FANS IN FIRE SAFETY

FIRE SMOKE VENTING

A PRACTICAL GUIDE
TO SMOKE CONTROL
FOR ENCLOSED CAR PARKS

By James Allen CEng MIMechE MCIBSE

October 2016 - (Version 1.1)

Copyright Fläkt Woods Ltd, England 2016

 Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................................ 3

CHAPTER 1............................................................................................................................................. 8

Types of Ventilation System..................................................................................................................... 8

CHAPTER 2............................................................................................................................................10

Vehicle Fires.............................................................................................................................................. 10

CHAPTER 3............................................................................................................................................12

Jet Fan Performance................................................................................................................................. 12

CHAPTER 4............................................................................................................................................14

Effect of Heat on Jet Performance.........................................................................................................14

CHAPTER 5............................................................................................................................................15

Estimating Jet Induced Flowrate........................................................................................................... 15

CHAPTER 6............................................................................................................................................18

Balancing Flowrates................................................................................................................................. 18

CHAPTER 7............................................................................................................................................19

Smoke Control Design Steps................................................................................................................. 19

CHAPTER 8............................................................................................................................................21

Estimating Smoke Control Exhaust Flowrates.................................................................................. 21

STEP ⑤: ESTIMATE SMOKE VELOCITY................................................................................................. 21

STEP ⑥: ESTIMATE SMOKE PRODUCTION AND TEMPERATURE RISE........................................... 21

STEP ⑦: ESTIMATE SMOKE TEMPERATURE DOWNSTREAM OF THE FIRE...................................22

STEP ⑧: ESTIMATE THE AVERAGE SMOKE DENSITY DOWNSTREAM OF THE FIRE..................22

STEP ⑨ A: ESTIMATE THE MASSFLOW FROM JETFANS IN AMBIENT AIR *................................23

STEP ⑨ B: ESTIMATE THE MASSFLOW FROM JETFANS IN HOT SMOKE......................................23

STEP ⑩: ESTIMATE THE TOTAL VOLUME FLOW RATE*....................................................................23

STEP ⑪ CONCEPT CFD............................................................................................................................24

STEP ⑫ DETAILED CFD...........................................................................................................................24

Conclusions.......................................................................................................................................... 24

REFERENCES........................................................................................................................................ 25
 FIRE SMOKE VENTING

A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO
JET FAN VENTILATION DESIGN
FOR ENCLOSED AND UNDERGROUND SPACES

By

J. A. ALLEN, C.ENG IMechE CIBSE

INTRODUCTION
Jet fans have been used with good effect in car parks since the end of the 20th Century. The
popularity has increased to such a point that most enclosed car parks throughout the world are
now using this technology.

As discussed in 2001 in an article for the Building Services Journal written by Mr Richard Brooks:

“The current requirements for the ventilation of underground and enclosed car parks do not specifically
require any smoke control. The designer is merely required to allow for 6 air changes per hour for general
ventilation or 10 air changes per hour in the event of fire (Building regulations 1991 Approved Document B
and F), irrespective of fire size or the potential risk” [1].

In his article Mr Richard Brooks says:

“With the advent of new plastics used in the construction of modern vehicles, fire load is a very important
element in the design of a car park ventilation system. The basis of an Impulse ventilation system is to
create sufficient velocity to overcome the buoyancy of the combustion products in a fire and in doing so,
control its passage through the car park. As the system design is based on a fire load and not on simply
an air change rate, it is capable of efficiently coping with large fires”. [1].

The minimum requirements for ventilation of car parks in the UK has not changed in recent years
remaining at 6 air changes per hour for general ventilation and 10 air changes per hour in the
event of fire.

Author: James Allen 3 of 26 04/10/2016

In 2006, the British Standard BS7346 part 7 was published by the UK Smoke Control Association
which gives various design options:

1. To assist fire fighters to clear smoke from a car park during and after a fire
2. To provide clear smoke free access for fire fighters to a point close to the seat of the fire
3. To protect means of escape from the car park

Purpose 1 is essentially an expanded version of the UK building regulations approved document

B providing design guidance to achieve smoke clearance where jet fans are used. The calculation
procedure is to design for a minimum of 10 air changes per hour for the largest car park storey
or fire compartment.

Purpose 2 and 3 are specifically related to smoke control. Section 10 of BS 7346 part 7 provides
recommendations for impulse ventilation to assist fire fighter access whereas section 11 provides
recommendations for means of escape.

As discussed in section 10.1 smoke control should be designed so that:

“10.1.2 The extract rate should be calculated for the removal of the mass of mixed air and smoke impelled
towards the exhaust intakes.”

“10.1.4 Designs should be such that the bulk air velocity induced by the jet fans is sufficient to halt the
advance of the ceiling jet within 10 metres from the fire location for all possible fire locations in the direction
opposite to the induced bulk air flow”.

To achieve purpose 2 and 3 the designer should not rely on an air change rate design approach
unless it has been proven using CFD modelling (or other suitable method) that the mass of air
induced by operational jet fans does not cause unwanted smoke spread. To achieve such an
objective the designer must have a good understanding of fire dynamics and smoke control.

The UK is just one of many countries where jet fans are used to provide smoke ventilation in car
parks. In some countries, however, smoke control is the minimum requirement. For instance in
the UAE, Qatar and Singapore, simply designing for smoke clearance is not an option and smoke
control is the only method allowed if jet fans are to be used.

There are stringent performance criteria set out by the regulatory bodies for each of these
countries which require a specific level of visibility and temperature at a prescribed distance
from the fire. Despite the clear objectives there is currently no single definitive guidance which
shows designers how to calculate the mass induced flow of air and smoke impelled towards an
exhaust point by a system of jet fans. Consequently there is often reliance on an air change per
hour design basis and CFD modelling to give the answers.

Despite modern advances in high performance computing and a myriad of different commercial
and non-commercial CFD codes, CFD modelling remains an expensive practice. High performance
and cloud based computing has reduced calculation times however the time required by an
engineer to build the physical models, configure the simulations and interpret the results still
remains.

For this reason, unless some commercial advantage is recognised, CFD studies often come
towards the end of a project rather than at the start. It is at the start of a project however when
the architectural space required for ventilation equipment and shafts is decided. A balance needs
to be found between preparing enough CFD at the start of a project to satisfy that the objectives
will be achievable later down the line without making it commercial unviable.

Author: James Allen 4 of 26 04/10/2016

The aim of this paper is to present formulae that can be incorporated into a spreadsheet to
provide an initial estimate of the exhaust flow rate required for smoke control (to support CFD
simulations). The aim is to calculate:

1. Jet induced volumetric flow rate expected from a particular type and quantity of fans
2. Smoke mass flow from the fire origin
3. Combination of jet induced mass flow and smoke mass flow to calculate the exhaust flow
rate required.

The solution from 1 can be used for smoke clearance systems to ensure that the type and
quantity of jet fans selected will not cause unwanted recirculation of smoke.
For smoke control the solutions from 1 and 2 are combined to establish a volumetric flow rate
required to control, contain and remove smoke from a desired region of a car park.
To summarise, the objective of this paper is to look at:

1. Types of ventilation system in which jet fans are used

2. Vehicle fires and safety criteria from some international standards
3. How jet fan systems work
4. A method of estimating the smoke extraction rate for smoke control when using jet fans
such that the jet induced mass flow and exhaust mass flow balances.

Application of these techniques will help to:

• Identify the size of ventilation plant space required early in the design process.
• Determine the suitability of smoke control vs smoke clearance.
• Accelerate the design process to reach solutions faster.

Author: James Allen 5 of 26 04/10/2016

NOMENCLATURE
𝐴𝑜 = minimum area of jet outlet (𝑚2)
𝑎 = acceleration of a body under gravitational force (𝑚.𝑠 −2)
𝐶𝑒 = Dimensioned air entrainment coefficient (𝑘𝑔.𝑚 − •• .𝑠 −1)
𝑐 = Specific Heat capacity of air at constant pressure (𝑘𝑊.𝐾𝑔−1.𝐾−1)
𝐸𝑓 = Jet entrainment ratio
ℎ = Floor to ceiling height within the smoke control zone (𝑚)
𝐽𝑒𝑡𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 = Jet entrainment drag effect
𝐾𝑗𝑒t = Jet entrainment constant
𝐿𝑓 = Fire location factor
𝑚𝑓𝑙𝑢x = Momentum flux of a jet (𝑘𝑔.𝑚.𝑠−2)
𝑚 = mass flow of a body (𝑘𝑔)
𝑚̇ = mass flow of air at ambient temperature (𝑘𝑔.𝑠−1)
𝑚𝑠̇ = mass flow of smoke (𝑘𝑔.𝑠−1)
ṁTo = mass flow induced by jet fans in ambient air (𝑘𝑔.𝑠−1)
ṁTs = mass flow induced by jet fans in smoke (𝑘𝑔.𝑠−1)
𝑀 = molar mass of dry air (𝑘𝑔.𝑚𝑜𝑙−1)
𝑁𝑎 = the number of jet fans operating in ambient air
𝑁𝑠 = the number of jet fans operating in smoke
𝜃 = Temperature of smoke above ambient (°𝐶)
𝑃𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑒 = Perimeter of the fire (𝑚)
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓 = Reference gas pressure (𝑃𝑎)
𝜌𝑔𝑎𝑠 = gas density (𝑘𝑔.𝑚−3)
𝜌𝑜 = density of ambient air (𝑘𝑔.𝑚−3)
𝜌𝑠 = density of smoke laden air (𝑘𝑔.𝑚−3)
𝜌𝑑𝑠 = density of smoke downstream of the fire (𝑘𝑔.𝑚−3)
𝑄𝑐̇ = convective heat energy release rate within the smoke plume (𝑘𝑊)
𝑟 = radial distance from the point of impingement of the fire plume on the ceiling (𝑘𝑊)
𝑅 = universal gas constant (𝐽.𝑚𝑜𝑙−1.𝐾−1)
𝑇𝑑𝑠 = Temperature of smoke downstream of the fire (𝐾)
𝑇𝑠 = Absolute smoke temperature (𝐾)
𝑇𝑠 = Absolute ambient temperature (𝐾)
𝑇𝑜 = Velocity of smoke flow at distance (𝑟) from the fire (𝑚.𝑠−1)
𝑣𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑗𝑒𝑡 = maximum velocity at distance X (along the jet centreline) (𝑚.𝑠−1)
𝑣𝑥 = Outlet velocity, averaged across the jet outlet area (𝑚.𝑠−1)
𝑉𝑜 = Volume flow rate at the outlet of a single jet fan 𝐴𝑜 (𝑚3.𝑠−1)
𝑉𝑥𝑇 = Total induced flow rate attributed to a single Jet fan at distance (𝑥) (𝑚3.𝑠−1)
𝑉𝑥𝑇𝐺 = Total volume flow of air moved by a group of fans at distance (𝑥) from the exhaust (𝑚3.
𝑠−1)
Author: James Allen 6 of 26 04/10/2016
𝑉s = Volume flow of smoke from the fire (𝑚3.𝑠−1)
𝑉𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡 = Volume flow rate required for smoke control (𝑚3.𝑠−1)
𝑊𝑗𝑒𝑡 = Jet profile width (m)
𝑥 = Distance from jet fan outlet (m)
𝑋𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑒 = Horizontal distance from the fire origin to the exhaust (m)
𝑌 = Height of the smoke layer (𝑚)
𝑧𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = Virtual smoke zone (𝑚)

Author: James Allen 7 of 26 04/10/2016

 CHAPTER 1
Types of Ventilation System
The British Standard 7346 part 7:2006 [2] recommends that for enclosed or underground car
parks, ventilation systems can be designed for one or more of three purposes in the event of a
fire. Figure 1 summarises these recommendations.

FIGURE 1: TYPES OF SMOKE VENTING SYSTEMS [2]

a) To assist the fire fighters to clear smoke from a car park during and after a fire.

Smoke clearance systems are intended to assist fire fighters by providing ventilation to
allow speedier clearance of the smoke once the fire has been extinguished. The
ventilation might also help to reduce smoke density and temperature during the course of
a fire.

These systems are not specifically intended to maintain any area of a car park clear of
smoke, to limit the smoke density or temperature to within any limits or to assist means
of escape.

It is possible that some smoke clearance systems could actually worsen conditions for
means of escape, if set in operation too early, by encouraging smoke circulation and de-
scent of the smoke layer. For this reason, it might be preferable to either delay operation
after automatic activation, or to provide only manual actuation from a fire service override
switch.

b) To provide clear smoke free access to fire fighters to a point close to the seat of the fire.

This is provided specifically in order to assist fire fighters to carry out firefighting oper-
ations. The system is designed to operate automatically in response to a suitable fire
detection system and ensures clear, smoke free, access by fire fighters to a point close to
the seat of the fire.

c) To protect means of escape from the car park.

Smoke control is not required under UK legislation to protect means of escape in car
parks. Nevertheless, it is possible in some cases to design a ventilation system that
will assist protection of means of escape. Smoke and Heat Exhaust ventilation systems
(SHEVS) or impulse ventilation systems might be suitable.

SHEVS systems are designed to maintain a smoke reservoir by extracting directly from the
smoke layer. This is beyond the scope of this paper. For more information refer to [2].
Author: James Allen 8 of 26 04/10/2016
Pollution and Smoke Clearance Systems

Pollution and smoke clearance systems use jet fans combined with exhaust fans to dilute and
extract vehicle pollutants and fire smoke. These systems are not intended to limit the fire smoke
density or temperature to within any limits or to assist means of escape. Systems of this type
are normally designed to achieve 10 air changes per hour.

The objective of a smoke clearance system is to clear smoke both during a fire and after a fire
has been extinguished.

Smoke Control System to Assist Firefighters

The objective of smoke control is to assist fire fighters to rapidly locate a fire, enabling the fire
to be extinguished quickly and safely. Calculation of the exhaust ventilation flow rate must be
derived from the mass of smoke produced from a credible worst fire size plus the jet induced air
and smoke movement towards the extraction point(s).

Author: James Allen 9 of 26 04/10/2016

 CHAPTER 2
Vehicle Fires
When designing a smoke control system for an enclosed car park, the ventilation system designer
must first consider a sensible design fire size. The latest research on vehicle fires in enclosed
car parks by the Building Research Establishment (BRE) [4] provides a good starting point. Fire
test data from [3] has been published for a variety of enclosed car park fire scenarios, with and
without the use of sprinklers. Further research available includes work by CTICM in 2000 and
2005 [5].

A variety of international standards relating to smoke control for enclosed car parks are available
(Table 2) which include, but are not limited to, British Standard BS7346 Part 7 [2], the Qatar Civil
defence standard FSS7.2 [6], Singapore Civil defence standard [7], UAE Fire and Life Safety code
of practice [8]. Each of these standards provides similar requirements and criteria for design fire
size(s), visibility and temperature. Steady-state design fire data from [2] is given in Table 1.

All standards listed provide useful practical considerations, with the exception of smoke control
calculation methods which are not given.

TABLE 1: TYPICAL STEADY STATE DESIGN FIRES [2]

FIRE PARAMETERS INDOOR CAR PARK WITHOUT INDOOR CAR PARK WITH
SPRINKLER SYSTEM SPRINKLER SYSTEM
DIMENSIONS 5M X 5M 2M X 5M
PERIMETER 20M 14M
HEAT RELEASE RATE 8MW 4MW

Author: James Allen 10 of 26 04/10/2016

TABLE 2: SAFETY CRITERIA FROM SOME INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS

STANDARD VARIABLE ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA

DESIGNS SHOULD BE SUCH THAT FIRE FIGHTERS CAN
MOVE THROUGH SUBSTANTIALLY CLEAR SMOKE-FREE
VISIBILITY
BS7346 PART 7 AIR WHEN APPROACHING THE FIRE UP TO A DISTANCE
OF 10 METRES
TEMPERATURE NOT SPECIFIED

10M MINIMUM VISIBILITY AT A HEIGHT OF 1.8 METRES

FROM THE FLOOR OF THE CAR PARK AND AT A DIS-
VISIBILITY
QATAR CIVIL TANCE OF 10 METRES FROM THE FIRE AFTER 20 MIN-
DEFENCE GUIDE UTES
FSS7.2 60°C AIR TEMPERATURE TO THE LOWER LAYER AT A
TEMPERATURE HEIGHT OF 1.8 METRES FROM THE FLOOR OF THE CAR
PARK AFTER 20 MINUTES

5M MINIMUM VISIBILITY AT A HEIGHT OF 1.7 METRES

FROM THE FLOOR OF THE CAR PARK AT A DISTANCE
OF 5 METRES FROM THE FIRE. ALL OTHER AREAS
VISIBILITY
OUTSIDE THE SMOKE LOGGED AREA SHALL BE KEPT
SINGAPORE SUBSTANTIALLY FREE FROM SMOKE I.E. VISIBILITY OF
CIVIL DEFENCE AT LEAST 25M
FORCE FSR
3:2008 250°C AIR TEMPERATURE AT A HEIGHT OF 1.7 METRES
FROM THE FLOOR OF THE CAR PARK. ALL OTHER
TEMPERATURE AREAS OUTSIDE THE SMOKE LOGGED AREA SHALL BE
KEPT SUBSTANTIALLY FREE FROM SMOKE I.E. SMOKE
TEMPERATURE NOT MORE THAN 60°C

5M MINIMUM VISIBILITY AT A HEIGHT OF 1.7 METRES

FROM THE FLOOR OF THE CAR PARK AT A DISTANCE
OF 5 METRES FROM THE FIRE. NOT MORE THAN 1000
SQUARE METRES OF THE CAR PARK CAN BE SMOKE
LOGGED FOR AT LEAST 20 MINUTES, REGARDLESS OF
VISIBILITY WHETHER THE FIRE IS LOCATED WITHIN THE SMOKE
UAE FIRE AND CONTROL ZONE OR ACROSS THE ZONE BOUNDARIES.
LIFE SAFETY (NOTE: AFTER 20 MINUTES, SMOKE IS EXPECTED TO
CODE OF REMAIN CONFINED WITHIN 1000 SQUARE METRES).
PRACTICE WITHIN THE SMOKE LOGGED AREA, THERE SHALL BE
AT LEAST 1 VIABLE ROUTE FOR THE FIRE FIGHTERS.
250°C AIR TEMPERATURE AT A HEIGHT OF 1.7 METRES
FROM THE FLOOR OF THE CAR PARK. ALL OTHER
TEMPERATURE AREAS OUTSIDE THE SMOKE LOGGED AREA SHALL BE
KEPT SUBSTANTIALLY FREE FROM SMOKE I.E. SMOKE
TEMPERATURE NOT MORE THAN 60°C

Author: James Allen 11 of 26 04/10/2016

 CHAPTER 3

Jet Fan Performance

Thrust fans which include both jet fan and induction fan technology, work on the basis of providing
a high velocity jet of air at the fan outlet (velocities typically ranging from 15m/s up to a 31m/s
for car park fans). The high velocity jet provides a momentum flux at the fan outlet. Momentum
flux is the product of mass flow rate and velocity. For free field conditions, assuming no losses,
the momentum flux is defined as:

mflux = ṁ × 𝑣𝑜

kg × m
=
s s

m
= kg ×
s2
Where: ṁ= 𝜌𝑜×𝑉𝑜

[Equation 1]

Newton’s second law states that the rate of change momentum is related to a force (F) where the
acceleration (a) resulting from that force is directly proportional to the net force acting on a body:

𝐹 = 𝑚 × 𝑎

m
= kg ×
s2
[Equation 2]

The momentum flux provided by a jet can therefore be considered as a force that is available to
be applied to the surrounding air (known as fan thrust).

The movement of air into the advancing jet is known as entrainment.

To calculate the total mass of air and smoke impelled towards an extraction point it is essential
to know how much induced airflow can be obtained from a fan. The entrainment ratio is the rate
at which air is moved by a jet relative to the airflow through the fan prior to the jet termination
point. The termination of a jet is the point at which the peak velocity has fallen to 0.5m/s or less.
The entrainment ratio is given by:
𝑉𝑥
𝐸𝑓 =
𝑉𝑜

Author: James Allen 12 of 26 04/10/2016

The entrainment ratio varies according to different product types and is governed by the Internal
geometry of the impeller and motor assembly, the shape of the fan casing and velocity profile at
the fan outlet.

The simplified equation applicable to the entrainment of a fully established jet is given by [3]:

𝐾𝑗𝑒𝑡 × 𝑣𝑂 × √𝐴𝑂
𝑣𝑥 =
𝑥
[Equation 3]

TABLE 3: APPROXIMATE VALUES 0F 𝐊𝐣𝐞𝐭

Thrust Fan type Fan installation 𝐊𝐣𝐞𝐭 Comments

Confined to a ceiling 11.70
Axial Jet fan Valid for X
Un-confined 5.40
> 15
Confined to a ceiling 9.50 metres
Induction fan
Un-confined 4.40

Figure 2 illustrates the comparison of applying Equation 3 to a Fläkt Woods 355mm (internal
diameter) Jet fan with field measurements prepared by an independent test laboratory.

FIGURE 2: – JET CENTRELINE VELOCITY PREDICTION VS MEASUREMENT

6

4
Velocity (m/s)

3 Equation
Measurement

0
3 8 13 18 28 38 48

Distance (metres)

CFD modelling can be used to provide detailed information about the jet profile shape, fan swirl
effects and any regions of separation and re-attachment of the jet.

When modelling jet fans using CFD it is important to consider that each product is different and
that a ‘generic’ model may not always be suitable. The trajectory of the jet is highly dependent
on the fan casing geometry particularly when capturing the effects of fan swirl.

In depth discussion of CFD modelling is beyond the scope of this paper however when preparing
CFD models it is important to understand the effect of changes in computational mesh size,
turbulence sub-model, turbulence parameters and heat transfer (if modelling a fire or large
temperature variations). Advice should be obtained from the fan manufacturer for guidance on
selecting an appropriate model for your project.

Author: James Allen 13 of 26 04/10/2016

 CHAPTER 4

Effect of Heat on Jet Performance

When a smoke control system is operating the fans located upstream of a fire will be operating
in air at ambient temperature and density. Fans located downstream of the fire will be operating
in a mixture of higher temperature air and combustion gas of much lower density.

Density of a gas is directly proportional to pressure and inversely proportional to temperature:

𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝜌𝑔𝑎𝑠 =
(𝑀𝑅 )× 𝑇 𝑜

[Equation 4]

Fans that are designed to handle fire smoke, which includes jet fans, are classified by an
independent test authority as having High Temperature (HT) certification of F200, F300 or F400.
These classifications mean a specific fan type is certified for operation for 200°C/2hrs, 300°C/1hr
or 400°C/2hrs respectively. Specialist products, known as bifurcated fans, where the motor is
taken out of the airstream, are also available having an F600 category.

As temperatures rapidly increase under fire conditions there will be a dramatic reduction in fan
performance downstream of the fire as illustrated in Table 4.

TABLE 4: EFFECT OF INCREASING TEMPERATURE ON FAN THRUST

GAS TEMPERATURE FAN HT GAS MIXTURE % REDUCTION IN

(°C) CLASSIFICATION DENSITY (KG/M³) THRUST
20 1.20 0
50 1.09 9
F200
100 0.94 21
200 0.74 38
300 F300 0.62 50
400 F400 0.52 56
500 0.46 62
F600
600 0.40 66

* Gas density variation is calculated according to air at sea level where the atmospheric
pressure is 1 atmosphere (101325 Pascal’s).

Author: James Allen 14 of 26 04/10/2016

 CHAPTER 5
Estimating Jet Induced Flowrate
A system of thrust fans collectively moves a specific volume flow of air within an enclosed space.
The total flow rate is the product of the volume flow rate through the fans and the air entrainment
into the advancing jets.

The flow patterns developed as air advances from a jet fan are complex. Velocity fluctuations
occur due to turbulent kinetic energy effects. Turbulent kinetic energy is a measure of the mean
kinetic energy per unit mass associated with eddy formations in turbulent flow. Turbulent motions
are dissipated at very small length scales (known as Kolmogorov microscales) by viscous forces.
CFD modelling can be used to gain an understanding of turbulence phenomena.
Figure 3 illustrates the use of CFD.

The jet fan velocity profile in Figure 3 is of a Fläkt Woods 400mm diameter jet fan modelled with
fan swirl (which is why the profile shape is non-uniform). The effect of turbulence kinetic energy
is observed as the flow separates and re-attaches as the jet advances. The flow regime can be
divided into two distinct parts, the laminar entrainment region and turbulent region. The laminar
entrainment region occurs up to approximately 50 metres from the fan after which the flow
begins to break up and form turbulent eddies.

FIGURE 3: –CFD VELOCITY PROFILE OF A FULLY DEVELOPED JET

Author: James Allen 15 of 26 04/10/2016

Structural columns of 1 metre x 1 metre cross-section were added to the CFD model (Figure 4).
Drag forces are introduced as the air interacts with the structural columns. These forces slow
the jet entrainment rate causing the onset of the turbulent entrainment region to occur much
sooner (30 metres from the fan compared to 50 metres without the structural columns).

FIGURE 4: – CFD VELOCITY PROFILE OF A FULLY DEVELOPED JET, INCLUDING

STRUCTURAL COLUMNS

The author has studied the jet velocity profile shapes for a range of different fans and has derived
a formula (Equation 5) that aims to approximate the flowrate expected from a group of fans
without the use of CFD. The method assumes that the jets combine to form a uniform isotropic
flow moving across a plane that is parallel with the air extraction point.

This can provide a useful first initial approximation of the exhaust flow rate required to balance
the air extraction rate with the jet induced flow from a group of fans (a topic which is discussed
further in Chapter 6).

The volumetric flow rate of air provided by a group of jet fans whose jets are moving air towards
an extraction point, across a plane that is perpendicular to the airflow direction is be estimated
as follows:

{ √
𝑉𝑥𝑇𝐺 = 𝑁𝑎 ×𝑉𝑜×

𝑣𝑜
𝑣 𝑥
(-51 )
× 𝑒(𝑊𝐽𝑒𝑡×ℎ)
} × 𝐽𝑒𝑡𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔

Source of equation: J Allen

[Equation 5]

For x > 15 metres

Author: James Allen 16 of 26 04/10/2016
Where [From equation 3]:
𝐾𝑗𝑒𝑡 × 𝑣𝑂 × √𝐴𝑂
𝑣𝑥 =
𝑥

The term 𝐽𝑒𝑡𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 is project specific and will need to be adjusted according to the airflow
characteristics and features expected inside the car park (See Figure 5). As a general rule of
thumb consider:

a) F
 or simple cross flow ventilation systems where the airflow direction is generally in a single
direction from the air supply to the exhaust:

𝐽𝑒𝑡𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 = 0.70

b) For complex systems where air jets are converging towards an exhaust from multiple directions:

𝐽𝑒𝑡𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 = 0.33 to 0.50

Where jet fans are blowing air from multiple directions across multiple flow planes, the total
induced flow rate to the extract is assumed to be the sum of the flow rates across each plane.

In addition to structural columns the total induced volumetric flowrate provided by a jet will be
influenced by numerous other features and obstructions that cause resistance to the airflow as
illustrated in Figure 5.

To understand the effects of these features requires modelling of each individual case since all
car park layouts are different with different airflow requirements.

FIGURE 5: – TYPICAL FEATURES IN AN ENCLOSED CAR PARK

① Friction due to walls and ceilings

② Down-stand beams and structural columns
③ Parked and moving vehicles
④ Rooms and stair-cores
⑤ Floor to ceiling height

Author: James Allen 17 of 26 04/10/2016

 CHAPTER 6
Balancing Flowrates
Whether a system is designed for pollution and smoke clearance or pollution and smoke control,
the use of jet fans should not worsen conditions for escaping occupants or indeed the fire
brigade (discussed in BS7346 Part 7:2006 [2]). It is, however, possible to worsen conditions with
an unbalanced system.

The total mass of air and smoke moving towards an extraction point must be balanced with the
mass flow rate at the extract point otherwise recirculation of smoke will occur possibly resulting
in loss of visibility and higher gas temperatures.

Backflow of smoke or, worse still, rapid acceleration of smoke beyond zone boundaries can occur
when ventilation systems are not balanced. Fortunately CFD modelling will flag these issues if
used early enough in the design process. Even with the use of CFD, identifying the issue may not
always be immediately obvious and may require several repeat simulations until the cause of the
problem is addressed. This can eat into valuable engineer time. It would be useful if the following
could be answered before the CFD process was started:

1. H
 ow many jet fan’s of a specific type, should be operated so that the jet induced flow is
balanced with the exhaust flowrate?

2. H
 ow much air AND smoke will need to be removed at an extract point if there is a certain
quantity of jet fans to be operated to either clear or control smoke from a fire?

The steps that follow in Chapters 7 and 8 provide a method of estimating the balancing of mass
flows converging towards an extraction point under fire and non-fire conditions.

Author: James Allen 18 of 26 04/10/2016

 CHAPTER 7
Smoke Control Design Steps

There are two main functions that thrust fans provide; one is to distribute air (in the absence
of distributed ductwork) and the other is to accelerate the air, including vehicle pollutants and
smoke from a fire, to the point(s) of extraction.

An added benefit of thrust fans is the ability to control the direction of the imposing airflow and
therefore alter the direction of smoke travel, in a similar manner to tunnel ventilation. This is
achieved by creating a controlling velocity, known as the critical velocity, so that the advancing
flow of smoke is halted at a predetermined distance from the fire.

The movement of smoke away from a fire in a tunnel is very different to that expected within a car
park. Smoke movement in tunnels is confined to flow in either one of two directions by the walls
of the tunnel, whereas in car parks smoke can travel in all directions and cover vast distances
unless controlled.

The paper by Morgan H P et al. titled ‘Extending the principles of Impulse ventilation in tunnels
to apply to smoke control in car parks’ [9] is a good starting point to understand thrust fan
calculation procedures for open sided car parks. The theory presented in [9] is extended in this
paper to cover enclosed car parks.

The method for establishing a smoke control design is divided into 12 steps as shown in Figure
6. The process at each step is described briefly in Table 9.

FIGURE 6 – SMOKE CONTROL DESIGN STEPS

Author: James Allen 19 of 26 04/10/2016

CFD modelling is the method used to optimise the smoke control solution which is further divided
into two more steps, concept CFD and detailed CFD.

CONCEPT CFD is used to prove the ventilation system concept will achieve the smoke control
objectives and to fine tune the system. Fires are modelled in various locations in steady state
form using maximum heat release rates and smoke production values.

The final stage is DETAILED CFD where time dependant analysis is used to verify the solution.

TABLE 5: DESCRIPTION OF DESIGN STEPS

STEP ACTIVITY
Identify sources of replacement air and locations of possible air supply and smoke
1
exhaust
Identify the design fire size and fire characteristics, expected smoke yield(s) for
2
the fuel material(s), heat(s) of combustion, fire dimensions etc.
Prepare a qualitative analysis of worst case fires (at least one fire per zone is
normally required). Identify the location of fire brigade entry points to enclosed
3 parking levels and where dry risers etc. are located. How are fire fighters going to
enter the building? Can we protect them by operating the ventilation system in a
certain way?
Decide how far smoke is permitted to spread before being controlled. Normally 10
5
metres upstream of the fire is recommended.
Create an initial fan layout and zone strategy according to guidelines recommend-
4
ed by the building codes and / or fan manufacturer.
5 Estimate the smoke velocity radius (𝑟) from the fire
6 Estimate smoke production and temperature rise in the smoke layer
7 Estimate smoke temperature near to the smoke extraction point
8 Estimate smoke density in the smoke layer
Predict mass flow passing through a plane that is parallel to the extract point(s)
9
for each scenario
10 Estimate the total volume flow rate for each zone
CONCEPT CFD modelling – Steady state fire analysis for each worst case scenario
11
identified from 3.
DETAILED CFD modelling – Time dependant fire analysis which demonstrates that
12
conditions do not worsen over time.

Author: James Allen 20 of 26 04/10/2016

 CHAPTER 8
Estimating Smoke Control Exhaust Flowrates

STEP ⑤: ESTIMATE SMOKE VELOCITY

To design a smoke control system the velocity of smoke expected at distance (𝑟) from a fire must
be known.

The formula for the velocity of an established radial ceiling jet, first developed by Alpert [10]:

(
𝑣𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑗𝑒𝑡 = 0.195 × 𝑄
1
3
1
)
× ℎ 2 /𝑟 6
5

[Equation 6]

𝑟
𝐹𝑜𝑟: > 0.15
ℎ

Smoke is controlled when the velocity of the imposing airflow is equal to or greater than the
velocity of smoke at the desired controlling distance (𝑟) from the fire.

STEP ⑥: ESTIMATE SMOKE PRODUCTION AND TEMPERATURE RISE

The mass flow of smoke produced from a fire can be estimated using the Large Fire Plume Model
[11]:

3
ṁs=Ce×𝑃𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑒 × Y 2

[Equation 7]

The height of the smoke layer (Y) is assumed to be the height of the car park minus the height
of the fire fuel (normally 0.5 metres from the floor), where Y = ℎ-0.5.

Author: James Allen 21 of 26 04/10/2016

Research suggests that the value of 𝐶𝑒 for tunnel ventilation should take a value appropriate to a
“leaning plume” [9], where 𝐶𝑒 = 0.34.

The average smoke layer temperature is estimated by:

Q
θ=
ṁs × c
[Equation 8]

The volumetric flow rate of smoke from the seat of a fire is:

V𝑆=ṁ𝑠 ×(θ+T0)/(𝜌0 × T0)

[Equation 9]

STEP ⑦: ESTIMATE SMOKE TEMPERATURE DOWNSTREAM OF THE FIRE

Modified from [12], Assuming adiabatic conditions i.e. zero heat loss from the smoke layer to the
surroundings:
𝑄c 2

( )
3

𝑋𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑒 × 𝐿𝑓
𝑇𝑑𝑠 = 5.38 × + 𝑇𝑜
Y
𝑟
For > 0.18
ℎ

[Equation 10]

Location factor for the fire 𝐿𝑓 is an additional term introduced by the author based on numerical
experiments.

TABLE 6: FIRE LOCATION FACTORS

Fire location factor Lf

Car park with low ceilings 2
Where recirculation of air and smoke may occur* 4

* For most car parks with low ceiling suggested value 𝐿𝑓 = 2. Location factor of 4 should be used
where recirculation of air and smoke is expected at the fire origin based on fire location and
airflow characteristics.

STEP ⑧: ESTIMATE THE AVERAGE SMOKE DENSITY DOWNSTREAM OF

THE FIRE
Assuming the pressure inside the car park close to the exhaust is equal to the external atmospheric
pressure (𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓) and according to the ideal gas law then:

𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝜌 𝑑𝑠 =
( )
𝑅 × 𝑇𝑑𝑠
𝑀

[Equation 11]
Author: James Allen 22 of 26 04/10/2016
STEP ⑨ A: ESTIMATE THE MASSFLOW FROM JETFANS IN AMBIENT AIR *
ṁTo=𝑉𝑥𝑇 × 𝜌𝑜 × 𝑁𝑎

[Equation 12]

Where from [Equation 5] the volume flow rate attributed to a single jet fan at distance (x) metres
from the fan is:

{ √( }
1

) × 𝑒(𝑊
5
𝑉𝑜 ×ℎ)
𝑉𝑥𝑇 = 𝑉𝑜× 𝑉𝑥 𝐽𝑒𝑡 × 𝐽𝑒𝑡𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔

Source: J. Allen

* It is important to consider that not all thrust fans have a direct influence on the extract flow
rate. Some thrust fans will be used for distributing air while other fans accelerate air and smoke
towards an extract point.

STEP ⑨ B: ESTIMATE THE MASSFLOW FROM JETFANS IN HOT SMOKE

ṁTs = 𝑉𝑥𝑇 × 𝜌𝑠 × 𝑁𝑠

[Equation 13]

Where from [Equation 5] the volume flow rate attributed to a single jet fan at distance (x) metres
from the fan is:

𝑉𝑥𝑇 = { √(
𝑉𝑜×
𝑉𝑜
𝑉𝑥 ) × 𝑒(𝑊 ×ℎ)
𝐽𝑒𝑡 }
(-51 )
× 𝐽𝑒𝑡𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔

Source: J. Allen

STEP ⑩: ESTIMATE THE TOTAL VOLUME FLOW RATE*

𝑉𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡= 𝑀𝑎𝑥

{
(ṁ𝑠+ṁTo+ṁTs ),(𝑧𝑠
𝜌𝑑𝑠
𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
× ℎ) × 𝑣𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑗𝑒𝑡 }
[Equation 14]

Source: J. Allen

Care must be taken not to over-specify the extraction rate since this can lead to problems with
inlet air velocities which are too high. If in doubt contact the author for more information.
The directional source of supply air in enclosed spaces, including the air velocity and the position
relative to jet fans, is critical to achieving smoke control. As a guide, rules of thumb can be
used to estimate maximum inlet velocities, for example BS7346 part 7 recommends a maximum
velocity of 2m/s.

Author: James Allen 23 of 26 04/10/2016

STEP ⑪ CONCEPT CFD
As the name suggests “Concept CFD” is used to define a conceptual ventilation system strategy,
to verify that the estimated flowrates are sufficient to achieve the smoke control objectives.

STEP ⑫ DETAILED CFD

The purpose of the “Detailed” CFD is to simulate expected conditions for the full burn duration of
a fire and verify that conditions do not worsen over time.

The fire position chosen for the analysis is usually one of the worst case fires simulated at the
“Concept” CFD stage.

“Detailed” CFD is final verification that the proposed system meets the smoke control objectives.
CFD is run as a transient simulation, normally for at least 30 minutes [6] with results for variables
such as temperature and smoke concentration produced every 1 minute or 2 minute intervals.

Conclusions
• A calculation method has been presented that can be used to estimate exhaust fan flowrate
as an alternative to air change rate calculations. The use of CFD modelling is essential to
fine tune and optimise ventilation solutions.

• It is important for the industry, and longevity of smoke venting products, that this method
is considered when designing a jet fan system and that the method is further developed.

Author: James Allen 24 of 26 04/10/2016

REFERENCES
1. Brooks, R, Smoke Control in underground car parks, 2001

2. BS7346 Part 7, “British standard, Components for smoke and heat control systems – Part
7: Code of practice on functional recommendations and calculation methods for smoke and
heat control systems for covered car parks”, 2006

3. Shipp M, Technical Development Director, Building Research Establishment (BRE), Fire

Spread in Car parks: The findings from the CLG / BRE research programme, Research
project from October 2006 – March 2009

4. Daly, B, B, Woods Practical Guide to Fan Engineering, Third Edition, 1985

5. CTICM report 2001, INC 01/410b DJ/NB

6. Qatar Civil defence guide - Civil Defence Department Ministry of Interior, Qatar, Fire Safety
Standards, Minimum requirements, Framework for submission of performance based
designs, 2007

7. Singapore Civil defence force FSR 3:2008

8. UAE Fire and Life Safety code of practice, 2011 Edition

9. Morgan H P BSc, PhD, CPhys, M Inst P, CEng, F I Fire E, Vanhove B, ir-arch, De Smedt J-C,
MIFireE ‘Extending the principles of Impulse ventilation in tunnels to apply to smoke control
in car parks’

10. Alpert R, L, Fire Technology 8 (181) (1972)

11. Morgan H P, Gosh B K, Garrad G, Pamlitschka R, De Smedt J-C, Schoonbaert L R, “Design

Methodologies For Smoke And Heat Exhaust Ventilation”, BR 368, CRC, London, 1999

12. Alpert, R. L, “Calculation of Response Time of Ceiling Mounted Fire Detectors,” Fire Technology.
Vol. 8, 1972, pp. 181-195.

Author: James Allen 25 of 26 04/10/2016

 Technical Paper 2016.8 © Copyright 2016 Fläkt Woods Limited
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