THE FARNBOROUGH EXTENDED PROJECT 2010

ADVANCED LEVEL

AUTHOR DECLARATION

Title of the Extended Project:

What are the differences and similarities between Cable Stayed and Suspension Bridges and

where are they best suited?

Word count: 4,514

Submission date: 28.10.2010

I affirm that this Project is offered for assessment as my original and unaided work, except in so far as
any advice/and or assistance from any other named person in preparing it, and any quotation used
from written sources are duly and appropriately acknowledged. I agree that my submission may be
referred to the JISC Plagiarism Service in order to fully authenticate my work.

Name: David Bedford

Candidate number: 91113

Supervisor: Jane Gostling

Project Leader: Simon Reigh, Faculty Director (Business, Information & Global Studies)

The Sixth Form College Farnborough, Prospect Avenue, Farnborough, Hampshire, GU14 8JX Tel: 01252 688200
 What are the differences and similarities between Cable

Stayed and Suspension Bridges and where are they best

suited?

Acknowledgments

I would like to extend my thanks to Neale Lawson and to his extensive library. I also would
especially like to thank Jane, my supervisor. But most of all: the internet and its many search
engines.

Abstract

David Bedford
This is a study of cable stayed and suspension bridges and where they are best suited. I find
that suspension bridges initially have the role of spanning gaps, but prove to be inefficient in
cost and build time but prove to be affective of spanning huge gaps as they are the only type
of bridge that can do that.

I find that cable stayed bridges are more cost effective and a lot faster to build than
suspension bridges and are now taking the place of suspension bridges where 50 years ago a
cable stayed bridge would not have even been an option.

I conclude that suspension bridges will not be as popular as they were and that cable stayed
bridges will be built more often but the suspension may still be the only option when huge
spans are necessary.

What are the differences and similarities between Cable Stayed and Suspension

Bridges and where are they best suited?

David Bedford
When a bridge is commissioned many different bridge types and designs can be submitted,

this can lead to a difficult decision as to which is the best suited for the place and budget.

When it comes to bridging long spans or wide rivers there is no competition for suspension or

cable stayed bridges. However these are relatively new bridges and in the past these same

gaps were spanned with many piers examples of the old a new is visible in many places such

as the fourth estuary, where you

have the Fourth Railway Bridge, a

cantilever bridge, and also the

Fourth Road Bridge, a suspension

bridge.

Suspension bridges were first used

thousands of years ago in Asia,

South America and Africa. They consisted of vines tied to trees across a valley; they held

strong twigs or wooden planks which were used as a walkway. They were very important as

they enabled people to cross rivers and valleys much faster than would have otherwise been

possible. However these are not the type of suspension bridges we imagine today, bridges

made of steel and concrete, with supporting towers and huge lengths of cable. The first

modern suspension bridge was built in 1801 by James Findly, it was an iron chain bridge,

however there is no more information on this bridge as it served near as much no purpose

other than as an experiment. He built one after in 1808, this has more documentation. It

consisted of two spans; the longest of them was just over 60m or 200 feet. Part of it broke

when a herd of cattle were driven over it and it fell down later in heavy snow fall in 1816. It

was not a great start but it drove a rapid development in suspension bridges.

David Bedford
The first success came in 1810 with the Essex-Merrimac Bridge, built by Finley and a

carpenter called Carr, this had a span of 240 feet, the chains broke in 1827 but were replaced

and this bridge had a service of 99 years before it was dismantled and replaced by a wire

suspension bridge much along the same lines. The first suspension bridge in the UK was the

Union Bridge, it spans the river tweed connecting England and Scotland. It was a record

breaker at the time with a span of 137 meters. It is still standing today and serving its purpose

of as a single lane road, it is the oldest bridge in the world that is still being used; it

dramatically cut journeys by 11 miles. It is supported by 6 iron chains, 3 on each side, in

1902 wires were added to support the roadway even further.

Wire suspended bridges started

later than its chain counterparts,

they quickly overtook the chain bridges as they were more reliable and less likely to suddenly

break as it is more apparent when wires break as it is a slow process and is easily observable.

When James Findly's bridge collapsed in 1808 it was temporarily replaced by a wire bridge.

The first permanent wire suspended bridge came in 1823 and had two spans of 40m, but they

have really come of age since. The first suspension bridge to use steel cables was constructed

in New York by John Roebling who died before its construction so his son, Washington

Roebling and his wife saw it through, it connected Brooklyn and Manhattan, the Brooklyn

Bridge. It was 50% bigger than anything that had been done before. It is one of the few

bridges of this time to still be standing as none of them were tested against the wind before

being built. Roebling built a truss system that was 6 times stronger than he thought it needed

to be and that's why it is still standing today. It was thought that the bridge would not be

strong enough as nothing on this scale had ever been attempted before so an extra 250 cables

David Bedford
were added diagonally – much like a cable stayed bridge, these were later found to be

unnecessary, rather than be used elsewhere they left them because of their distinctive beauty.

The Akashi-Kaikyō Bridge,

also called Pearl Bridge, is

longest suspension bridge

with a span just shy of 2km

(1,991 metres), it was

finished in 1998 and

overtook the Humber

Bridge which has a span of

1,410 meters, it took 12 years to build and was built after a series of deaths from the ferry

crossing which happened in quick succession. During construction an earthquake hit when

only the towers had been built. They had moved as a result, this meant that an extra 1 meter

had to be constructed, harder than it sounds! It has been built to withstand winds of 286 km/h

(178mph) and earthquakes measuring 8.5 on the Richter scale. The steel cables contain

300,000 km of wire and are 1.12 meters thick. It is a truly amazing feet and a real testimony

to modern engineering.

Cable stayed bridges can be traced back to 1784 when a German, Carl Emanuel Löscher

designed a timber bridge. They were not used or developed as the French engineer Navier

inducted a study in the 19th century which showed that suspension bridges should be used

rather than cable stayed bridges as the process of balancing the load could not have been done

as easily as modern technology now allows. German engineers headed up the design of cable

stayed bridges after the Second World War when they were challenged to find new and

David Bedford
different ways of crossing the Rhine to replace many of the old existent bridges and the ones

that had been destroyed during the war. Dischinger proposed a type of suspension bridge that

incorporated cable stayed bridges. He conducted a study into this, it lead to no bridges but

proved to be a major step forward to creating

the first ones. It was not until the late 1950's

when Dischinger designed the first truly

cable stayed bridge. The Strömsund Bridge

built in 1955 had a main span of 183m and

two side spans of 75m. Spans of this size

really only became possible after

improvements were made through structural analysis. Cable stayed bridges had been

attempted before this but this is considered the first by many. A further three bridges were

built over the Rhine.

The first cable stayed bridges used very little cable but this created substantial erection costs

as supports would been needed to hold the deck as wires were put in place. More cables were

added generally as this proved more economically viable. They were really only given their

break when suspension bridges started failing due to wind causing oscillations and eventually

failure. The most famous of which is the Tacoma Narrows Bridge, nicknamed Galloping

Gertie, which collapsed only 4 months after it was completed in 1940.

The Sutong Bridge in China has the longest span of any cable stayed bridge. At 1,088 meters

it is not as vast as the longest suspension bridges but is certainly catching up. It was awarded

the 2010 outstanding civil engineering achievement award by the American Society of Civil

Engineers. As well as being the longest suspension bridge in the world it also has records for

David Bedford
the largest foundation ever

attempted and the 577 meter

long cable stays were the

longest ever manufactured. The

total length of the bridge is

8,206 meters; it took 4 years to

built and cost £1.1 billion. It

reduces the time to get from Shanghai to Nantong form a four hour ferry crossing to a 1 hour

drive.

There are two main types of cable stayed

bridges – radial (fan) and parallel (harp).

This represents the arrangement of the

cables. In a radial cable stayed bridge all

the cables come from a single point on

the tower to several points on the road,

the advantage to this is that it can create

a near vertical force on the tower due to

the smaller angles between the cables and the tower. A parallel cable stayed bridge the cables

come from different points on the tower and the deck, and all the cables are parallel to each

other. This can mean that large horizontal forces from the deck are transferred on to the

towers which can cause a lot of stress. This is overcome by having a split in the concrete or

structure allowing for movement.

David Bedford
Bridges have to be able to support two loads: its own weight which is called a dead weight

and also the weight of the things crossing it, the live load. Bridges do this through tension and

compression. Tension is where a material is stretched, in metals it causes atoms to slip over

each other stretching the metal. In other materials it causes them to snap and sheer.

Compression occurs when a material is squished causing a metal to buckle and deform and

non-metals to crush. All bridges manage these forces in different ways. Hanging bridges,

suspension and cable stayed, deal with these in the same way. The tension is in the wires, as

they are being pulled by the road deck to where they are attached either to an anchorage

point, in the case of suspension bridges, or onto the tower/opposite road deck, in the case of

cable stayed bridges. The tension in the wires in turn exerts compression on the towers which

they are attached to or resting on, this compression is the dissipated into the foundations

bellow the bridge. There is also compression and tension on the road deck, the road deck

wants to bend, the wires are required to reduce and support the bending preventing disaster.

As the deck bends with the ends pointing towards the ground there is tension at the top and

compression on the underside. A successful bridge manages these forces well enabling it to

both carry the dead weight and the live weight.

Suspension bridges can be anchored in two ways, the cables need anchoring so as to keep

tension in the cables, keeping the bridge from falling down. They can either be self-anchoring

or use like most have separate anchorage points. Self anchoring bridges have their cables

attached to the end of the road deck this limits the length of the span as it would put large

amounts of stress on the road deck, the longest of this type has a span of 300m. The proven

method is creating a separate anchorage point. This usually consists of the cables embedded

in large amounts of concrete, the wires are spread in the concrete foundations so the there is

not too much force at any point acting on the foundations. This can be costly due to the vast

David Bedford
amount of materials needed, take the Humber Bridge for example: it uses 490,000 tonnes of

concrete. This all has to be laid in one sitting so cracks do not form. During the construction

of the anchorage points for the Humber Bridge 1000m ³ of concrete was laid per day.

This is an advantage of cable stayed bridges in that they do not need anchorage points as the

weight is balanced out on each side meaning that one side is supporting other and that same

side is supporting the other side -which is supporting it. This is also a technique used in

buildings; Wembley stadium wanted an uninterrupted viewing area this meant there could no

pillars supporting the roof. They decided to build a huge arch that would not only be a

landmark but also support the roof. The roof was tied to the arch using the same cables that

would be used on a cable stayed bridge. The brilliant thing is that the arch needed no supports

either as it was held in place by the weight of the roof. This is a great cost cutter as fewer

materials are needed.

A suspension bridge deck is held by the suspending cable, its distinctive curve is called a

cantenary. This usually refers to a curve of an object under its own weight such as in a chain

held at two points. But in a suspension bridge the weight of the cable is usually negligible,

the curve is created by the uniform distribution of the weight against the length of the cable.

The curve can be represented by an equation. If you call the length between the towers L and

the weight is uniform then the total load can be expressed by wL w being mg(mass x gravity).

The “sag” of the curve is s and the cable pulls on the tower with a total force or tension T.

The vertical component can be represented by V and the horizontal by H. If we consider the

total forces in the x axis then T=H at the lowest point as H is a tangent to the curve at that

point. If V equals the weight of the cable as weight acts in vertical component, then the dy/dx

(gradient) of the cantenary is WV/H. When integrated this then

David Bedford
gives y=(w/2H)x² which is a parabola x² with parameter w/2H. We can find out the value of

H by using the tension at certain points on the curve and using trigonometry to work out the

horizontal component. The total forces of the horizontal component must equal 0 otherwise

the bridge would collapse. This gives the remainder Hs=(wL/2)(L/4). At the bottom of the

curve there are no vertical components so (wL/2)(L/2) =Hs+(wL/2)(L/4). To work out the

tension we can substitute x=L/2 back into y=(w/2H)x² then s=wL²/8H and the equation is

x²=(L²/4s)y. Knowing that L and s give the shape of the curve and then the tension of any

point of the curve can be expressed as T=(wL/2)[(L/4s)² + (2x/L)²]^½.

In a cable stayed bridge the tension can be worked out as if it were a triangle. It would be a

right angled triangle therefore the simple laws of trigonometry can be applied. To work out

the tension you could express the total load again as wL, this is held by two towers but they

do support the span load together so it is wL/2 for each tower. The weight only acts in the

vertical direction so the cables have to support this weight this means the smaller the angle of

the cable against the tower then the lower the tension. By expressing this angle as θ then

Tension=w/cosθ, as θ increases cosθ decreases. In a cable stayed bridge, as in a suspension

bridge, the horizontal forces cancel out however in a suspension bridge they are only acting

on the towers, in a cable stayed bridge they are acting on the towers and deck. This means

that the deck is under compression in the horizontal direction and has to be strengthened to

withstand Tsinθ. This is usually done by using steel box girders or concrete. This is one of

the main reasons why cable stayed bridges will not be as long as suspension bridges as the

towers would have to increase considerably or the deck would have to be able to resist higher

compressive forces without gaining to much weight, where as in a suspension bridge they just

have to make the anchorage points larger to withstand the higher tension forces.

David Bedford
Another factor that engineers have to take into account with cable stayed bridges is that the

tension is going to change as the day goes on due to expansion and contraction. This could

lead to disaster as the towers could shear as could the deck as it is lifted or dropped. They

have allowed for this by using an inverted Y which allows for bending even in concrete

structures. This means that taller towers could be built as expansion and contraction be

accounted for.

Britain still had one more Estuary to cross in the 1970's, the last big span was needed over the

Humber river, a bridge had be thought of for over 100 years and in 1935 after the completion

of the Golden Gate bridge a proposition was put forward Sir Ralf Freeman. It needed to be a

single span due to fierce opposition from the people who used it, Freeman realised that a

bridge would only be built if it was a single span. The government only made feasibility

study for the bridge in 1969. They proposed due to the maximum traffic at the time that it

was only feasible to create a two lane highway across the river. In 1971, Freeman Fox &

Partners who had been waiting for the contract since 1927 finely got given 75% of the money

to build the bridge. It was to be the longest single spanned suspension in the world, yet it was

produced very economically using the latest bridge technology. The road deck was made

using steel box girders which Freeman Fox had used on the Severn Bridge and concrete

towers which were less expensive than steel and could be built faster and easier keeping costs

low. It was built using the latest methods such a wind testing, it had to withstand base winds

of just under 100mph and the top of the towers had to stand up to over 150mph. Various

models were crated and tested and they showed that it was feasible. It was unknown territory

for many as never had a bridge been built on this scale with a low budget.

David Bedford
They met problems when looking at how they were going to make strong foundations, the

geology was different on the opposite sides of the river. On the north side foundations would

be relatively easy to build as the chalk created a solid base. However on the south side the

chalk had be eroded from the glacial river before, all that was left was a clay that when it

contacted water it created a slurry, not ideal. As well as poor foundations it was also being

built 500m from the shore which adds extra problems. The solutions was to build a hollow

caisson to go 16m below the surface, which is about 4 giraffes, 8m of which is bellow the

Kimmarage clay. As it was sunk it hit some high pressured water which burst into the

structure washing some lubricant away, this meant that an extra 3,000 tonnes had to be added

to sink the tower, this also caused costly time wise, however on the north tower they regained

that time from the experience that they had gained from the south tower.

The steel box girders had proved

very successful; they were part of the

longest bridge in the world outside

the USA and on the Severn Bridge.

They wanted to stretch what they had

done before by almost 50%. It is a

hollow box which has been built

from a stiffened plate. The sections are 22m by 4.5m they are a trapezium shape giving them

their extra strength. They are shaped to also use the wind to relieve the deck of weight which

also adds to saving costs as they are shaped much like an aeroplane wing providing lift. The

structure also allows access from the inside which makes it allot easier to build and fabricate

and ensures a strong weld. It took 124 box’s to complete the road deck each box weighs 120

tonnes, which means the total weight is 14,880 tonnes. The total length of the cable that

David Bedford
supports this could go two times round the world! It was completed in 1981 and was the

longest single spanned suspension bridge for 16 years, testament to its engineering.

The Tarn Valley in Southern France became a huge stepping stone when the A75 was being

built in 1975 and it was not until 1994 that they decided a bridge a few miles down from

Millau was the solution to the huge valley. Then in 1996 the bridge was chosen, it was drawn

up by Lord Foster and headed by the French construction company Ponts et Chaussées. It was

chosen because of its aesthetic integration and just pure beauty. In 1998 the government

granted a 75 year period for the construction and management of the viaduct. On the 14

December 2001 the fist brick was laid and construction started making headway. The Millau

Viaduct was such a huge task that is called in the most advanced technology and wide range

of specialists ever on one building site.

David Bedford
In was done in six stages which were: Raising the piers; launching the deck; the junction;

installing the pylons; the cable stays and laying the road surface. The piers needed to have

huge foundations which would keep them upright. They are known as Moroccan Wells and

are 5 metres wide and 15 metres deep. There is also a foundation slab above this which is 5

metres tall and required 2,100m³ concrete to be continually poured. After this the piers began

to rise at 4 metres every 3 days, work had started on March 2002 and ended in December

2003. The deck is made of 173 central box beams and weighs 36,000 tonnes. As the bridge

has a slight curve each section is unique making production even harder. 96% of the work on

the deck was done at ground level which reduced risk and cost. 150 people worked for 20

months to complete this section. Rather than raising the deck to the tallest bridge in the world

they slid each section out. Giant supports were used between each pier to help carry the load.

Hydraulic rams were used to do this, they lifted the deck up each time and slid it forward

before repeating the process

again 60cm at a time. At a

speed of 9m per hour they

eventually meet on the 28th

May 2004. As the launching

operation took place the piers

were being put in place, they

were transported over the

bridge, where they were partially stayed so the deck did not take a nose dive. Each pylon is

700 tonnes and 90 metres high. Each pylon then carries and is supported by 11 pairs of cable

stays in total weighing 1,500 tonnes. The longest cables have a tension of 1,200 tonnes and

were installed in the protective sheathe cable by cable by a shuttle were they would be pulled

to the right tension. The deck was then surfaced using a special formula that could cope with

David Bedford
the contractions of the bridge but meet motorway standards. It is 6cm to 7cm thick and is

without blemish to maximise longevity and the need for re-surfacing. It added 9,500 tones to

the bridge and was laid continually so minimise imperfections, this meant there was a

constant stream of 25 Lorries to supply the two finishers. It was then heat sealed at 400ºC so

the steel deck bellow would not corrode. The bridge has been a great success and is a modern

marvel.

In terms of making an economically viable bridge then large spans are more costly than

multi-span counterparts. This is because of the increase of expensive materials needed, hard

and time consuming construction techniques and engineering ability as well as other things.

By breaking records you have either found a really effective technique or more likely it is a

demonstration of a countries wealth. In some cases is it necessary like at the Golden Gate

Bridge when a single span was needed as the military required it. This is why we are

currently seeing more cable stayed bridges as they are cheaper to build and take less time.

Suspension bridges are the most expensive because of the technicality of the, build,

construction and materials needed. Studies into how long it is possible to build the different

types of bridges have been made. The American Society of Civil Engineers suggests a

suspension bridge could reach a single span of 7,000m; the limiting factor would be the stress

in the main cable. This is double the amount a single span of a cable stayed bridge could

stretch to, 3,500m. The limiting factor of a cable stayed bridge would be girder as

compression forces would be too high. This really stresses how much it would cost to build

bridges with such large spans, as the longest suspension bridge is 1,991m, 5,009m away from

what is possible with steel and concrete. And the longest span for a cable stayed so far is

1,088m; 2,412m away from what is possible. But these bridges are far ahead of other types,

David Bedford
arch bridges have a maximum span of 1,600m, and truss bridges have no perceivable limit as

long as the girder is deep enough, however the financial limit would be a small 550m.

So why would you build a suspension bridge a not a cable stayed bridge or the other way

round, where are engineers today placing these bridges and why did they use that type?

Suspension bridges can span much longer distance than that of a cable stayed; this would be

used when a busy shipping channel cannot be interrupted. Even if a multi-span cable stayed

bridge could give the height and spans for all large ships to pass under, if one were to cash in

to the towers foundations the result would be disastrous; loss of lives, money and the

connection that the bridge provided in the first place. The amount of material is less than any

other bridge over long distances; this could leave to cost reduction and is more

environmentally friendly. During construction access is only needed to place the temporary

cables so the waterway can remain open, reducing financial strain on other companies also

using the water way. They can withstand large earthquakes due to less materials and their

flexibility. However they fair terribly in wind due to their flexibility and aerodynamic

properties, to stop this decks need stiffening and aerodynamic profiling. Also thanks to its

low deck stiffness it makes the suspension bridge unsuitable for rail use and other high

concentrated live loads.

Cable stayed bridges excel in places when the suspension bridge fails, it has a much higher

deck stiffness so can handle rail traffic as well as other concentrated live loads. It can be

constructed by pushing out the decks using the cables as both the temporary and permanent

supports. This technique was used during the construction of the Millau as no materials could

be raised as the bridge was so high up, the largest tower was taller that the Eiffel Tower a

near impossible task that could not have been feasibly spanned by a suspension bridge. The

David Bedford
horizontal forces balance so no large anchorage system is needed. They can also cover a

larger distance than suspension bridges as they can have multi-span structures, where as a

suspension bridge has a limit of two spans, however this itself is incredibly hard to construct

and anchor down. There is only one suspension bridge which has three spans and that is

technically two suspension bridges joined together as there is a central anchorage point, the

San Francisco Oakland Bay Bridge. In all they both have there advantages and disadvantages.

I believe that cable stayed bridges will replace many of the original suspension bridges, like

the Second Severn Crossing or the proposed replacement for the Forth Road bridge.

David Bedford
 Evaluation

When I decided to do an Extended Project I did not know what I wanted to do it on. I knew it

would be something to do with engineering, In the end I choose to do something with bridges

so I started my research. I had previously watched a program on the building of the Millau

bridge, this lead me to many other interesting articles on cable stayed bridges, so I knew I

was going to include that. It also highlighted that the general public did not know the

difference between cable stayed bridges and suspension bridges. I decided that I would

highlight the differences between the two and also the similarities.

I knew my Granddad was also interested in engineering, I gave him a call and he sent down a

couple of books which I found interesting and also so articles which help build my

background knowledge, which I have found very useful. I also took out a few books from the

library some were not so useful but one was particularly useful and gave the general gist of

how they worked and were built. Often when I was writing I did not quite have a grasp of the

topic so I would have to do some more research, so I knew what I was writing was correct

and could be justified. This took time and I lost the fluidity that I was writing with so I had to

leave it for a bit and then come back. If I were to do it again I would have a more thorough

plan and therefore greater background knowledge. This would improve the fluidity of the

essay and make it easier to read.

Bibliography

David Bedford
BBR. (2005). Cable Stayed Structures and Stay Cable Technology. Retrieved from
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Beckett, D. (1980). Brunel's Brittain. David and Charles.
Belard, A. (2005). the a75 autoroute (clermont-ferrand to béziers). Retrieved from
ABelard.org: http://www.abelard.org/france//motorway-aires10.php
Benckett, D. (1984). Stephensons' Brittain. David and Charles Ltd.
Bernado, S. D. (1990). Motion Based Design Of Cable Stayed Bridges. Rome: University of
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Blockley, D. (2010). Bridges. Bristol: OUP.
Bridge Pros. (n.d.). Cable Stayed Bridge. Retrieved from BridgePros.com:
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Brown, D. J. (1998). Bridges: Three Thousand Years of Defying Nature [Paperback].
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Parabolas in Suspension Bridges! Oh, my! (n.d.). Retrieved from Carondelete.ca.us:
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Qingzhong, Y. (2007). Challenges of the Sutong Bridge. Retrieved from transportation.org:
http://downloads.transportation.org/InternationalDay/You.pdf
Ryan, V. (2005). The Millau Bridge. Retrieved from TechonlogyStudent.com:
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Ryan, V. (2002). The Normandy Bridge (Cable Stayed). Retrieved from
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Tang, D. M.-C. (2010). The Story of World-Record Spans. Civil Engineering , 56-63.
WGBH Science Unit. (1999). Super Bridge. Retrieved from PBS:
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutong_Bridge
Wikipedia. (2010). Union Bridge. Retrieved from Wikipedia.org:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Bridge_(Tweed)

David Bedford
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Hum08 \l 2057 ][ CITATION Par \l 2057 ][ CITATION Don08 \l 2057 ][ CITATION
Wik102 \l 2057 ][ CITATION Wik103 \l 2057 ][ CITATION Bri \l 2057 ][ CITATION
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David Bedford