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Executive Summary
Diagnosis and Management of Lung Cancer,
3rd ed: American College of Chest Physicians
Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines
Frank C. Detterbeck, MD, FCCP; Sandra Zelman Lewis, PhD; Rebecca Diekemper, MPH;
Doreen J. Addrizzo-Harris, MD, FCCP; and W. Michael Alberts, MD, MBA, FCCP
CHEST 2013; 143(5)(Suppl):7S–37S and it is now a vibrant field with a rapid pace of
new information. The explosion of literature makes
Abbreviations: ACCP 5 American College of Chest Physicians; it difficult for anyone to stay current. With more
AFB 5 autofluorescence bronchoscopy; APW 5 Aortopulmonary insight comes the identification of many nuances
Window; BSC 5 best supportive care; CIS 5 carcinoma in situ; that are important to correctly understand new stud-
CPET 5 cardiopulmonary exercise test; CXR 5 chest radiograph; ies and choose the optimal treatments for patients.
Dlco 5 diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide; EBUS 5 endo-
Lung cancer has evolved to where it takes a team of
bronchial ultrasound; ECOG 5 Eastern Cooperative Oncology
Group; EGFR 5 epidermal growth factor receptor; ES 5 exten- individuals, each with lung cancer expertise within
sive stage; FA 5 fine needle aspiration; GGO 5 ground glass opacity; their specialty, to be able to provide the necessary
IASLC 5 International Association for the Study of Lung Can- up-to-date knowledge base. The crucial aspect here
cer; LC III 5 3rd edition of the ACCP Lung Cancer Guidelines; is not to simply have multiple specialties but to
LDCT 5 low-dose CT; LS 5 limited stage; LUL 5 left upper lobe;
develop a forum for ongoing interaction, so that the
LVRS 5 lung volume reduction surgery; MFLC 5 multifocal lung
cancer; MPE 5 malignant pleural effusion; NA 5 needle aspira- individuals think and function as a team, making
tion; NLST 5 National Lung Cancer Screening Trial; NRS 5 numer- decisions collectively. Such integration and collab-
ical rating scale; NSAID 5 nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug; oration allow collective knowledge and judgment to
NSCLC 5 non-small cell lung cancer; PET 5 positron emission be brought to bear on caring for patients. Even for
tomography; PPO 5 predicted postoperative; PS 5 performance
such a team, however, staying abreast of advances is
status; QOL 5 quality of life; RCT 5 randomized controlled trial;
RT 5 radiotherapy; SBRT 5 stereotactic body radiation ther- challenging.
apy; SCLC 5 small cell lung cancer; SVC 5 superior vena cava; Evidence-based guidelines are intended to make
SWT 5 shuttle walk test; TBNA 5 transbronchial needle aspiration; the process of providing up-to-date care easier. The
TRT 5 thoracic radiotherapy; TTNA 5 transthoracic needle aspi- third edition of the American College of Chest Physi-
ration; VAS 5 visual analog scale; VATS 5 video-assisted thoracic
cians (ACCP) Lung Cancer Guidelines (LC III) is a
surgery; VEGF 5 vascular endothelial growth factor; o2max 5 max-
imal oxygen consumption; WHO 5 World Health Organization; systematic, extensive, comprehensive review of the
WLB 5 white light bronchosopy literature, a structured interpretation of the data, and
practical patient management recommendations. The
LC III panelists were selected based on expertise and
volunteered an astounding number of hours to care-
8S Executive Summary
3.1.1.1. We recommend that current smokers 3.3.1.3. Among lung cancer patients for whom
undergoing low-dose CT screening be provided pharmacotherapeutic support is either contrain-
with cessation interventions that include coun- dicated or refused, we suggest cessation coun-
seling and pharmacotherapy (Grade 1B). seling alone as a method to improve abstinence
rates (Grade 2C).
Remark: The act of screening alone is insufficient to
promote smoking cessation. 3.4.1.1. Among lung cancer patients undergoing
radiotherapy, we recommend cessation inter-
Remark: The use of self-help materials is insufficient
ventions that include counseling and pharmaco-
for achieving an increased rate of smoking abstinence.
therapy (Grade 1C).
3.1.1.2. Among current smokers with demon-
strated smoking related pulmonary disease we
recommend providing intensive cessation inter- 7.0 Screening for Lung Cancer
ventions (Grade 1B).
Major progress has been made in defining the role
3.2.1.1. Among lung cancer patients undergoing of screening for lung cancer. The results of a major
surgery, we recommend perioperative cessation RCT evaluating chest radiographs is consistent with
pharmacotherapy as a method for improving earlier RCTs, showing that this is not a useful screen-
abstinence rates (Grade 1B). ing test. There are several RCTs evaluating the role
of LDCT scanning. The largest of these is the National
3.2.1.2. Among lung cancer patients undergoing Lung Cancer Screening Trial (NLST), which has
surgery for whom pharmacotherapeutic sup- reported a reduction in lung cancer deaths among
port is either contraindicated or refused, we screened individuals. This involved patients with a
suggest cessation counseling alone during the significant risk of lung cancer due to age and smok-
perioperative period (Grade 2C). ing history. Two smaller studies have also reported
mortality data; although they did not demonstrate a
3.2.1.3. Among lung cancer patients undergoing mortality benefit, they are probably best viewed as
surgery, the timing of cessation does not appear neither supporting nor refuting the NLST results.
to increase the risk of post-operative complica- The average risk of lung cancer of individuals partici-
tions; we suggest that cessation interventions be pating in these smaller trials appears to be slightly
initiated in the pre-operative period (Grade 2C). less.
LDCT scanning identifies small nodules in 10% to
Remark: Small observed effect sizes and limitations 50% of those screened, the vast majority of which are
in experimental design do not justify delaying surgical benign. The rate of nodule detection varies and is not
procedures in favor of longer abstinence duration. readily explained (eg, size criteria, scanner parame-
3.2.1.4. For lung cancer patients attempting ters, population risk, and so forth). All of the con-
cessation in conjunction with surgical interven- trolled LDCT scanning trials have had an organized
tions, we recommend initiating counseling and process in place for evaluation of findings, and this
pharmacotherapy at the outset of surgical inter- has resulted in relatively few patients undergoing
vention (Grade 1B). invasive biopsies. Nevertheless, the rate of biopsy for
benign lesions is highly variable and averages around
Remark: There is substantial evidence suggesting 30%. The reason for the variation is poorly under-
that reliance on short, low intensity cessation inter- stood. Although harms have been relatively few, there
ventions such as advice to quit does not improve is a risk from radiation exposure, and there have been
abstinence outcomes. complications and even rare deaths in patients under-
going investigation of what turned out to be a benign,
3.3.1.1. Among lung cancer patients undergoing screen-detected nodule.
chemotherapy, we recommend cessation inter- These results indicate that screening is a complex
ventions that include counseling and pharmaco- interplay of baseline risk, the screening test, test inter-
therapy to improve abstinence rates (Grade 1B). pretation, and management of the findings. There is
Remark: PET may be indicated for pretreatment 4.6.2.1.1. In the individual with a solid, inde-
staging among those patients with nodules in whom terminate nodule that measures . 8 mm in
malignancy is strongly suspected or confirmed. diameter, we suggest nonsurgical biopsy in the
following circumstances (Grade 2C):
4.4.1.1. In the individual with a solid, indetermi-
nate nodule that measures . 8 mm in diameter, • When clinical pretest probability and find-
we recommend that clinicians discuss the risks ings on imaging tests are discordant
and benefits of alternative management strat- • When the probability of malignancy is low
egies and elicit patient preferences for manage- to moderate (~ 10% to 60%)
ment (Grade 1C). • When a benign diagnosis requiring specific
medical treatment is suspected
4.5.1.1. In the individual with a solid, indeter- • When a fully informed patient desires proof
minate nodule that measures . 8 mm in diam- of a malignant diagnosis prior to surgery,
eter, we suggest surveillance with serial CT scans especially when the risk of surgical compli-
in the following circumstances (Grade 2C): cations is high.
Remark: For the individual with multiple small, solid Remark: Limited duration or no follow-up may be
nodules, the frequency and duration of follow-up preferred by individuals with life-limiting comor-
should be based on the size of the largest nodule. bidities in whom a low-grade malignancy would be
of little consequence or by others who place a high
Remark: CT surveillance of solid nodules ⱕ 8 mm value on avoiding treatment of possibly indolent lung
should use low-dose, noncontrast techniques. cancer.
2.3.3. In patients suspected of having lung can- 3.2.2.1. In patients suspected of having lung can-
cer who have a solitary extrathoracic site suspi- cer, who have a central lesion, bronchoscopy is
cious of a metastasis, it is recommended that recommended to confirm the diagnosis. However,
tissue confirmation of the metastatic site be it is recommended that further testing be per-
obtained if a FNA or biopsy of the site is feasible formed if bronchoscopy results are non-diagnostic
(Grade 1C). and suspicion of lung cancer remains (Grade 1B).
2.3.4. In patients suspected of having lung can- Remark: In recent years a number of complementary
cer, who have lesions in multiple distant sites tools including radial endobronchial ultrasound and
suspected of metastases but in whom biopsy of a electromagnetic navigation have been added to flex-
metastatic site would be technically difficult, it ible bronchoscopy to aid in the diagnosis of periph-
is recommended that diagnosis of the primary eral lung lesions.
lung lesion be obtained by the least invasive
method (Grade 1C). 3.3.2.1. In patients suspected of having lung
cancer, who have a peripheral lung nodule, and
2.3.5. In patients suspected of having lung can- a tissue diagnosis is required due to uncertainty
cer who have an accessible pleural effusion, of diagnosis or poor surgical candidacy, radial
3.4.2.1. In patients with peripheral lung lesions Surgery remains the mainstay of treatment of early-
difficult to reach with conventional bronchos- stage lung cancer, and assessment of a patient’s ability
copy, electromagnetic navigation guidance is to tolerate a resection is important. Patients should
recommended if the equipment and the exper- undergo a simple cardiac risk assessment, with fur-
tise are available (Grade 1C). ther investigation (ie, cardiopulmonary exercise testing)
if this suggests potential complications. Assessment
Remark: The procedure can be performed with or of pulmonary reserve should include both spirometry
without fluoroscopic guidance and it has been found and diffusion capacity, calculated as a predicted post-
complementary to radial probe ultrasound operative value (taking into account the intended
resection) and expressed as a percent of normal (thus
Remark: If electromagnetic navigation is not avail- taking into account variations in body size). Patients
able, TTNA is recommended. with moderate impairment should undergo a simple
exercise test, such as stair climbing; if performance is
3.5.2.1. In patients suspected of having lung limited (stair climb of , 22 m), formal cardiopulmonary
cancer who have a peripheral lesion, and who exercise testing is indicated (see Fig 2 in Brunelli et al3
require tissue diagnosis before further manage- in LC III).
ment can be planned, TTNA is a diagnostic An important aspect of physiologic evaluation is that
option. However, it is recommended that fur- there is a continuum of risk and benefit that is not
ther testing be performed if TTNA results are well served by simple dichotomization into a yes/no
non-diagnostic and suspicion of lung cancer categorization of candidacy for pulmonary resection.
remains (Grade 1B). Furthermore, the available data primarily pertain to
open thoracotomy; thoracoscopic resection is clearly
3.6.2.1. In patients suspected of having lung
better tolerated, although the criteria for preopera-
cancer, the diagnosis of non-small cell lung can-
tive assessment are not well defined. The decision to
cer made on cytology (sputum, TTNA, broncho-
undertake surgery must take into account aspects
scopic specimens, or pleural fluid) is reliable.
such as the possibility of sublobar resection, thoraco-
However, it is recommended that adequate
scopic resection, alternative (nonsurgical) treatments,
tissue be obtained to accurately define the his-
and beneficial effects of smoking cessation and pre-
tologic type and to perform molecular analysis
operative pulmonary rehabilitation.
when applicable (Grade 1B).
The available data primarily define outcomes rela-
Remark: It is critical to obtain adequate tissue to char- tive to acute morbidity and mortality; the effect on
acterize a lung cancer. Within an institution, effec- long-term functional status is less well understood.
tive communication between those obtaining the Patients with worse preoperative lung function often
biopsies, those interpreting them, and those deliv- lose less function. The evaluation of marginal patients
ering the treatment must be in place so that collec- requires multidisciplinary management.
tively, the members of various subspecialties involved
in the care of the lung cancer patient can decide how Summary of Recommendations: Physiologic
best to obtain and optimally use the tissue. If speci- Evaluation Prior to Resectional Surgery
mens are not adequate for histologic and molecular 2.6.1. In patients with lung cancer who are
characterization then obtaining a second biopsy is potential candidates for curative surgical resec-
acceptable given the importance of accurate tumor tion, it is recommended that they be assessed
characterization. by a multidisciplinary team, which includes a
thoracic surgeon specializing in lung cancer,
3.6.2.2. The possibility of an erroneous diagno- medical oncologist, radiation oncologist and
sis of SCLC on a cytology specimen must be pulmonologist (Grade 1C).
kept in mind if the clinical presentation or clin-
ical course is not consistent with that of SCLC. 2.6.2. In elderly patients with lung cancer who
In such a case, it is recommended that further are potential candidates for curative surgical
3.2.1.3. In patients with lung cancer being con- 7.4.2. In all patients with lung cancer being con-
sidered for surgery, with either a PPO FEV1 , 30% sidered for surgery who are actively smoking,
predicted or a PPO DLCO , 30% predicted per- tobacco dependence treatment is recommended
formance of a formal cardiopulmonary exer- (Grade 1C).
cise test (CPET) with measurement of maximal
Remark: Smoking cessation is associated with short-
oxygen consumption ( O2max) is recommended
term perioperative and long-term survival benefits
(Grade 1B).
(see also specific recommendations in chapter 6,
Remark: Either a PPO FEV1 , 30% predicted or a 3.1.1, 3.1.2, 3.1.3).
PPO Dlco , 30% predicted indicate an increased
7.4.3. In patients with lung cancer being con-
risk for perioperative death and cardiopulmonary
sidered for surgery and deemed at high risk
complications with anatomic lung resection.
(as defined by the proposed functional algo-
3.9.1. In patients with lung cancer being consid- rithm, ie, PPO FEV1 or PPO DLCO , 60% and
ered for surgery who walk , 25 shuttles (or , 400m) O2max , 10 mL/kg/min or , 35%), preopera-
on the SWT or climb , 22m at symptom limited tive or postoperative pulmonary rehabilitation
stair climbing test, performance of a formal is recommended (Grade 1C).
CPET with measurement of O2max is recom-
mended (Grade 1C).
12.0 The Stage Classification
Remark: Walking , 25 shuttles (or , 400m) on the SWT of Lung Cancer
or climbing , 22m at symptom limited stair climbing
test suggests an increased risk for perioperative death Having a consistent nomenclature is crucial to
and cardiopulmonary complications with anatomic being able to communicate and compare data from
lung resection. different studies and centers. The official worldwide
Remark: The reliability of mediastinal staging may be Details of the pathologic assessment of lung cancer
more dependent on the thoroughness with which the have become more important. Definition of the his-
procedure is performed than by which test is used. tologic subtype of NSCLC is crucial in selection of
chemotherapy regimens. Further subtyping of ade-
4.4.6.1. In patients with an intermediate suspi- nocarcinoma may be important in determining bio-
cion of N2,3 involvement, ie, a radiographically logic behavior and the extent of local therapy. This
normal mediastinum (by CT and PET) and a article provides a framework for the pathologist in
central tumor or N1 lymph node enlargement assessment of lung cancers with immunohistochem-
(and no distant metastases), invasive staging of ical and genetic tests. Reporting is ideally done in a
the mediastinum is recommended over staging standardized form, but communication with clini-
by imaging alone (Grade 1C). cians to discuss nuances remains important.
Remark: We suggest this should typically involve a Summary of Recommendations: Stage IV NSCLC
doublet regimen for 3 to 4 cycles initiated within
General Approach
12 weeks.
2.1.1. In patients with a good performance
4.5.4. In patients with R0 resected NSCLC who status (PS) (ie, Eastern Cooperative Oncology
were found to have incidental (occult) N2 dis- Group [ECOG] level 0 or 1) and stage IV non-
ease (IIIA) despite thorough preoperative staging, small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), a platinum-
sequential adjuvant radiotherapy is suggested based chemotherapy regimen is recommended
when concern for a local recurrence is high based on the survival advantage and improve-
(Grade 2C). ment in quality of life (QOL) over best suppor-
tive care (BSC). (Grade 1A).
Remark: Adjuvant postoperative radiotherapy reduces
the incidence of local recurrence, but it is unclear Remark: Patients may be treated with several chemo-
whether it improves survival. therapy regimens (carboplatin and cisplatin are accept-
able, and can be combined with paclitaxel, docetaxel,
Remark: Adjuvant chemotherapy should be used ini-
gemcitabine, pemetrexed or vinorelbine)
tially followed by radiotherapy; concurrent chemo-
radiotherapy is not recommended (except in a clinical 2.2.2. In patients with stage IV NSCLC and a
trial). good PS, two-drug combination chemotherapy
is recommended. The addition of a third cyto-
4.5.5. In patients with NSCLC who were found
toxic chemotherapeutic agent is not recom-
to have incidental (occult) N2 disease (IIIA)
mended because it provides no survival benefit
despite thorough preoperative staging and were
and may be harmful. (Grade 1A).
incompletely resected (R1,2), combined postop-
erative concurrent chemotherapy and radio- First Line Treatment
therapy is suggested (Grade 2C).
3.1.1.1. In patients receiving palliative chemo-
therapy for stage IV NSCLC, it is recommended
18.0 Treatment of Stage IV NSCLC that the choice of chemotherapy is guided by
the histologic type of NSCLC (Grade 1B).
Significant advances continue to be made in the
treatment of stage IV NSCLC; although cure is not Remark: The use of pemetrexed (either alone or in
possible, significant palliation in terms of improved combination) should be limited to patients with non-
quality of life (QOL) and duration of survival can be squamous NSCLC.
accomplished. Significant clarity has been achieved
Remark: Squamous histology has not been identified
in terms of which agents to use in very specific sit-
as predictive of better response to any particular che-
uations. The choice of chemotherapy is directed to a
motherapy agent.
large extent by the histologic type of NSCLC, making
it all the more important to have adequate material 3.2.1.1. In patients with known epidermal
for a detailed diagnosis. Furthermore, targeted therapy growth factor receptor (EGFR) mutations and
is the first-line treatment of choice for patients with stage IV NSCLC, first-line therapy with an
an epidermal growth factor receptor mutation. EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor (gefitinib or
Maintenance chemotherapy has been established erlotinib) is recommended based on superior
to be useful in many situations, with the details of response rates, progression-free survival and
which agents being determined by the histologic type toxicity profiles compared with platinum-based
and the choice of the initial regimen. Furthermore, doublets (Grade 1A).
the safety and efficacy of chemotherapy have been
extended. Vascular endothelial growth factor inhibi- 3.3.1.1. Bevacizumab improves survival combined
tors are safe and useful in patients initially believed with carboplatin and paclitaxel in a clinically
3.4.4.3. In patients with stage IV non-squamous 7.1.1. In patients with stage IV NSCLC early
NSCLC who do not experience disease pro- initiation of palliative care is suggested to
gression after 4 cycles of platinum-pemetrexed improve both QOL and duration of survival
therapy, continuation pemetrexed maintenance (Grade 2B).
therapy is suggested (Grade 2B).
3.4.4.4. In patients with stage IV NSCLC who
do not experience disease progression after 19.0 Special Treatment Issues in NSCLC
4 cycles of platinum-based double agent chemo- There are several relatively unusual presentations
therapy, maintenance therapy with erlotinib is of NSCLC for which the anatomic and biologic issues
suggested (Grade 2B). dictate a different approach. This includes patients
3.5.1.1. In patients with stage IV NSCLC the with Pancoast tumors, T4N0,1M0 central tumors,
addition of cetuximab in combination with che- chest wall involvement, additional pulmonary tumor
motherapy is suggested not to be used outside nodules, synchronous and metachronous second pri-
of a clinical trial (Grade 2B). mary lung cancers, multifocal lung cancer, and solitary
metastases.
Patients with Pancoast tumors appear to have the
Second and Third Line Treatment best outcomes after preoperative chemoradiotherapy
4.1.1. In patients with stage IV NSCLC who and surgical resection, although preoperative RT is a
have good PS (ECOG 0-2), second-line treat- reasonable alternative. Advances in surgical tech-
ment with erlotinib or docetaxel (or equivalent niques allow a complete resection to be achieved in
single-agent such as pemetrexed) is recom- specialized centers in situations traditionally con-
mended (Grade 1A). sidered unresectable. Similarly, good results can be
achieved in the relatively small number of patients
4.1.2. In patients with stage IV NSCLC who with a T4 (due to local invasion) N0,1M0 tumor by
have good PS (ECOG 0-2), third-line treatment surgical resection in specialized centers.
Remark: If PET is obtained, then bone scan may be Remark: Reinitiation of the previously administered
omitted. first-line chemotherapy regimen is recommended in
patients who relapse . 6 months from completion of
2.4.3. In patients with SCLC, it is recommended initial chemotherapy. Enrollment in a clinical trial is
that both the Veterans Administration system (LS encouraged.
vs extensive stage [ES]) and the American Joint
Committee on Cancer/International Union Against 8.1.1. In elderly patients with LS-SCLC and
Cancer seventh edition system (TNM) should be good performance status (PS) (Eastern Cooper-
used to classify the tumor stage (Grade 1B). ative Oncology Group [ECOG] 0-2), treatment
with platinum-based chemotherapy plus TRT is
3.1.1. In patients with clinical stage I SCLC, suggested, with close attention to management
who are being considered for curative intent of treatment-related toxicity (Grade 2B).
surgical resection, invasive mediastinal staging
and extrathoracic imaging (head MRI/CT and 8.1.2. In elderly patients with ES-SCLC and
PET or abdominal CT plus bone scan) is recom- good PS (ECOG 0-2), treatment with carbopla-
mended (Grade 1B). tin-based chemotherapy is suggested (Grade 2A).
3.1.2. In patients with clinical stage I SCLC 8.1.3. In elderly patients with SCLC and poor
after a thorough evaluation for distant metasta- PS, treatment with chemotherapy is suggested
ses and invasive mediastinal stage evaluation, if the poor PS is due to SCLC (Grade 2C).
surgical resection is suggested over non-surgi-
cal treatment (Grade 2C).
21.0 Complementary Therapies and
3.1.3. In patients with stage I SCLC who have Integrative Medicine in Lung Cancer
undergone curative-intent surgical resection,
platinum-based adjuvant chemotherapy is rec- Complementary therapies are rational, evidence-
ommended (Grade 1C). based techniques that alleviate physical and emotional
2.6.3.3. In patients undergoing treatment of lung 4.1.1. In NSCLC patients who have undergone
cancer who have experienced weight loss, the curative-intent therapy, it is suggested that a
addition of high calorie and protein supplements validated health-related quality-of-life (QOL)
(1.5 kcal/mL) as a nutritional adjunct is suggested instrument be used at baseline clinic visits and
to achieve weight stabilization (Grade 2C). during follow-up (Grade 2C).
2.6.3.4. In patients with lung cancer who have 5.1.1. For lung cancer patients treated with
sarcopenia, oral nutritional supplementation curative intent, it is suggested that surveillance
with n-3 fatty acids is suggested in order to biomarker testing not be done (outside of clin-
improve the nutritional status (Grade 2C). ical trials) (Grade 2C).
6.4.1. For patients with early central airway
22.0 Follow-up and Surveillance squamous cell carcinoma treated by curative-
of the Patient With Lung Cancer intent photodynamic therapy, it is recommended
After Curative-Intent Therapy that surveillance bronchoscopy be done at 1, 2,
and 3 months and thereafter at 3-month inter-
Variation exists in the type and schedule of follow-up vals during the first year, then every 6 months
of patients who have undergone curative-intent therapy until 5 years (Grade 1C).
for lung cancer (see Fig 1 in Colt et al5 in LC III).
This article includes a very extensive literature search Remark: Autofluorescence bronchoscopy may be used
and summary of the data to define this. It is inter- if available (Grade 2C).
esting that there are more data available for relatively
6.4.2. For patients with intraluminal bronchial
infrequent situations and treatments (eg, endobron-
carcinoid tumor who have undergone curative-
chial therapies, carcinoid tumors) than for the much
intent bronchoscopic treatment using Nd:YAG
larger cohort of patients treated with surgery, chemo-
or electrocautery, it is suggested that surveil-
therapy, or radiation for lung cancer. There are data
lance bronchoscopy be done within 6 weeks
supporting the involvement of the treating physician in
after endobronchial resection, every 6 months
the long-term follow-up and interpretation of imaging
for 2 years, and annually thereafter (Grade 2C).
studies, and there appears to be value in including a
formal QOL assessment in the follow-up. Data do
not support extensive imaging or use of biomarkers 23.0 Symptom Management in
for surveillance. A chest CT scan every 6 months for Patients With Lung Cancer
2 years and annually thereafter is a reasonable schedule,
although further research in this area is needed. Many patients with lung cancer suffer from symp-
toms such as pain, dyspnea, cough, neurologic symp-
toms, fatigue, depression, anxiety, and other psychologic
Summary of Recommendations: Follow-up and difficulties. This is especially true of those with
Surveillance of the Patient With Lung Cancer advanced disease, and a specific focus on palliation
3.5.1. In patients who have undergone curative- of symptoms is tremendously important for these
intent surgical resection of non-small cell lung can- patients. Many tools have been developed that can
cer (NSCLC), it is suggested that chest CT be facilitate and streamline the process of providing pal-
performed every 6 months for the first 2 years after liative care.
resection and every year thereafter (Grade 2C). The symptom management article provides an
evidence-based structure for pain management, includ-
3.5.2. For patients with NSCLC or carcinoid ing which drugs and combinations to select, how to dose
tumor who have undergone curative-intent ther- them, and how to gauge effectiveness and address
apy, it is recommended that the original treat- side effects. Cough is best managed by addressing
ing physicians participate in the decision-making the source of the symptom whenever possible. In the
process during the follow-up and surveillance absence of a treatable cause, opioids are the mainstay
(Grade 1C). of treatment; steroids are reserved for inflammatory
conditions, including toxicities to active treatment.
3.5.3. After curative-intent therapy in patients Management of bone metastases with bisphospho-
with NSCLC or carcinoid tumors, routine surveil- nates is supported by high-quality data. RT is also
lance with PET imaging, somatostatin receptor beneficial, with single fractionation being supported
Remark: A patient-reported pain scale should be the 2.13.11. In lung cancer patients with stable,
principal tool to assess their pain. severe, chronic cancer pain who have difficulty
swallowing, nausea and vomiting, or other adverse
Remark: Visual analog scales (VASs), numerical rating effect from oral medications, transdermal fen-
scales (NRSs) and verbal rating scales are also sug- tanyl is recommended as an alternative to oral
gested tools for rating pain. morphine (Grade 1B).
2.13.2. In patients with lung cancer who experi- 2.13.12. In lung cancer patients with severe
ence chronic pain, the use of the World Health chronic pain, it is suggested that the prescription
2.13.16. In lung cancer patients with severe 5.4.3. In all lung cancer patients with troublesome
chronic cancer pain treated with systemic strong cough attributed to chemotherapy or radiation-
opioids, dose titration using either immediate induced pneumonitis, anti-inflammatory therapy
release or sustained release oral morphine is with corticosteroids is recommended (Grade 1C).
suggested (Grade 2B).
Remark: Macrolides can be considered as steroid-
Remark: The recommended starting dose is oral mor- sparing agents.
phine 30 mg/24 h in patients not previously treated
with opioids, and 60 mg/24 h in those already taking Palliation of Bone Metastasis
an opioid at step 2 of the WHO ladder. Where imme- 6.7.1. In patients with lung cancer who have pain
diate release oral morphine is used, the four-hourly due to bone metastases, external radiation therapy
dose is used to treat episodes of uncontrolled pain is recommended for pain relief (Grade 1A).
and in this context may be used up to hourly. The
total dose administered in 24 h is used to calculate Remark: A single fraction of 8 Gy is equally effective
ongoing opioid requirements. Where sustained release for immediate relief of pain and more cost-effective
morphine is used, the total estimated daily dose is than higher fractionated doses of external radiation
prescribed as once-daily or twice-daily oral morphine. therapy.
2.13.17. In lung cancer patients with severe 6.7.2. In patients with lung cancer who have
chronic cancer pain treated with systemic strong painful bone metastases, bisphosphonates are
opioids who experience breakthrough pain, recommended in addition to external beam
parenteral morphine or transmucosal fentanyl radiation therapy for pain relief (Grade 1A).
citrate are recommended (Grade 1B).
6.7.3. In patients with lung cancer who have
Remark: Oral transmucosal fentanyl citrate, fentanyl painful bone metastases to long and/or weight
buccal tablet and transnasal fentanyl spray are all bearing bones and a solitary well-defined lytic
effective formulations for breakthrough pain. lesion circumferentially involving . 50% of the
cortex and an expected survival . 4 weeks with
Remark: In patients with severe chronic cancer pain satisfactory health status, surgical fixation is
who experience a lack of effective analgesia, or uncon- recommended to minimize the potential for a
trollable side effects, or both, it is appropriate to fracture (Grade 1C).
12.4.2. In patients with a symptomatic recurrent 14.1.6. In lung cancer patients with the subjec-
MPE with lung trapping, tunneled catheters tive experience of breathlessness, interventions
are recommended for symptomatic relief and specifically designed to manage this symptom
improvement in QOL (Grade 1C). using psychologic coping and physical adapta-
tion are recommended (Grade 1C).
12.4.3. In lung cancer patients with a suspected
MPE and in whom the diagnosis of stage IV Remark: Targeted interventions for breathlessness,
disease is not confirmed, thoracoscopy is rec- more effectively decrease distress and improve satis-
ommended instead of a tunneled catheter due faction with care than usual care provided during
to its diagnostic as well as therapeutic benefit medical follow-up office visits.
(Grade 1C).
14.1.7. In lung cancer patients with psychologic
12.4.4. In patients with a MPE, graded talc is distress, it is suggested that one of several psy-
the pleural sclerosant that is recommended due chologic interventions have demonstrated benefit
to its efficacy and safety profile (Grade 1C). (including psycho-education, deep breathing,
progressive muscle relaxation, guided imagery,
12.4.5. In lung cancer patients with a malignant cognitive behavioral therapy and supportive psy-
effusion, thoracoscopy with talc poudrage is chotherapy) (Grade 2C).
recommended instead of talc slurry through a
bedside chest tube for pleurodesis (if there are Remark: There is limited evidence to support selection
no contraindications to thoracoscopy) (Grade 1C). of one intervention over another based on character-
istics of the target symptom, patient, or disease status.
Management of Depression, Fatigue,
Remark: We suggest that psychologic interventions
Anorexia, and Insomnia
to relieve distress are chosen based on patient prefer-
14.1.1. In patients recently diagnosed with lung ence, available skill-set of the health care team, and
cancer, it is recommended that comprehensive the available evidence from lung cancer studies.
biopsychosocial assessment be performed soon
after the diagnosis is made and at key transition 14.1.8. It is suggested that educational programs
points (completion of treatment, disease progres- responsible for preparing health care profes-
sion, and new symptom onset) thereafter for the sionals to care for persons with cancer should
remainder of life (Grade 1C). include specific training in psychologic and phys-
ical symptom management of symptoms that are
14.1.2. In lung cancer patients that identify psy- frequently associated with cancer diagnosis, treat-
chologic and physical symptoms causing distress ment and survivorship (Grade 2C).
or interfering with their QOL, it is recommended
that these symptoms are addressed by appro- 14.1.9. It is suggested that health care systems
priately trained individuals (Grade 1C). providing care to persons with cancer should
develop and support integrated programs in
14.1.3. In lung cancer patients with depression, psychologic and physical symptom management
anxiety, excessive daytime sedation and fatigue, which are accessible to all (Grade 2C).
medications such as antidepressants, anxiolyt-
ics and psychostimulants are recommended to
decrease the morbidity associated with these 24.0 Palliative and End-of-Life
symptoms (Grade 1C). Care in Lung Cancer
14.1.4. In lung cancer patients with psychologic Although many effective treatments are available
symptoms, a comprehensive symptom manage- even for patients with incurable lung cancer, at some