nomadic computing § Transport Control Protocol (TCP)
§ Optical fibers § Transport layer
§ OSI Model § Twisted-pair
§ Packet switching § Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP)
§ Phase Modulation (PM) § User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
§ Physical layer § Value Added Network (VAN)
§ POTS (Plain Old Telephone Service) § Voiceband
§ Presentation layer § VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminals)
§ Protocol family § Wide Area Network (WAN)
§ Protocol stack § Wireless network
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Ref. Page Chapter 18: The Internet Slide 1/16

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Learning Objectives

§ The Internet
§ Evolution and basic services on Internet
§ World Wide Web (WWW)
§ WWW browsers
§ Uses of the Internet
Ref. Page 358 Chapter 18: The Internet Slide 2/16

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
The Internet
§ The Internet is a network of computers that links many

different types of computers all over the world
§ Network of networks sharing a common mechanism for
addressing (identifying) computers, and a common set of
communication protocols
§ Evolved from the basic ideas of ARPANET (the first WAN
that had only four sites in 1969) for interconnecting
computers
§ Initially used only by research organizations and
universities to share and exchange information

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
The Internet
§ In 1989, the US Government lifted restrictions on the use

of the Internet and allowed it to be used for commercial
purposes as well
§ Internet has rapidly grown and continues to grow at a
rapid pace
§ Interconnects more than 30,000 networks, allowing more
than 10 million computers and more than 50 million
computer users in more than 150 countries to
communicate with each other

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Basic Services of the Internet
§ Electronic Mail (e-mail): Allows user to send a mail

(message) to another Internet user in any part of the
world in a near-real-time manner
§ File Transfer Protocol (FTP): Allows user to move a
file from one computer to another on the Internet
§ Telnet: Allows user to log in to another computer
somewhere on the Internet
§ Usenet News: Allows group of users to exchange their
views/ideas/information

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Electronic Mail
§ E-mail is a rapid and productive communication tool

because:
§ Faster than paper mail
§ Unlike telephone, the persons communicating with
each other need not be available at the same time
§ Unlike fax documents, e-mail documents can be
stored in a computer and be easily edited using
editing programs

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
File Transfer Protocol
§ Moving a file from a remote computer to ones own

computer is known as downloading
§ Moving a file from ones own computer to a remote
computer is known as uploading
§ Anonymous ftp site is a computer allowing a user to log in
with a username of anonymous and password that is
user’s e-mail address.
§ Anonymous ftp sites are called publicly accessible sites
because they can be accessed by any user on the
Internet

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Telnet
Some common uses of telnet service are:

§ Using the computing power of the remote computer
§ Using a software on the remote computer
§ Accessing remote computer’s database or archive
§ Logging in to ones own computer from another computer

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Usenet News
§ Several usenet news groups exist on the Internet and are

called newsgroups
§ In a moderated newsgroup only selected members have the
right to directly post (write) a message to the virtual notice
board. Other members can only read the posted messages
§ In a nonmoderated newsgroup any member can directly post a
message to the virtual notice board
§ Netiquette (network etiquette) deals with rules of framing
messages that will not hurt others

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
World Wide Web (WWW or W3)
§ Hypertext documents on the Internet are known as

web pages
§ Web pages are created by using a special language
called HyperText Markup Language (HTML)
§ WWW uses the client-server model and an Internet
Protocol called HyperText Transport Protocol (HTTP) for
interaction among the computers on the Internet
§ Any computer on the Internet that uses the HTTP
protocol is called a web server and any computer that
can access that server is called a web client

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
World Wide Web (WWW or W3)

§ It uses the concept of hypertext for information

storage and retrieval on the Internet
§ Hypertext documents enable this by using a series
of links
§ Link is a special type of item in a hypertext
document that connects the document to another
document providing more information about the
linked item

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Example of Hypertext Document
Pradeep K. Sinha has been involved in the research and

development of distributed systems for almost a decade.
At present Dr. Sinha is working at the Centre for Links
Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC),
Pune, India. Before joining C-DAC, Dr. Sinha worked
with the Multimedia Systems Research Laboratory
(MSRL) of Panasonic in Tokyo, Japan.

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
WWW Browsers
WWW browser is a special software loaded on a web client

computer that normally provides following navigation
facilities to users:
§ Does not require a user to remotely log in to a web
server computer or to log out again when done
§ Allows user to visit the server computer’s web site and
to access information stored on it by specifying its URL
(Uniform Resource Locator) address

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
WWW Browsers
§ Allows user to create and maintain a personal

hotlist of favorite URL addresses of server
computers that user is likely to frequently visit in
future
§ Allows user to download information in various
formats from server computers to user’s own
computer

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Uses of the Internet
Some important current strategic uses of the Internet

are:
§ On-line communication
§ Software sharing
§ Exchange of views on topics of common interest
§ Posting of information of general interest
§ Product promotion
§ Feedback about products
§ Customer support service
§ On-line journals and magazines
§ On-line shopping
§ World-wide video conferencing

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Keywords/Phrases
§ Anonymous ftp site

§ Browser
§ Download
§ Electronic mail (e-mail)
§ File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
§ Hypertext
§ Hypertext Transport Protocol (HTTP)
§ Internet
§ Newsgroup
§ Publicly accessible sites
§ Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML)
§ Telnet
§ Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
§ Upload
§ Usenet
§ Web client
§ Web Server
§ World Wide Web (WWW)

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Ref. Page Chapter 19: Multimedia Slide 1/16

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Learning Objectives

§ Multimedia
§ Multimedia computer system
§ Main components of multimedia and their associated
technologies
§ Common multimedia applications
Ref. Page 366 Chapter 19: Multimedia Slide 2/16

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Multimedia
§ Media is something that can be used for presentation of

information.
§ Two basic ways to present some information are:
§ Unimedia presentation: Single media is used to
present information
§ Multimedia presentation: More than one media is
used to present information
§ Multimedia presentation of any information greatly
enhances the comprehension capability of the user as it
involves use of more of our senses

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Common Media
§ Common media for storage, access, and transmission of

information are:
§ Text (alphanumeric characters)
§ Graphics (line drawings and images)
§ Animation (moving images)
§ Audio (sound)
§ Video (Videographed real-life events)
§ Multimedia in information technology refers to use of more
than one of these media for information presentation to
users

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Multimedia Computer System
§ Multimedia computer system is a computer having

capability to integrate two or more types of media (text,
graphics, animation, audio, and video)
§ In general, size for multimedia information is much
larger than plain text information
§ Multimedia computer systems require:
§ Faster CPU
§ Larger storage devices (for storing large data files)
§ Larger main memory (for large data size)
§ Good graphics terminals
§ I/O devices to play any multimedia

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Text Media
§ Alphanumeric characters are used to present information

in text form. Computers are widely used for text
processing
§ Keyboards, OCRs, computer screens, and printers are
some commonly used hardware devices for processing
text media
§ Text editing, text searching, hypertext, and text
importing/exporting are some highly desirable features
of a multimedia computer system for better presentation
and use of text information

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Graphics Media
§ Computer graphics deals with generation, representation,

manipulation, and display of pictures (line drawings and
images) with a computer
§ Locating devices (such as a mouse, a joystick, or a
stylus), digitizers, scanners, digital cameras, computer
screens with graphics display capability, laser printers,
and plotters are some common hardware devices for
processing graphics media
§ Some desirable features of a multimedia computer system
are painting or drawing software, screen capture software,
clip art, graphics importing, and software support for high
resolution

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Animation Media
§ Computer animation deals with generation, sequencing,

and display (at a specified rate) of a set of images
(called frames) to create an effect of visual change or
motion, similar to a movie film (video)
§ Animation is commonly used in those instances where
videography is not possible or animation can better
illustrate the concept than video
§ Animation deals with displaying a sequence of images at
a reasonable speed to create an impression of
movement. For a jerk-free full motion animation, 25 to
30 frames per second is required

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Animation Media
§ Scanners, digital cameras, video capture board

interfaced to a video camera or VCR, computer
monitors with image display capability, and graphics
accelerator board are some common hardware devices
for processing animation media
§ Some desirable features of a multimedia computer
system with animation facility are animation creation
software, screen capture software, animation clips,
animation file importing, software support for high
resolution, recording and playback capabilities, and
transition effects

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Virtual Reality
§ Virtual reality is a relatively new technology using

which the user can put a pair of goggles and a glove
and tour a three-dimensional world that exists only in
the computer, but appears realistic to the user

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Audio Media
§ Computer audio deals with synthesizing, recording, and

playback of audio or sound with a computer
§ Sound board, microphone, speaker, MIDI devices,
sound synthesizer, sound editor and audio mixer are
some commonly used hardware devices for processing
audio media
system are audio clips, audio file importing, software
support for high quality sound, recording and playback
capabilities, text-to-speech conversion software,
speech-to-text conversion software, and voice
recognition software

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Video Media
§ Computer video deals with recording and display of a

sequence of images at a reasonable speed to create an
impression of movement. Each individual image of
such a sequence is called a frame
§ Video camera, video monitor, video board, and video
editor are some of the commonly used hardware
devices for processing video media
system with video facility are video clips and recording
and playback capabilities

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Multimedia Applications
§ Multimedia presentation
§ Foreign language learning
§ Video games
§ Special effects in films
§ Multimedia kiosks as help desks
§ Animated advertisements
§ Multimedia conferencing

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Media Center Computer
§ There is a growing trend of owning a personal computer

(PC) at home like other electronic equipment
§ New terminologies like “infotainment” and “edutainment”
have evolved to refer to computers as versatile tools
§ Media center PC provides following functionalities:
§ Server as PC, TV, radio, and music system
§ Serve as digital photo album and digital library
§ Server as Game station and DVD/CD Player
§ Allows play, pause, and record of TV programs
§ Provides Electronic Programming Guide (EPG)

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Media Center Computer
High-resolution
display screen
System
Unit
Remote
Control
Mouse
Keyboard

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Keywords/Phrases
§ Animation
§ Audio
§ Clip art
§ Cognitive graphics
§ Computer Aided Design (CAD)
§ Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)
§ Frames
§ Generative graphics
§ Graphics
§ Multimedia
§ Media Center Computer
§ Pixel
§ Refresh rate
§ Text
§ Transducer
§ Transition effects
§ Video
§ Virtual reality

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Ref. Page Chapter 20: Classification of Computers Slide 1/26

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Learning Objectives
§ Classifications of computers
§ Common types of computers today
§ Characteristic features of various types of
computers in use today
Ref. Page 381 Chapter 20: Classification of Computers Slide 2/26

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Computer Classification
§ Traditionally, computers were classified by their size,

processing speed, and cost
§ Based on these factors, computers were classified as
microcomputers, minicomputers, mainframes, and
supercomputers
§ However, with rapidly changing technology, this
classification is no more relevant
§ Today, computers are classified based on their mode of
use

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Types of Computers
Based on their mode of use, computers are classified as:

§ Notebook computers
§ Personal computers
§ Workstations
§ Mainframe systems
§ Supercomputers
§ Clients and servers
§ Handheld computers

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Notebook Computers
§ Portable computers mainly meant for use by people who

need computing resource wherever they go
§ Approximately of the size of an 8½ x 11 inch notebook and
can easily fit inside a briefcase
§ Weigh around 2 kg only.
§ Comfortably placed on ones lap while being used. Hence,
they are also called laptop PC
§ Lid with display screen is foldable in a manner that when
not in use it can be folded to flush with keyboard to
convert the system into notebook form

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Notebook Computers
§ Designed to operate with chargeable batteries

§ Mostly used for word processing, spreadsheet
computing, data entry, and power point presentations
§ Normally run MS-DOS or MS WINDOWS operating
system
§ Some manufacturers are also offering models with
GNU/Linux or its distributions
§ Each device of laptop is designed to use little power and
remain suspended if not used

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Notebook Computers
Foldable flat
screen
Keyboard, trackball,
hard disk, floppy
disk drive, etc. are
in this unit

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Personal Computers (PCs)
§ Non-portable, general-purpose computer that fits on a

normal size office table
§ Designed to meet personal computing needs of
individuals
§ Often used by children and adults for education and
entertainment also
§ Generally used by one person at a time, supports
multitasking
§ Two common models of PCs are desktop model and
tower model
§ Popular OS are MS-DOS, MS-Windows, Windows-NT,
Linux, and UNIX

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Common PC Models
Monitor
System
Unit Mouse
Mouse
Keyboard
(a) Desktop model (b) Tower model

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Workstations
§ Powerful desktop computer designed to meet the

computing needs of engineers, architects, and other
professionals
§ Provides greater processing power, larger storage, and
better graphics display facility than PCs
§ Commonly used for computer-aided design, multimedia
applications, simulation of complex scientific and
engineering problems, and visualization
§ Generally run the UNIX operating system or a variation of
it
§ Operating system is generally designed to support
multiuser environment

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Mainframe Systems
§ Mainly used by large organizations as banks, insurance

companies, hospitals, railways, etc.
§ Used for data handling and information processing
requirements
§ Used in such environments where a large number of
users need to share a common computing facility
§ Oriented to input/output-bound applications

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Mainframe Systems
§ Typically consist of a host computer, front-end

computer, back-end computer, console terminals,
magnetic disk drives, tape drives, magnetic tape
library, user terminals, printers, and plotters
§ Typical mainframe system looks like a row of large file
cabinets and needs a large room
§ Smaller configuration (slower host and subordinate
computers, lesser storage space, and fewer user
terminals) is often referred to as a minicomputer
system

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Mainframe Computer Systems
SYSTEM ROOM (Entry restricted to system administrators and maintenance staff)

Magnetic Tape Library
Magnetic
Disk Drives
Magnetic
Tape
Drive
Back-end
Processor
Plotter
Host Processor Printer
Console
Front-end
Processor
User Terminal User Terminal User Terminal
USERS ROOM (Entry restricted to authorized users)

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Supercomputers
§ Most powerful and most expensive computers available at

a given time.
§ Primarily used for processing complex scientific
applications that require enormous processing power
§ Well known supercomputing applications include:
§ Analysis of large volumes of seismic data
§ Simulation of airflow around an aircraft
§ Crash simulation of the design of an automobile
§ Solving complex structure engineering problems
§ Weather forecasting

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Supercomputers
§ Supercomputers also support multiprogramming

§ Supercomputers primarily address processor-bound
applications

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Parallel Processing Systems
§ Use multiprocessing and parallel processing

technologies to solve complex problems faster
§ Also known as parallel computers or parallel processing
systems
§ Modern supercomputers employ hundreds of
processors and are also known as massively parallel
processors

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
C-DAC’s PARAM 10000 Supercomputer

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Client and Server Computers
§ Client-server computing environment has multiple

clients, one/more servers, and a network
§ Client is a PC/workstation with user-friendly interface
running client processes that send service requests to
the server
§ Server is generally a relatively large computer that
manages a shared resource and provides a set of
shared user services to the clients
§ Server runs the server process that services client
requests for use of managed resources
§ Network may be a single LAN or WAN or an internet
work

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Client-Server Computing
§ Involves splitting an application into tasks and putting

each task on computer where it can be handled most
efficiently
§ Computers and operating systems of a client and a
server may be different
§ Common for one server to use the services of another
server, and hence act both as client and server
§ Concept of client and server computers is purely role-
based and may change dynamically as the role of a
computer changes

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Client-Server Computing Environment
PC (Client)
PC (Client) File
Server
LAN or WAN or an
Internet of Networks
PC (Client)
Database
Server
Workstation
(Client)
Workstation
(Client)

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Handheld Computers
§ Small computing device that can be used by holding in

hand, also known as palmtop
§ Size, weight, and design are such that it can be used
comfortably by holding in hand
§ Types of Handheld are:
§ Tablet PC: Miniaturized laptop with light weight, screen
flip, handwriting and voice recognition
§ PDA/Pocket PC: Acts as PIM device with LCD touch
screen, pen for handwriting recognition, PC based
synchronization, and optionally mobile phone services
§ Smartphone: Fully functional mobile phone with
computing power, voice centric, do not have a touch
screen and are smaller than PDA

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Handheld Computers
(a) Table PC (b) PDA/Pocket PC (c) Smartphone

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Comparison of Different Types of
Computers
Types of
Computers
Note PC Work Mainframe Super Client Server Handheld
book station system computer
Key
features
Size Very Small Medium Large Large Generally Generally Very small
small (can be (slightly (needs a (needs a small (may large (can be
(can be placed on larger than large room) large room) be large if it placed on
placed on an office PC) is also play ones palm)
ones lap) table) the role of a
server
Processing Low Low High Higher Highest Generally Generally Low

power low high
Main memory Low Low High Higher Highest Generally Generally Low
capacity low high
Hard disk Low Low High Highest Higher Generally Generally Low
storage low high
capacity
Has its own Yes Yes Yes Generally no Generally no Yes Generally No
monitor, no
keyboard, and
mouse for
user interface

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Computers
Types of
Work Mainframe Super
Computers
Notebook PC station system computer Client Server Handheld
Key
features
Display Foldable Medium Large-screen Generally Generally not Medium to Generally Small
facility flat screen size color monitor not available large not display
small display which can available screen available
display screen display high monitor
resolution
graphics
Single/ Single Generally Generally Multiple Multiple Generally Generally Single

multiple single multiple single multiple
processors
Single/ Single Single Generally Multiple Multiple Single Multiple Single

multiple – single
User
oriented
MS-DOS, MS-DOS, Unix or a A variation A variation of MS-DOS, Windows MS-Wndows
MS- MS- variation of of Unix, or Unix, or MS- -NT, Mobile, Palm
Popular
Windows Windows, it proprietary proprietary Windows, Unix or OS, Symbian
operating
Windows- Windows- its OS, Linux,
systems
NT, Linux, NT, variation, Blackbery OS
Unix Linux, or
proprieta
Unix ry

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Computers
Types of
Computers Work
Notebook Personal station Mainframe Super Client Server Handheld
Key Computer system computer
features
Popular Word Personal Computing Data and Large Provide Manage a Computing,
usage processing; computing needs of information processor- highly shared Personal
Spreadsheet needs of engineers, processing bound user- resource Information
; Data individuals architects, of I/O- application friendly and Managemen
Entry; either in designers; bound s like interface provide a t (PIM), cell
Preparing their Simulation of applications complex in a client- set of phone,
presentation working complex scientific server shared digital
materials; places or at scientific and simulation computing user camera
and Making their engineering s environme services
presentation homes; and problems and nt in a
s Education visualizing the client-
and results of server
entertain- simulation; and computin
ment of Multimedia g
children applications environm
and adults ent
Major IBM, IBM, Apple, Sun IBM, DEC Cray, IBM, Same as Same as Nokia,
vendors Compaq, Compaq, Microsystems Silicon PC and Workstation, Sony,
Siemens, Dell, , IBM, DEC, Graphics, Workstati Mainframe Motorola,
Toshiba Zenith, Hewlett- Fujitsu, on System, & Dell,
Siemens, Packard, Intel, C- vendors Super- Hawlett-
Toshiba, Silicon DAC computer Packard
Hewlett- Graphics vendors
Packard

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Key Words/Phrases
§ Back-end computer
§ Client computer
§ Client process
§ Front-end computer
§ Host computer
§ Handheld
§ I/O-bound application
§ Laptop PC
§ Mainframe system
§ Massively parallel processors
§ Minicomputer
§ Notebook computer
§ Parallel computers
§ Parallel processing system
§ Personal Computer (PC)
§ Processor-bound application
§ Server computer
§ Server process
§ Supercomputer
§ System board
§ Workstation

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Ref. Page Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language Slide 1/65

Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Learning Objectives

§ Features of C
§ Various constructs and their syntax
§ Data types and operators in C
§ Control and Loop Structures in C
§ Functions in C
§ Writing programs in C
Ref. Page 395 Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language Slide 2/65
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Features
§ Reliable, simple, and easy to use

§ Has virtues of high-level programming language with
efficiency of assembly language
§ Supports user-defined data types
§ Supports modular and structured programming concepts
§ Supports a rich library of functions
§ Supports pointers with pointer operations
§ Supports low-level memory and device access
§ Small and concise language
§ Standardized by several international standards body
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
C Character Set
Category Valid Characters Total
Uppercase alphabets A, B, C, …, Z 26
Lowercase alphabets a, b, c, …, z 26
Digits 0, 1, 2, …, 9 10
~ `! @ # % ^ & * ( ) _ −
Special characters 31
+ = | \ {}[ ]:; " ' < > , . ? /
93
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Constants
§ Constant is a value that never changes

§ Three primitive types of constants supported in C are:
§ Integer
§ Real
§ Character
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Rules for Constructing Integer

Constants
§ Must have at least one digit
§ + or – sign is optional
§ No special characters (other than + and – sign) are
allowed
§ Allowable range is:
§ -32768 to 32767 for integer and short integer
constants (16 bits storage)
§ -2147483648 to 2147483647 for long integer
constants (32 bits storage)
§ Examples are: 8, +17, -6
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Rules for Constructing Real Constants

in Exponential Form
§ Has two parts – mantissa and exponent - separated by

‘e’ or ‘E’
§ Mantissa part is constructed by the rules for constructing
real constants in fractional form
§ Exponent part is constructed by the rules for
constructing integer constants
§ Allowable range is -3.4e38 to 3.4e38
§ Examples are: 8.6e5, +4.3E-8, -0.1e+4
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Rules for Constructing Character

Constants
§ Single character from C character set

§ Enclosed within single inverted comma (also
called single quote) punctuation mark
§ Examples are: ’A’ ’a’ ’8’ ’%’
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Variables
§ Entity whose value may vary during program

execution
§ Has a name and type associated with it
§ Variable name specifies programmer given name to
the memory area allocated to a variable
§ Variable type specifies the type of values a variable
can contain
§ Example: In i = i + 5, i is a variable
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Rules for Constructing Variables

Names
§ Can have 1 to 31 characters

§ Only alphabets, digits, and underscore (as in last_name)
characters are allowed
§ Names are case sensitive (nNum and nNUM are different)
§ First character must be an alphabet
§ Underscore is the only special character allowed
§ Keywords cannot be used as variable names
§ Examples are: I saving_2007 ArrSum
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Data Types Used for Variable Type

Declaration
Data Minimum Storage

Used for Variables that can contain
Type Allocated
int 2 bytes (16 bits) integer constants in the range

-32768 to 32767
short 2 bytes (16 bits) integer constants in the range
-32768 to 32767
long 4 bytes (32 bits) integer constants in the range
-2147483648 to 2147483647
float 4 bytes (32 bits) real constants with minimum 6 decimal digits
precision
double 8 bytes (64 bits) real constants with minimum 10 decimal
digits precision
char 1 byte (8 bits) character constants
enum 2 bytes (16 bits) Values in the range -32768 to 32767
void No storage allocated No value assigned
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Variable Type Declaration Examples
int count;
short index;
long principle;
float area;
double radius;
char c;
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Standard Qualifiers in C
Category Modifier Description
Lifetime auto Temporary variable

register Attempt to store in processor register, fast
static access
extern Permanent, initialized
Permanent, initialized but declaration
elsewhere
Modifiability const Cannot be modified once created
volatile May be modified by factors outside program
Sign signed + or –
unsigned + only
Size short 16 bits

long 32 bits
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Lifetime and Visibility Scopes of
Variables
§ Lifetime of all variables (except those declared as static) is

same as that of function or statement block it is declared in
§ Lifetime of variables declared in global scope and static is
same as that of the program
§ Variable is visible and accessible in the function or statement
block it is declared in
§ Global variables are accessible from anywhere in program
§ Variable name must be unique in its visibility scope
§ Local variable has access precedence over global variable of
same name
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Keywords
§ Keywords (or reserved words) are predefined words whose

meanings are known to C compiler
§ C has 32 keywords
§ Keywords cannot be used as variable names
auto double int struct

break else long switch
case enum register typedef
char extern return union
const float short unsigned
continue for signed void
default goto sizeof volatile
do if static while
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Comments
§ Comments are enclosed within \∗ and ∗ /

§ Comments are ignored by the compiler
§ Comment can also split over multiple lines
§ Example: /∗ This is a comment statement ∗ /
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Operators
§ Operators in C are categorized into data access,

arithmetic, logical, bitwise, and miscellaneous
§ Associativity defines the order of evaluation when
operators of same precedence appear in an expression
§ a = b = c = 15, ‘=’ has R → L associativity
§ First c = 15, then b = c, then a = b is evaluated
§ Precedence defines the order in which calculations
involving two or more operators is performed
§ x + y ∗ z , ‘∗’ is performed before ‘+’
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Arithmetic Operators
Operator Meaning with Example Associativity Precedence
+ Addition; x+y L→R 4
- Subtraction; x-y L→R 4
∗ Multiplication; x∗y L→R 3
/ Division; x/y L→R 3
% Remainder (or Modulus); x%y L→R 3
++ Increment;
x++ means post-increment (increment L→R 1
the value of x by 1 after using its value);
++x means pre-increment (increment the R→L 2

value of x by 1 before using its value)
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Associativit
Operator Meaning with Example Precedence
y
-- Decrement;
x-- means post-decrement (decrement L→R 1
the value of x by 1 after using its value);
--x means pre-decrement (decrement R→L 2
the value of x by 1 before using its value)
= x = y means assign the value of y to x R→L 14

+= x += 5 means x = x + 5 R→L 14
-= x -= 5 means x = x - 5 R→L 14
∗= x ∗= 5 means x = x ∗ 5 R→L 14
/= x /= 5 means x = x / 5 R→L 14
%= x %= 5 means x = x % 5 R→L 14
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Logical Operators
Logical Operators
! Reverse the logical value of a single variable; R→L 2
!x means if the value of x is non-zero, make it
zero; and if it is zero, make it one
> Greater than; x>y L→R 6
< Less than; x<y L→R 6
>= Greater than or equal to; x >= y L→R 6
<= Less than or equal to; x <= y L→R 6
== Equal to; x == y L→R 7
!= Not equal to; x != y L→R 7
&& AND; x && y means both x and y should be L→R 11
true (non-zero) for result to be true
|| OR; x || y means either x or y should be true L→R 12
(non-zero) for result to be true
z?x:y If z is true (non-zero), then the value returned R→L 13

is x, otherwise the value returned is y
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Bitwise Operators
Bitwise Operators
~ Complement; ~x means R→L 2
All 1s are changed to 0s and 0s to 1s
& AND; x & y means x AND y L→R 8
| OR; x | y means x OR y L→R 10
^ Exclusive OR; x ^ y means x y L→R 9
⊕
<< Left shift; x << 4 means shift all bits in x L→R 5
four places to the left
>> Right shift; x >> 3 means shift all bits L→R 5
in x three places to the right
&= x &= y means x = x & y R→L 14
|= x |= y means x = x | y R→L 14
^= x ^= y means x = x ^ y R→L 14
<<= x <<= 4 means shift all bits in x four places R→L 14
to the left and assign the result to x
>>= x >>= 3 means shift all bits in x three R→L 14
places to the right and assign the result to x
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Data Access Operators
Data Access Operators
x[y] Access yth element of array x; y starts L→R 1

from zero and increases monotically up
to one less than declared size of array
x.y Access the member variable y of L→R 1
structure x
x –›y Access the member variable y of L→R 1

structure x
&x Access the address of variable x R→L 2
*x Access the value stored in the storage R→L 2

location (address) pointed to by pointer
variable x
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Miscellaneous Operators
Associativit Precedenc
Operator Meaning with Example
y e
Miscellaneous Operators
x(y) Evaluates function x with argument y L→R 1
sizeof (x) Evaluate the size of variable x in R→L 2

bytes
sizeof (type) Evaluate the size of data type “type” R→L 2
in bytes
(type) x Return the value of x after converting R→L 2

it from declared data type of variable
x to the new data type “type”
x,y Sequential operator (x then y) L→R 15
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Statements
§ C program is a combination of statements written

between { and } braces
§ Each statement performs a set of operations
§ Null statement, represented by “;” or empty {} braces,
does not perform any operation
§ A simple statement is terminated by a semicolon “;”
§ Compound statements, called statement block, perform
complex operations combining null, simple, and other
block statements
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Examples of Statements
§ a = (x + y) ∗ 10; /∗ simple statement ∗/
§ if (sell > cost) /∗ compound statement

follows ∗/
{
profit = sell – cost;
printf (“profit is %d”, profit);
}
else ∗/ null statement follows ∗/
{
}
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Simple I/O Operations
§ C has no keywords for I/O operations

§ Provides standard library functions for
performing all I/O operations
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Basic Library Functions for I/O

Operations
I/O Library
Meanings
Functions
getch() Inputs a single character (most recently typed) from standard input (usually
console).
getche() Inputs a single character from console and echoes (displays) it.
getchar() Inputs a single character from console and echoes it, but requires Enter key to be
typed after the character.
putchar() or Outputs a single character on console (screen).
putch()
scanf() Enables input of formatted data from console (keyboard). Formatted input data
means we can specify the data type expected as input. Format specifiers for
different data types are given in Figure 21.6.
printf() Enables obtaining an output in a form specified by programmer (formatted
output). Format specifiers are given in Figure 21.6. Newline character “\n” is
used in printf() to get the output split over separate lines.
gets() Enables input of a string from keyboard. Spaces are accepted as part of the input
string, and the input string is terminated when Enter key is hit. Note that although
scanf() enables input of a string of characters, it does not accept multi-word
strings (spaces in-between).
puts() Enables output of a multi-word string
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Basic Format Specifiers for
scanf() and printf()
Format
Data Types
Specifiers
%d integer (short signed)
integer (short
%u
unsigned)
%ld integer (long signed)
%lu integer (long unsigned)
%f real (float)
%lf real (double)
%c character
%s string
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Formatted I/O Example
/∗ A portion of C program to illustrate formatted input and output ∗/
int maths, science, english, total;

float percent;
clrscr(); /∗ A C library function to make the screen clear ∗/

printf ( “Maths marks = ” ); /∗ Displays “Maths marks = ” ∗/
scanf ( “%d”, &maths); /∗ Accepts entered value and stores in variable “maths” ∗/
printf ( “\n Science marks = ” ); /∗ Displays “Science marks = ” on next line because of \n ∗/
scanf ( “%d”, &science); /∗ Accepts entered value and stores in variable “science” ∗/
printf ( “\n English marks = ” ); /∗ Displays “English marks = ” on next line because of \n ∗/
scanf ( “%d”, &english); /∗ Accepts entered value and stores in variable “english” ∗/
total = maths + science + english;

percent = total/3; /∗ Calculates percentage and stores in variable “percent” ∗/
printf ( “\n Percentage marks obtained = %f”, percent);

/∗ Displays “Percentage marks obtained = 85.66” on next line
because of \n ∗/
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Formatted I/O Example

Output:
Maths marks = 92
Science marks = 87
English marks = 78
Percentage marks obtained = 85.66
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Preprocessor Directives
§ Preprocessor is a program that prepares a program for

the C compiler
§ Three common preprocessor directives in C are:
§ #include – Used to look for a file and place its
contents at the location where this preprocessor
directives is used
§ #define – Used for macro expansion
§ #ifdef..#endif – Used for conditional
compilation of segments of a program
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Examples of Preprocessor
Directives
#include <stdio.h>
#define PI 3.1415
#define AND &&
#define ADMIT printf (“The candidate can be admitted”);
#ifdef WINDOWS
.
.
.
Code specific to windows operating system
.
.
.
#else
.
.
.
Code specific to Linux operating system
.
.
.
#endif
.
.
.
Code common to both operating systems
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Standard Preprocessor
Directives in C
Preprocessor Directive Meaning Category
# Null directive
#error message Prints message when processed
Simple
#line linenum filename Used to update code line number and filename
#pragma name Compiler specific settings
#include filename Includes content of another file File
#define macro/string Define a macro or string substitution
#undef macro Removes a macro definition Macro
#if expr Includes following lines if expr is true

# elif expr Includes following lines if expr is true
#else Handles otherwise conditions of #if
Conditional
#endif Closes #if or #elif block
#ifdef macro Includes following lines if macro is defined
#ifndef imacro Includes following lines if macro is not defined
# String forming operator
## Token pasting operator Operators
defined same as #ifdef
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Pointers
§ C pointers allow programmers to directly access

memory addresses where variables are stored
§ Pointer variable is declared by adding a ‘∗’ symbol
before the variable name while declaring it.
§ If p is a pointer to a variable (e.g. int i, *p = i;)
§ Using p means address of the storage location of
the pointed variable
§ Using ∗p means value stored in the storage location
of the pointed variable
§ Operator ‘&’ is used with a variable to mean variable’s
address, e.g. &i gives address of variable i
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Illustrating Pointers Concept
1000 62 i
Location address Location Location

contents name
Address of i = 1000
Value of i = 62
int i = 62;
int ∗p;
int j;
p = &i; /∗ p becomes 1000 ∗/
j = ∗p; /∗ j becomes 62 ∗/
j = 0; /∗ j becomes zero ∗/
j = ∗(&i) /∗ j becomes 62 ∗/
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Array
§ Collection of fixed number of elements in which all

elements are of the same data type
§ Homogeneous, linear, and contiguous memory structure
§ Elements can be referred to by using their subscript or
index position that is monotonic in nature
§ First element is always denoted by subscript value of 0
(zero), increasing monotonically up to one less than
declared size of array
§ Before using an array, its type and dimension must be
declared
§ Can also be declared as multi-dimensional such as
Matrix2D[10][10]
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Illustrating Arrays Concept
1010 92 Y
1005
1008 63 A
1004
1006 82 1012 10.25
1003 B
1004 66 1008 250.00
1002 M
1002 84 1004 155.50 O
1001
1000 45 1000 82.75 B
1000
int marks[6]; float price[4]; char city[6];
Each element Each element Each element

being an int being a float being a char
occupies 2 bytes occupies 4 bytes occupies 1 byte
marks[0] = 45 price[0] = 82.75 city[0] = ‘B’

marks[1] = 84 price[1] = 155.50 city[1] = ‘O’
. . .
. . .
. . .
marks[5] = 92 price[3] = 10.25 city[5] = ‘Y’
(a) An array of (b) An array of (c) An array of

integers having real numbers characters
6 elements having 4 elements having 6 elements
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
String
§ One-dimensional array of characters terminated by a null

character (‘\0)’
§ Initialized at declaration as
§ char name[] = “PRADEEP”;
§ Individual elements can be accessed in the same way as
we access array elements such as name[3] = ‘D’
§ Strings are used for text processing
§ C provides a rich set of string handling library functions
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Library Functions for String Handling
Library Function Used To

strlen Obtain the length of a string
strlwr Convert all characters of a string to lowercase
strupr Convert all characters of a string to uppercase
strcat Concatenate (append) one string at the end of another
strncat Concatenate only first n characters of a string at the end of another
strcpy Copy a string into another
strncpy Copy only the first n characters of a string into another
strcmp Compare two strings
strncmp Compare only first n characters of two strings
stricmp Compare two strings without regard to case
strnicmp Compare only first n characters of two strings without regard to case
strdup Duplicate a string
strchr Find first occurrence of a given character in a string
strrchr Find last occurrence of a given character in a string
strstr Find first occurrence of a given string in another string
strset Set all characters of a string to a given character
strnset Set first n characters of a string to a given character
strrev Reverse a string
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
User Defined Data Types (UDTs)
§ UDT is composite data type whose composition is not

include in language specification
§ Programmer declares them in a program where they are
used
§ Two types of UDTs are:
§ Structure
§ Union
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Structure
§ UDT containing a number of data types grouped together

§ Constituents data types may or may not be of different
types
§ Has continuous memory allocation and its minimum size is
the sum of sizes of its constituent data types
§ All elements (member variable) of a structure are publicly
accessible
§ Each member variable can be accessed using “.” (dot)
operator or pointer (EmpRecord.EmpID or EmpRecord →
EmpID)
§ Can have a pointer member variable of its own type, which
is useful in crating linked list and similar data structures
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Structure (Examples)
struct Employee struct Employee

{ {
int EmpID; int EmpID;
char EmpName[20]; char EmpName[20];
}; } EmpRecord;
Struct Employee EmpRecord;

Struct Employee ∗pempRecord = &EmpRecord
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Union
§ UDT referring to same memory location using several data

types
§ Mathematical union of all constituent data types
§ Each data member begins at the same memory location
§ Minimum size of a union variable is the size of its largest
constituent data types
§ Each member variable can be accessed using “,” (dot)
operator
§ Section of memory can be treated as a variable of one type
on one occasion, and of another type on another occasion
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Union Example
unionNum
{
int intNum;
unsigned
unsNum’
};
union Num Number;
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Difference Between Structure and

Union
§ Both group a number of data types together
§ Structure allocates different memory space contiguously
to different data types in the group
§ Union allocates the same memory space to different
data types in the group
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Control Structures
§ Control structures (branch statements) are decision

points that control the flow of program execution based
on:
§ Some condition test (conditional branch)
§ Without condition test (unconditional branch)
§ Ensure execution of other statement/block or cause
skipping of some statement/block
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Conditional Branch Statements
§ if is used to implement simple one-way test. It can be in

one of the following forms:
§ if..stmt
§ if..stmt1..else..stmt2
§ if..stmt1..else..if..stmtn
§ switch facilitates multi-way condition test and is very
similar to the third if construct when primary test object
remains same across all condition tests
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Examples of “if” Construct
§ if (i <= 0) § if (i <= 0)
i++; i++;
else if (i >= 0)
§ if (i <= 0) j++;
i++; else
else k++;
j++;
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Example of “switch” Construct
Same thing can be written also using if

switch(ch)
construct as:
{
case ‘A’:
case ‘B’: if (ch == ‘A’ || ch == ‘B’ || ch ==
case ‘C’: ‘C’)
printf(“Capital”); printf(“Capital”);
break; else if (ch == ‘a’ || ch == ‘b’ || ch
case ‘a’: == ‘c’)
case ‘b’: printf(“Small”);
else
case ‘c’:
printf(“Not cap or small”);
printf(“Small”);
break;
default:
printf(“Not cap or small”);
}
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Unconditional Branch Statements
§ Break: Causes unconditional exit from for, while, do,

or switch constructs. Control is transferred to
the statement immediately outside the block
in which break appears.
§ Continue: Causes unconditional transfer to next
iteration in a for, while, or do construct.
Control is transferred to the statement
beginning the block in which continue
appears.
§ Goto label: Causes unconditional transfer to statement
marked with the label within the function.
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Unconditional Branch Statements
§ Return [value/variable]: Causes immediate termination of

function in which it appears and
transfers control to the statement
that called the function. Optionally,
it provides a value compatible to
the function’s return data type.
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Loop Structures
§ Loop statements are used to repeat the execution of

statement or blocks
§ Two types of loop structures are:
§ Pretest: Condition is tested before each iteration to
check if loop should occur
§ Posttest: Condition is tested after each iteration to
check if loop should continue (at least, a single
iteration occurs)
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Pretest Loop Structures
§ for: It has three parts:

§ Initializer is executed at start of loop
§ Loop condition is tested before iteration to
decide whether to continue or terminate the
loop
§ Incrementor is executed at the end of each
iteration
§ While: It has a loop condition only that is tested
before each iteration to decide whether to
continue to terminate the loop
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Examples of “for” and “while”

Constructs
§ for (i=0; i < 10; i++)

printf(“i = %d”, i);
§ while (i < 10)

{
i++;
}
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Posttest Loop Construct
“do…while”
§ It has a loop condition only that is tested after each
iteration to decide whether to continue with next
iteration or terminate the loop
§ Example of do…while is:
do {
i++;
}while (i < 10) ;
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Functions
§ Functions (or subprograms) are building blocks of a

program
§ All functions must be declared and defined before use
§ Function declaration requires functionname, argument list,
and return type
§ Function definition requires coding the body or logic of
function
§ Every C program must have a main function. It is the
entry point of the program
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Example of a Function
int myfunc ( int Val, int ModVal )

{
unsigned temp;
temp = Val % ModVal;
return temp;
}
This function can be called from any other place using

simple statement:
int n = myfunc(4, 2);
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Sample C Program (Program-1)
/∗ Program to accept an integer from console and to display

whether the number is even or odd ∗/
# include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int number, remainder;
clrscr(); /∗ clears the console screen ∗/
printf (“Enter an integer: ”);
scanf (“%d”, &number);
remainder = number % 2;
if (remainder == 0)
printf (“\n The given number is even”);
else
printf (“\n The given number is odd”);
getch();
}
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
/∗ Program to accept an integer in the range 1 to 7 (both inclusive) from

console and to display the corresponding day (Monday for 1, Tuesday for
2, Wednesday for 3, and so on). If the entered number is out of range,
the program displays a message saying that ∗/
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
#define MON printf (“\n Entered number is 1 hence day is MONDAY”);

#define TUE printf (“\n Entered number is 2 hence day is TUESDAY”);
#define WED printf (“\n Entered number is 3 hence day is WEDNESDAY”);
#define THU printf (“\n Entered number is 4 hence day is THURSDAY”);
#define FRI printf (“\n Entered number is 5 hence day is FRIDAY”);
#define SAT printf (“\n Entered number is 6 hence day is SATURDAY”);
#define SUN printf (“\n Entered number is 7 hence day is SUNDAY”);
#define OTH printf (“\n Entered number is out of range”);
void main()
{
int day;
clrscr();
printf (“Enter an integer in the range 1 to 7”);
scanf (“%d”, &day);
switch(day)
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

{
Case 1:
MON;
break;
Case 2:
TUE;
break;
Case 3:
WED;
break;
Case 4:
THU;
break;
Case 5:
FRI;
break;
Case 6:
SAT;
break;
Case 7:
SUN;
break;
defautl:
OTH;
}
getch();
}
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
/∗ Program to accept the radius of a circle from console and to calculate

and display its area and circumference ∗/
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
# define PI 3.1415
void main()
{
float radius, area, circum;
clrscr();
printf (“Enter the radius of the circle: ”);
scanf (“%f”, &radius);
area = PI ∗ radius ∗ radius;
circum = 2 ∗ PI ∗ radius;
printf (“\n Area and circumference of the circle are %f
and %f respectively”, area, circum);
getch();
}
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
/∗ Program to accept a string from console and to display the number of

vowels in the string ∗/
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
# include <string.h>
void main()
{
char input_string[50]; /∗ maximum 50 characters ∗/
int len;
int i = 0, cnt = 0;
clrscr();
printf (“Enter a string of less than 50 characters: \n”);
gets (input_string);
len = strlen (input_string);
for (i = 0; i < len; i++)
{
switch (input_string[i])
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
{
case ‘a’:
case ‘e’:
case ‘i’:
case ‘o’:
case ‘u’:
case ‘A’:
case ‘E’:
case ‘I’:
case ‘O’:
case ‘U’:
cnt++
}
}
printf (“\n Number of vowels in the string are: %d”, cnt);
getch();
}
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
/∗ Program to illustrate use of a user defined function. The program initializes an array of n elements
from 0 to n-1 and then calculates and prints the sum of the array elements. In this example n = 10 ∗/
#include <stdio.h>
#define SIZE 10
int ArrSum(int *p, int n);

{
int s, tot = 0;
for(s = 0; s < n; s++)
{
tot += *p;
p++;
}
return tot;
}
int main()
{
int i = 0, sum = 0;
int nArr[SIZE] = {0};
while(i < SIZE)
{
nArr[i] = i;
i++
}
sum = ArrSum(nArr, SIZE);
printf("Sum of 0 to 9 = %d\n", sum);
return 0;
}
Computer
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Key Words/Phrases
§ Arithmetic operators § Macro expansion
§ Arrays § Main function
§ Assignment operators § Member element
§ Bit-level manipulation § Null statement
§ Bitwise operators § Operator associativity
§ Branch statement § Operator precedence
§ Character set § Pointer
§ Comment statement § Posttest loop
§ Compound statement § Preprocessor directives
§ Conditional branch § Pretest loop
§ Conditional § Primitive data types
compilation § Reserved words
§ Constants § Simple statement
§ Control structures § Statement block
§ Format specifiers § Strings
§ Formatted I/O § Structure data type
§ Function § Unconditional branch
§ Keywords § Union data type
§ Library functions § User-defined data types
§ Logical operators § Variable name
§ Loop structures § Variable type declaration
§ Variables

Computer-Science PK Sinha

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Computer-Science PK Sinha

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Computer

Ref Page Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 1/17

In this chapter you will learn about:

Ref Page 01 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 2/17

§ The word computer comes from the word “compute”,

§ Thereby, a computer is an electronic device that can

§ A computer is also called a data processor because it can

Ref Page 01 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 3/17

The activity of processing data using a computer is called

Ref Page 01 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 4/17

1) Automatic: Given a job, computer can work on it

2) Speed: Computer can perform data processing jobs

3) Accuracy: Accuracy of a computer is consistently high

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 02 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 5/17

4) Diligence: Computer is free from monotony, tiredness,

5) Versatility: Computer is capable of performing almost

6) Power of Remembering: Computer can store and

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 02 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 6/17

7) No I.Q.: A computer does only what it is programmed

8) No Feelings: Computers are devoid of emotions. Their

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 03 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 7/17

§ Blaise Pascal invented the first mechanical adding

Ref Page 03 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 8/17

§ Charles Babbage is considered to be the father of

§ He designed “Difference Engine” in 1822

§ He designed a fully automatic analytical engine in

§ His efforts established a number of principles that

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 03 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 9/17

Some Well Known Early Computers

§ The Mark I Computer (1937-44)

Ref Page 03 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 10/17

§ “Generation” in computer talk is a step in technology. It

§ Originally it was used to distinguish between various

§ Till today, there are five computer generations

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 05 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 11/17

Key hardware Key software Key Some

First § Vacuum tubes § Machine and § Bulky in size § ENIAC

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 13 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 12/17

Generation Key hardware Key software Key Some rep.

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 13 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 13/17

Generation Key hardware Key software Key Some rep.

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 13 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 14/17

Generation Key hardware Key software Key Some rep.

Ref Page 13 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 15/17

(a) A Vacuum Tube (b) A Transistor (c) An IC Chip

Ref Page 07 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 16/17

§ Computer § Integrated Circuit (IC)

Ref Page 12 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 17/17

Ref. Page Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 1/16

In this chapter you will learn about:

(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 15 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 2/16

§ Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

§ Control Unit (CU)

§ Central Processing Unit (CPU)