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*This document is your guide to the Physics, Solver, and Analysis menus for
the 2D Eddy Current Analysis module known as “OERSTED**”. It applies to the
single program known as OERSTED as well as to the mode accessed in
multiphysics programs via the menu Utilities > Mode > Oersted. The
document which describes common aspect for all IES 2D programs is the 2D
Program Guide.
Information in this document is subject to change without notice and does not
represent a commitment on the part of INTEGRATED ENGINEERING
SOFTWARE SALES Inc. The software described in this document is furnished
under a license agreement or nondisclosure agreement. The software may be
used or copied only in accordance with the terms of the agreement. It is against
the law to copy any part of the software onto cassette tape, disk or any other
medium for any purpose other than the licensee’s use.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Manual Organization................................................................................... 9
OERSTED MODE............................................................................................... 19
MATERIALS ...................................................................................................... 26
LAMINATIONS ................................................................................................... 43
CALCULATING ENERGY..................................................................................... 89
Calculating Resistance............................................................................. 94
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
COMPONENT CHECK
Check to see that your OERSTED package contains:
The OERSTED 2D/RS Eddy Current QuickStart Guide.
Storage media that contains the OERSTED program files.
OERSTED security key. Check to make sure the serial number on the
security key matches the serial number on the storage media.
If you are missing any of these components, or if any have been damaged in
shipping, please contact Integrated Engineering Software immediately.
Manual Organization
We recommend that you go through the Quick Start Guide sample sessions first
then move on to your own designs using the 2D Eddy Current Program Guide
and the 2D Program Guide as references on commands and Eddy Current
theory.
10 2D Eddy Current Guide
MANUAL CONVENTIONS
The manuals assume that you have a basic understanding of electromagnetic
theory, are familiar with basic operating system commands, and have had some
experience using a mouse.
Periodically, the manual uses tips, notes or important messages to help you
efficiently create and solve your models. These messages have the following
format:
SYMBOLS USED IN THE MANUAL
This manual uses a number of symbols to highlight specific parts of the text.
The meaning of these symbols is as follows:
The light bulb marks a tip about how to use the program more
efficiently. For example, a tip might give you a keyboard
shortcut for a commonly used command.
OERSTED FEATURES
4. The rotational transient mode for induced effects from rotating model
components.
5. The translational transient mode for induced effects due to linear
motion of model components.
Various Analysis tools allow you to obtain easily recognizable results and
produce visually appealing documentation, including:
Induced Current (eddy current), electric field and magnetic vector
potentials and magnetic field values at any desired location
throughout the entire model domain.
Magnetic field components displayed in the form of contour plots,
profile plots and graphs.
Magnetic fields displayed in the form of arrow plots, loci plots, and
graphs.
Resistance and inductance values displayed by selecting the
appropriate objects.
Graphs obtained along any arbitrary line or segment(s).
Permeability ( B-H curves), permittivity and conductivity are stored in a
table that associates colors or patterns with materials. Materials from the
table are assigned easily to the appropriate regions.
Various Boundary Conditions such as potentials, floating potentials,
normal derivative of potentials, and impressed fields are easily assigned.
A Batch utility is provided for unattended operation of OERSTED.
The Geometry tool allows you to draw lines, arcs, circles, and free-form
curves using splines. It also allows you to re-shape, rotate, displace, mirror,
round, or scale to size the geometrical model.
File management utility allows you to save, list, open and delete files of
different formats as well as forward data and pictures image to a printer or
text file.
Inquiry commands display information about the current geometry,
boundary conditions, and elements.
Numerous editing tools provide easy modification of geometry, boundary
conditions, elements, or materials makes it possible for a design to be
entered at the conceptual stage and changed until optimum results are
obtained.
Chapter 1 – Introduction 13
CHAPTER 2
To completely define a model, the geometry must have physical properties that
define how the various parts of the geometry interact.
There are many settings for the type of model. For example:
You can define all of these types using the Physics Global Setup dialog,
shown below.
Chapter 2 – Assigning Physical Properties 17
1) From the Physics menu, select Physics Global Settings. This displays
the Physics Global Setup dialog.
5) Depending on the design, you may need to select the Balanced option.
See the following section for more information about balanced and
unbalanced models.
6) Click [OK] to set the type and close the Physics Global Setup dialog.
18 2D Eddy Current Guide
The Balanced checkbox on the Physics Global Setup dialog specifies if you
want to consider the induced currents.
B D
E and H J
t t
D
Where J is the diffusion current and is the displacement current. In the
t
D
above equation, J E and in the time harmonic case, jE .
t
Chapter 2 – Assigning Physical Properties 19
In systems where the conductivity of materials such as copper and steel are
considered, the diffusion current dominates. This is due to the fact that the
conductivity of these materials, and therefore the diffusion current in them, is
high. In a small number of cases, when the frequency is high or when the
permittivity is large and conductivity is low, the displacement current becomes
comparable to or larger than the diffusion current.
2f r 0
If this rule is true, do not consider the displacement current. If the rule is not
true, consider the displacement current by selecting the Displacement Current
check box in the Physics Global Setup dialog.
OERSTED MODE
The Mixed Mode setting allows you to solve steady state Phasor models for
cases where Static sources (i.e. permanent magnets and/or DC current
sources) primarily determine the magnetic properties of model materials. This
allows you to include saturation effects without having to perform a full
Transient simulation.
The Oersted Mode is not a property that is saved with your files. To perform a
Mixed Mode analysis, first select the menu Utilities>Oersted Mode>Mixed
Mode before opening a saved model or generating a new model.
Ambient Temperature
The purpose of this switch is to enable the Materials Table to contain the
correct values for materials, even if the values are so small as to have
negligible effect. Users can then assign materials such as Aluminum and water
for visual clarity of the model without having them greatly complicate the
solution. Users wishing to model small susceptibility materials can either
redefine the critical value, or check the box to include the effects, without having
to re-enter material properties if those susceptibilities are already entered for
their chosen materials.
22 2D Eddy Current Guide
Angular Periodicity
In many devices, the geometry and sources occur in a periodic pattern around
some point in the geometry. Consider the structure below. One quarter of the
geometry repeats itself in a periodic pattern about the center and the sources
repeat in a similar manner.
Note that the BEM solver must put elements on an interface where the material
changes. When there is contact between parts, as shown above one must
consider whether the contacting surfaces require elements. The
symmetry/periodicity conditions cannot have elements on the surfaces where
the parts contact images.
If the “+” and “-” regions are coils carrying current this is no problem.
Volume current sources do not require surface elements.
If the “+” and “-” regions are two materials with different permeabilities, then
elements are required at the interface between them.
Chapter 2 – Assigning Physical Properties 23
If the “+” and “-” regions are the same material, but are permanent magnets
with opposite “equivalent surface current”, elements are required at the
interface between them.
In cases where this conflict arises, consider the following alternatives for
drawing the geometry:
Periodic
Draw the geometry such that the interfaces between
images are like structures. Shown on the right, the
lower blue + region will meet the upper blue + region.
Thus the connection is not an interface, no elements are
needed.
Antiperiodic
Linear Periodicity
The linear periodicity option allows you to truncate models containing a basic
unit that repeats in a linear pattern. In figure 5, a basic unit repeats linearly
along the x-axis. The solution for a given unit does not deviate significantly from
the solution for any other unit, so you can use a small section to find the
solution for the complete model. Rather than modeling the entire design, create
the basic unit and then define a linear periodicity condition.
24 2D Eddy Current Guide
There are two types of linear periodicity. You can define a periodic or anti-
periodic condition. The type of condition depends on the nature of the source. If
the sources repeat with the geometry, as shown, define a linear periodic
condition.
For any linear periodic condition, you must model an odd number of units. The
accuracy of the solution improves with the number of units that you model. For
linear periodicity, you do not need to model more than one unit. For an anti-
periodic condition, model a minimum of three units for an accurate solution.
Chapter 2 – Assigning Physical Properties 25
Once you define the symmetry or periodicity, OERSTED needs to know about
the segments that you added in order to truncate the model. These segments
do not represent true interfaces. OERSTED will automatically detect straight
segments on lines of symmetry when symmetry is selected, but you need to
define periodic conditions yourself.
To define the periodic
segments:
1) From the Symmetry
and Periodicity dialog
click the Select Periodic
Geometry button.
2) Select all of the segments that you added in order to truncate the
geometry
3) Press the right mouse button to assign conditions to the selected
segments and return to the dialog.
Perform the analysis for a periodic model just as you would for a non-periodic
model. You can do post processing in any part of the window space regardless
of where truncations occur, although keeping field plots close to the defined
geometry regions makes it easier to reference the plots to the model
You can perform post processing in any part of the window space, regardless of
where you truncated the model. Plots are more easily referenced to the device
if you keep them close to the defined geometry. OERSTED scales torques,
energies and other calculations for the total device, except for forces. You must
multiply force values by the number of periodic sections.
26 2D Eddy Current Guide
MATERIALS
Magnetic Materials
A full hysteresis curve would require a lot of data (several minor hysteresis
loops besides the major one shown above) to be measured and entered for the
material, plus it would require a history to be used. The most common reason
for wanting to model hysteresis is to obtain power loss. INTEGRATED makes
this much easier by the “Parameter: Hysteresis Loss” option. With this option
the power versus B data can contain any contributions you wish. Normally it is
used to calculate the energy lost due to cycling around minor hysteresis loops
in AC problems. It can also, for example, have a contribution from small eddy
currents (ones which are too small to significantly affect the field) to simply
analysis by setting electrical conductivity to zero.
Permanent Magnets
In other cases the B-H characteristic may show significant curvature, but the
behavior is still essentially reversible. Then the Nonlinear Permanent Magnet
type works in a straightforward way.
With such materials, the analysis necessarily involves several steps because
the range over which the magnet is used will affect the appropriate material
curve.
Chapter 2 – Assigning Physical Properties 29
Step 1:
Using the supplied (pink to the
right) data analyze the model over
the range of operation to determine
the largest (negative) values for H.
Step 2:
Replace the data curve, or define a
new material, with the red curve
shown to the right, corresponding
to the correct characteristic for the
material after a cycle through the
range of operation for the device.
Note the data to the left of the operating range is irrelevant. Hence, it is
common to define the material as linear with a selected Br, Hc which produce
the correct behavior over the range of operation.
A supplied magnet may have been “stabilized”. That is, it may have
been deliberately demagnetized to a state which will be reversible
under a large range of operation. In this case the B-H data entered
should not be the general data for the material, but should be provided
by the supplier to specify the state after stabilization
30 2D Eddy Current Guide
Ideal Magnets
In magnetic circuits, you can use boundary conditions to truncate models for
faster computation time.
Assign a potential boundary to a segment when you know the magnetic vector
potential on part of the boundary.
Chapter 2 – Assigning Physical Properties 31
2) Select the segments where you want to assign the boundary condition.
4) Enter the value of the potential that you want to assign (for phasor
problems you must specify a magnitude and phase angle).
2) Select the segments where you want to delete the boundary condition.
CURRENT SOURCES
There are two purposes for currents in OERSTED. The first purpose is to
examine the current induced in a conductive material when you place a current
carrying coil close to it. In this case, skin effects on the coil filaments are not
considered and the current is assigned simply as a current filling a volume. The
second type of current is a current in a solid conductor. In this case, the current
does not completely fill the volume. Instead, a skin effect is noticed depending
on the frequency of excitation and the material conductivity. The type of current
defined depends on the type of result desired for the model.
Currents in Coils
In most electromagnetic devices, the excitation current is supplied by a bundle
of wires, more commonly called the coil. This method is chosen over using a
solid conductor because a large solid conductor exhibits skin effects (where the
current essentially exists only on the conductor’s surface). Using several
smaller conductors maximizes the efficiency of materials and the amount of
current that can be supplied to the device.
Assign a volume current to the entire geometry region that represents the
coil.
Assign a volume current density to a geometry region. If you change the
size of the region, OERSTED keeps the same density.
Assign a volume current by defining the current per turn of the coil, the
number of turns in the coil and the resistance of the coil.
When one dimension of the coil is much greater that the other, you can
simply create a line to represent the coil and assign a surface current to the
line.
Chapter 2 – Assigning Physical Properties 33
Using the Volume Current menu, you can simply define a current by assigning
a total current in Amp*turns to the region.
Instead of total current you can assign current density to a region. This is very
useful if you intend to change the size of the region using parametrics.
OERSTED keeps a constant density, regardless of the size of the region.
Use a surface current when one dimension of the coil is much larger than the
other. Model the coil as a line segment and assign a surface current to the line.
1) Select Physics>Surface
Current>Assign.
Editing Currents
To change the current in the model, you can delete the assigned current and
assign a new current or you can scale a volume or surface current by a
constant value.
Chapter 2 – Assigning Physical Properties 35
To delete a current:
2) Select the regions or segment where you want to delete the current.
To display a current:
2) Select the regions or segments where you want to scale the current.
4) Enter any real number as the scaling factor. OERSTED multiplies the
current by this value.
Before you assign currents, you must associate the conductors using the
Serial/Parallel connection switch in the Volume Current menu. The setting
depends whether the conductors are connected in serial (not at all) or in
parallel.
5) Enter the total current in all of the regions representing the set of parallel
conductors.
You always assign current to conductors using the Assign command in the
Volume Current menu. You can also use commands in this menu to edit
conductor currents.
PERMANENT MAGNETS
A permanent magnet requires a magnetic material and a defined direction. The
general procedure for assigning a permanent magnet is:
If you require more than simply the end points of the curve, obtain additional
second quadrant curve data from the manufacturer of the material.
Once you define the magnetic material, use the [Assign] button to assign the
material to the appropriate regions of the model.
38 2D Eddy Current Guide
After you assign the magnetic materials to the geometry regions, you must
assign a magnetization direction to each region.
To assign the magnetization in a radial direction about the radial origin (x=0,
y=0 by default):
2) Select the regions where you want to assign the magnetization direction.
3) The circle moves to show the new location. Right-click to accept the
new origin.
2) Select the region that contains the magnet. The Message Area displays
the magnetization direction.
3) Select a new region or press the right mouse button to exit the Display
Magnets command.
2) Select the regions where you want to delete the magnetization direction.
You can study the reaction of a model in the presence of a constant magnetic
field by impressing a B-Field to the geometry space. This field has a constant
magnitude and direction. You assign a constant field by defining the x and y
components of the field. Use the Impressed Field menu, found under the
Physics menu, to assign these coordinates.
The default frequency of a model is 60 Hz. You can change the frequency using
the Physics Global Setup dialog. If you assign an impressed field to the
model, the frequency you define in this dialog is the frequency of the impressed
field.
42 2D Eddy Current Guide
3) Click [OK] to set the frequency and close the Physics Global Settings
dialog.
Chapter 2 – Assigning Physical Properties 43
LAMINATIONS
DEFINING CONDUCTORS
The Conductors submenus are only applicable when the Solver Type in the
Physics Global Setup dialog is set to Circuit Parameters.
To calculate the self and mutual inductance of current carrying coils, you must
associate the coil with conductor numbers. You can do this by assigning a
conductor number to each coil. Conductor numbers simply group the coils
together into a conductor.
For a two dimensional model, assign a forward conductor and return path
conductor. The return path can be a second coil region or a defined
ground for the model. For a rotationally symmetric model, assign only the
forward path. Ground has no meaning for rotationally symmetric models
since no return path is needed – any current is a full path.
44 2D Eddy Current Guide
2) Select all of the regions that you want to associate with this conductor
number.
You can assign the return path by assigning a conductor in the opposite
direction or by assigning a ground to the entire model.
2) Select the coil regions that you want to assign as the return conductors.
1) Select Physics>Velocity>Display.
1) Select Physics>Velocity>Delete.
2) Select the regions where you want to delete the velocity right-click.
46 2D Eddy Current Guide
CHAPTER 3
Solve (by default, most users should simply use Solution>Solve without
concern for the setup possible as mentioned above)
48 2D Eddy Current Guide
TYPES OF ANALYSIS
There are several different types of solutions that you can perform. The type of
solution defines the calculations that OERSTED performs. You can change a
model and re-solve it as many times as you want in order to test different
properties or perform a different type of solution.
Solver Types
The solver type defines the type of calculations that OERSTED performs. On
the Physics Global Setup dialog (top of the Physics menu), you can select
one of the following solver types:
Solver Method
The solver method defines the way that OERSTED performs the calculations.
There are two solver methods.
With experience you may choose to adjust some of the solver parameters
according to the needs of a given analysis. The most critical numbers are the
Self-Adaptive Accuracy and the Material Nonlinear Convergence Factor.
Lowering the former will cause the solver to iterate more often, creating a finer
element distribution, in order to finish with a smaller average error on the
boundaries. The latter has a similar effect, but is specifically related to the
nonlinear accuracy. When fields seem unreasonably high given the
magnetization curve of the materials, this number can be decreased to get a
better answer.
Select Solution>Solve
Chapter 3 – Analyzing the Model 51
SOLVER PARAMETERS
The main solver parameters are edited in
the Solver Setup dialog, opened from
Solution>Solver Setup…. For much more
advanced configuration of the solver there
are more parameters accessible from
Utilities>Settings… in the [Document
Properties] tab. These advanced settings
are described in the 2D Program Guide. In
this guide a summary is given of the
parameters in the Solver Setup dialog.
More information can be found in the 2D
Program Guide.
Method of Solution
The Boundary Element solver is found to be the fastest and most accurate
solver for most problems. However, many highly nonlinear problems are solved
better with the Finite Element solver, and the transient solver requires Finite
Elements. For problems where there are significant problems with both of
these in some areas, the hybrid solver enables you to use each in different
parts of the problem. The Automatic option selects the solver type for you in
each part, with the Manual option you select what solver to use on each part.
Either BEM or FEM involves solving for unknowns in a formula of the type:
The Direct option provides an answer “exact” (to the precision level of the
variables), however, the time taken is proportional to the cube of the number of
unknowns.
To reduce the computation time for large numbers of unknowns the Iterative
option applies a trial solution and then adapts it repeatedly until the Iterative
Accuracy figure is achieved. The default is set as 1E-6, experience has shown
that that this provides sufficient accuracy for most users most of the time.
The Auto option passes the choice of Direct or Iterative to OERSTED. It will
estimate the problem size and choose the Iterative solver if it is considered a
big enough problem to warrant the slightly less accurate solution.
Manual/Self-adaptive
In Manual mode you must setup the elements and the FEM bounding box (if
applicable) yourself. In Self-Adaptive mode OERSTED does this for you.
Self-Adaptive Accuracy
This is a measure of the accuracy of the solution. The default level of 0.01 can
be interpreted as the average error of the solution on the boundary being
accurate to better than 1%. Decreasing this target number will cause the solver
to iterate the element refinement and re-solving more often.
Chapter 3 – Analyzing the Model 53
Accuracy/Speed Factor
This number applies only to the BEM solver. Making this number larger will
cause the integrations from each element to be more accurate – however, the
time taken will be longer. This is not generally the way to obtain a more
accurate solution – more elements or a small Self-Adaptive Accuracy factor
are the ways to do that. However, increasing this number can be helpful when
refining the elements is not decreasing the average error. In fact, the solver will
automatically start increasing this number if the Self-Adaptive solver does not
appear to be converging.
The default ratio (exit criteria) is 0.01. If a model requires greater accuracy,
reduce this value to increase the number of iterations. To see the effects of the
exit criteria decrease the value and resolve the model. If the results do not
change significantly, use the larger exit criteria.
The finite element solver works by finding the vector potential at the element
nodes. The Linear option finds the vector potential at positions inside the
element by linear interpolation from the values at the nodes. The Quadratic
option has an extra unknown so that it can do a quadratic interpolation. This
means the Quadratic option will be significantly larger, hence it will take longer
to solver. Also, the quadratic matrix is not as well conditioned, so the iterative
solver will have more trouble with it. The benefit of the Quadratic option is
seen by comparing field line or contour plots with the same element distribution
– the Quadratic plots are much smoother or less noisy than the Linear plots.
54 2D Eddy Current Guide
FIELD CALCULATIONS
OERSTED provides several options for working with field results. You can:
Display plots and graphs of field calculations using the Field Analysis
Result dialog, shown below
Display results at a specific point in the model.
Use File Input to enter geometry points and calculate results.
Select Analysis> Field Results to display the Fields Analysis Result dialog.
The appearance of this dialog depends on the type of display form that you
choose. The following figure illustrates the Field Analysis Result dialog for
displaying a coarse Field Line plot.
The first step in creating a graph or plot is to select the field quantity that you
want to view and the type of plot that you want to use to view this quantity. You
can do this using the View Type Selection and Display Form boxes in the View
Selections section of the Field Analysis Result dialog.
Use the View Type selection box to specify the field quantity that you want to
plot. The View Type selections are:
Chapter 3 – Analyzing the Model 55
Energy Density
Power (Loss Curve) Power density computed from the Loss Curve
entered for a material
Display Form
Use the Display Form field to specify the type of plot you want to create. When
you change the Display Form, the fields and menus on the Field Analysis
Result dialog change to suit the plot type. See the page listed below for more
information about creating each display type.
Display Description
Form
Graphs An x vs. y type plot of a scalar field quantity on the vertical (y) axis
and geometry coordinates on the horizontal (x) axis.
Loci A time harmonic plot displaying the change in field magnitude and
direction through one cycle.
CREATING GRAPHS
To create a graph:
1) In the View Type selections box on the Field Analysis Result dialog,
select the field quantity that you want to display. In the Display Form
box, select Graphs.
58 2D Eddy Current Guide
2) In the Location select whether to plot a graph along a line (given by two
end points) or along a geometry segment.
4) If you selected Graph Along Line in the Location, enter two end points
of a straight line. For Graph Along Segment, select one or more
connected geometry segments. Right click when you are finished
selection. If the quantity is discontinuous across the segment OERSTED
will prompt you to click on the side where you wish to calculate. For
Graph Along Segment, OERSTED will also display a selected direction
to plot and prompt you whether to toggle to the opposite direction.
See the AutoGraph Appendix for information how to change the display of a
graph within AutoGraph.
View Settings
X Component
Y Component
Magnitude (default, for a scalar field quantity)
dot Normal
dot Tangential
Real
Imaginary
Magnitude
Phase
Instantaneous (you must enter a time angle)
View Select either the User Range and enter the minimum and
Range maximum values for the vertical graph axis or select Default
Range to set these values to the defaults calculated by
OERSTED.
Number of Enter the number of points that you want to plot. The default is
Intervals 50 intervals (51 points). Using more intervals creates a smoother
graph, but the calculations require more time. The maximum
number of intervals is 10000.
Integrating Graphs
Within AutoGraph you can integrate a field quantity along a line or geometry
segment. See the AutoGraph Appendix for details.
The units for the integral depend on the units chosen for the field
values and for model. Be sure to make any necessary
conversions, or change the units using the Unit Setup dialog.
60 2D Eddy Current Guide
1) Set the View Type selection to the quantity that you want to view.
5) In the Grid Density section, select the density of the grid that you want
to use to calculate and display the plot.
6) In the Location section, specify whether you want to plot on the whole
visible plane (On Plane) or on selected regions (On Region)
7) Click [New Plot]. OERSTED calculates and draws the contour plot.
Grid Density
Use the Grid Density box to define the density of the grid used to create the
plot. A denser grid produces a smoother looking contour plot, but requires more
time. The approximate number of grid points for each density setting is as
follows:
After creating a contour plot, the Message Area displays the number of points
that were used.
62 2D Eddy Current Guide
Other Settings
X Component
Y Component
Magnitude (default, for a scalar field quantity)
Real
Imaginary
Magnitude
Phase
Instantaneous (you must enter a time angle)
Maximum
Maximum Time Angle
View Range Select either the User Range and enter the minimum and
maximum values for plotted quantity or select [Default
Range] to set these values to the defaults calculated by
OERSTED.
Number of Enter the number of contours that you want to plot. Using
Contours more contours creates a smoother plot, but the
calculations require more time. The maximum number of
contour is 48 for a line contour plot and 31 for a solid
contour plot.
Move Scale Move the scale with the mouse to a different part of
the screen.
None
1) Set the View Type selection to a vector quantity (e.g. B-Field, H-Field, or
M-Field).
3) In the Grid Density section, select the density of the grid that you want
to use to create the plot.
4) In the Location section, specify whether you want to plot on the whole
visible plane (On Plane) or on selected regions (On Region)
5) Click [New Plot] to draw the plot based on the current settings.
Chapter 3 – Analyzing the Model 67
Grid Density
Use the Grid Density box to define the density of the grid used to create the
plot. A denser grid produces a smoother arrow plot, but requires more time. The
approximate number of grid points for each density setting is as follows:
The following settings specify how you want to calculate and view the arrow
plot.
View Range Select either the User Range and enter the
minimum and maximum values for the plotted
quantity or select [Default Range] to set these
values to the defaults calculated by OERSTED.
Log Scale Select the color scale for values with logarithmic
spacing.
68 2D Eddy Current Guide
The Options menu in the Field Analysis Result dialog contains the following
commands for working with arrow plots.
Put Scale Displays the legend that relates the color of the arrows
to values of the field quantity.
Scaled Select the Scaled switch if you want the length of the
arrows to represent the magnitude of the vector. If you
leave this menu option unchecked, all of the arrows
have the same length.
Chapter 3 – Analyzing the Model 69
None
1) Set the View Type selection to a vector quantitiy (e.g. B-Field, H-Field or
M-Field).
3) In the Grid Density section, select the density of the grid used to create
the loci plot. The approximate number of grid point for each setting is as
follows:
Coarse 60 points
4) In the Location section, specify whether you want to plot on the whole
visible plane (On Plane) or on selected regions (On Region)
5) Click [New Plot] to draw the plot with the current settings.
4) In the Grid Density section, select the density of the grid used to create
the loci plot. The approximate number of grid point for each setting is as
follows:
5) In the Location section, specify whether you want to plot on the whole
visible plane (On Plane) or on selected regions (On Region).
6) Click [New Plot] to draw the plot with the current settings.
After a plot is drawn you can change the size of dots with the Magnification
number, and make the dots size scale with value from the menu
Options>Scaled.
Values at Point – select a point by clicking with the mouse or typing (x, y)
coordinates on the Command Line. The point and value at the point will be
shown in the Message Area.
74 2D Eddy Current Guide
You can check to make sure that some basic electromagnetic laws are satisfied
by:
2) In the Field Analysis Results dialog set the View Type selection to H-
Field and the Display Form to Graphs.
Blue triangles will appear along the segment(s) indicating the default
direction of the plot. The Command Line prompt will read Left-Click to
confirm display direction; <Ctrl>+Left-Click to toggle direction>. Each
time you <Ctr>-Left-Click the direction indicated will toggle. Left-Click at
any time to accept the indicated direction and create the plot.
If you plot Htangential on both sides of a segment, and the plots look significantly
different, then you should try a more accurate solution. In Manual mode add
more elements, in Self-Adapt mode lower the Self-Adaptive Accuracy criteria.
If you see a large peak on one side of the graph, this means that
the field is calculated as singular at a corner, which is expected but
it creates a graph scale too large to examine the rest of the
segment. Right-click on an empty part of the graph and select Axis
from the pop-up menu. In the Property Sheet dialog set limits for
the y-axis which reduce the scale of the graph so that the field on
the rest of the segment can be examined more closely.
By graphing the tangential H-field along a closed path around parts of the
model, you can check the satisfaction of Ampere’s circuital law:
I H dL
You can do this by integrating the graph of the tangential H-Field around a
closed path. Before you start, make sure that the units for H are A/m and the
units for length are meters.
76 2D Eddy Current Guide
1) Right-click a data point in AutoGraph, and from the popup menu select
Integrate>I(G).
3) There are various display options for the multiple windows within
AutoGraph. These options are selected from the Window menu:
You can perform this check along any defined geometry segments or by
creating geometry segments that are not part of the physical model. If you want
to use segments that are not part of the model it is best to create these
segments before solving. Creating a new region after solving will automatically
force a new solution.
FORCE CALCULATIONS
When a system contains magnetic fields, forces act on materials with magnetic
properties or on any current carrying coils.
1) AMPERIAN:
The Amperian method calculates total force by integrating the force
density = {current density} x {B field}.
This method only applies to the BEM solver, and the context provides the
current density. This may be:
* real volume current density of a coil assigned volume current
* real surface current density of a coil assigned surface current
* equivalent volume current density due to nonlinear magnetization
* equivalent surface current density to satisfy a permeability change
boundary condition
2) MAXWELL STRESS:
This calculation method integrates the Maxwell Stress Tensor, which
can be interpreted as a pressure or force density. The integral over an
entire boundary thus produces the force on everything inside.
For an equivalent calculation these methods should produce the same force
number. The difference between the two calculations is an indication of the
amount of error in the calculation. When they disagree by an unacceptable
amount, refine the solution and compare again.
1) REGION:
The on Region options calculate the total force on everything selected
as a region. This will even include the surface force on a surface
current. It will also cut out holes etc. as appropriate for the Maxwell
Stress method – i.e. the integral on the inside boundary is subtracted
from the integral on the outside boundary.
Chapter 3 – Analyzing the Model 79
2) On Segment:
The on Segment command calculates the force on a segment due to
real surface current or equivalent currents due to a permeability
boundary condition. The former is a real force, the latter is an
approximation to the force distribution on a ferromagnetic material. If on
Segment is used to calculate the force on the whole boundary of a
region, the answer will be the same as from on Region.
3) On Path:
This method integrates the Maxwell Stress Tensor along any selected
path. If the path is the boundary of a ferromagnetic region, the result is
identical to Maxwell Stress on Region. However, when calculating
Maxwell Stress right on the surface of materials, or running along the
edges of elements, it is often difficult to obtain accurate results. If a path
of connected segments is drawn in the free space around a region,
leaving a small gap, the Finite Elements do not have edges along the
segment. The integral along this path is often superior to the integral
along the boundary itself.
2) Type or click to
enter a coordinate
for the start of the
line. (This location
is shown in the
model as shown as
a blue dot).
The interface now shows a green line from the blue dot to the cursor
location. Left-click to accept, or enter and end location on the Command
Line.
The interface now shows a green line to the cursor location. Click to accept,
or enter and end location on the Command Line.
You will be prompted for a current value. The current will be from the blue
dot to the end point, as shown by the black arrow above.
The force Fy above is the result of integrating all of the incremental forces in
that direction.
82 2D Eddy Current Guide
The component of the force is always zero. Integrating the radial component
( direction) of the forces on any object over a complete cycle of 0 2
cancels the effect of each force and results in a net force of zero. Even though
the net force is zero, you may want to know the magnitude of the incremental
forces in the radial direction. There are two ways of calculating the magnitude of
the radial force and the following sections, Hoop Force and Radial Force,
describe these methods.
y1
y2
Z 1 2 X
In rotational symmetric mode, the Y-axis plays the same role that the Z-axis
plays in a standard cylindrical coordinate system. In this diagram, the Z-axis
comes out of the page in a perpendicular direction.
Hoop Force
The “hoop” force is a stress force that acts in the radial direction. The
significance of the hoop force (or double its value, Fx) is that it represents the
force that wants to rip the Donut-shape object apart. This force is important for
designers who need to model a transformer and want to ensure that a sudden
current surge (because of a short circuit or a current induced by lightning) will
not pull the whole transformer structure apart.
Chapter 3 – Analyzing the Model 83
y 2 2 2
F aˆ J Bdddy F aˆ
y1 0
x x Fy aˆ y
1
y 2 2 2
y2 2 2
J B y cos dddy aˆ x J B y sin dddy aˆ y
y 0 y 0
1 1 1 1
y2 2 2 y2 2 2
J B y ddy cos d aˆ x J B y ddy sin d aˆ y 0
y y
1 1 0 1 1 0
The first non-zero force definition is based on taking the above integration over
half or quarter of a cycle instead of a complete one.
Fhoop
Fx 2
2
1 Fx
x
Fx
Fhoop
2
z
84 2D Eddy Current Guide
y2 2 2 y2 2 2
Fhoop Fx 1
2 J B y cos dddy J B y cos dddy
2
y1 1 2 y1 1 0
J and B y are not functions of , so we can process the integral one step
further:
y2 2 2 y2 2
For a half a cycle integration of the force vector, the Y-component of the partial
force exerted on any part of the geometry is canceled by its corresponding
mirror point (with respect to the x-axis). This reduces the vector integration to a
scalar integration along the X-axis.
Radial Force
The next definition of a non-zero radial force indicates the strength of the partial
forces applied on an object in the radial direction. This radial force is:
y2 2 2 y2 2 2
Fradial 1
360
y 0
J B
ˆ
a dddy 1
360 y 0 y
J B dddy
1 1 1 1
y2 2 2 y2 2
d
y y 0 J B ddy
Fradial 1
360 J B ddy 2
360 y
1 1 y1 1
y2 2
CALCULATING TORQUE
Tm (r Fm )dV
The Torque submenu of the Analysis menu contains two types of commands
for calculating torque:
As with Force, there are both AMPERIAN and MAXWELL STRESS TENSOR
options for computing each of these. To calculate torques:
3) Enter the torque point. This point determines the distance for the force
calculation in the integral (above). OERSTED calculates and displays the
torque in the Message Area.
POWER CALCULATIONS
In OERSTED, you can calculate the power loss in a model or the power
supplied to the model. The menus Analysis>Power Loss and
Analysis>Source Power contain commands for these power calculations.
Total Complex Power Returns the total complex power supplied to the
modeled device.
Total Real Power Returns the total real power supplied to the
device.
Real Power by Region Returns the total real power supplied to a region.
The region must contain a current or voltage
source.
The Power Loss menu contains the following two commands for calculating
power loss in a model.
The total real source power supplied to a model is also the total of
all conductor losses in the model. The source power calculations
do not account for loss curve losses.
2. Left-click the region where you want to calculate the current. The
Message Area displays the total current in the selected region.
2) Left-click the region where you want to calculate the current. The
Message Area displays the average current density (Itotal/area) in the
selected region.
2) Left-click the winding (specified in the Physics menu) where you want
to calculate the current. The Message Area displays the total coil current
in the selected winding.
CALCULATING ENERGY
The flux linkage between two coils is a very important value for designers of
speed sensors, inductors and transformers. The flux linkage is simply the flux
that links the filaments of a coil or coils. When, for example, the flux linking the
forward and return paths of a coil changes with time, a voltage is induced in the
coil according to:
dN
V
dt
where N is the flux linkage and N is the number of turns of the coil. Knowing
how the flux linkage changes with linear or rotational displacement allows you
to calculate the relationship between voltage and speed using the following two
equations relating to translational and rotational motion.
d dx
V N( x)
dx dt
and
d d
V N( )
d dt
3) The Message Area displays the voltage across the external load defined
for the winding.
Calculating Impedance
3) The Message Area displays the resistance and reactance for the
equivalent 3D volume created by the region and settings in Physics
Global Setup.
Calculating Resistance
To calculate resistance:
3) The Message Area displays the resistance for the equivalent 3D volume
created by the region and settings in Physics Global Setup.
Calculating Inductance
To calculate inductance:
Note that the conductor definition does not include numbers of turns. You will
need to multiply by the number of turns in each conductor to get the total
inductance of the coil.
98 2D Eddy Current Guide
Ltotal Lm,n * N m * N n
PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS
You may often find it convenient to set up a number of models during the day
and then leave them to run overnight or during the weekend. The batch utility
allows you to set up a batch file that retrieves database files and works on them
automatically. The file stores all of the operations that you want to perform.
Using the batch utility optimizes your working time by eliminating the need to
wait for one analysis to finish before starting another. The Batch utility is
described in detail the 2D General Guide.
Chapter 4 – Technical Reference 99
CHAPTER 4
TECHNICAL REFERENCE
PHYSICAL BASIS
Two distinct approaches exist for the solution of boundary value problems:
domain-type and boundary-type.
The finite element method uses a variational technique in which the potential is
approximated by a sequence of functions defined over the entire domain of the
problem. Relating these approximations to the operator equation through
minimizing a functional that is proportional to the energy of the system yields
the values of the solution at the nodes.
100 2D Eddy Current Guide
In many practical applications, the large amount of input data required; the
derivative discontinuities in the geometrical model; calculation of potential by
interpolation and its derivatives through differentiation; localized large errors; no
simple means of checking the accuracy of the solution; and the inability to
model infinitely extending regions exactly constitute the major shortcomings of
the finite element method.
Both methods have been researched extensively and are widely documented in
the literature.
In the integral equation formulation, the potential is not solved for directly.
Instead, an equivalent current, which would sustain the field, is found by forcing
it to satisfy prescribed boundary conditions under a function which relates the
location and effect of the current to any point on the boundary.
Once the current is determined, the potential or derivatives of the potential can
be calculated at any point. Provided the problem is piecewise homogeneous,
the equivalent current is located only on the boundaries and interfaces of
different media.
The main advantages of this method over the direct approach are the reduction
of one in problem dimensionality; accurate modeling of geometry; elimination of
differentiation and interpolation to calculate potential or its derivatives; precise
results due to the smoothness of the integral operator; and sound means for
checking the accuracy of the solution.
Chapter 4 – Technical Reference 101
(4-1)
and
E jA
(4-2)
(4-3)
in which
1 ( 2)
G(r ,r ) H 0 (k r r )
4j
(4-4)
where H 0( 2) is the zero order Hankel function of the second kind and the wave
number
k (1 j )
(4-5)
102 2D Eddy Current Guide
E E2 ( J 2 ),H H 2 ( J 2 )
(4-6)
The field in the region external to the material body may be the field due to the
equivalent surface current J 1 plus E i , H i ,
E E1 ( J 2 ) E i ,H H1 ( J1 ) H i
(4-7)
Chapter 4 – Technical Reference 103
(4-8)
n H 1 r ;J 1 H 2 r ;J 2 n H i (r ),r S
(4-9)
where the unit vector n points outward from S . In the case of two-dimensional
space with TM polarization, we have
j 1 Gk1 ; r , r J 1 r ds 2 G(k 2 ; r , r ) J 2 (r )ds E xi (r )
s
s
(4-10)
G(k 2 ;r ,r )ds J 1 (r ) J 2 (r )
1
J 1 (r ) G(k1 ;r ,r )ds J 2 (r )
S n S n 2
i
n H ,r S
(4-11)
L g
(4-12)
Normally, L and g are known and we have the deterministic problem of finding
. That is, we are required to solve
L1 g
(4-13)
where L1 is assumed to exist and that the solution for is unique.
Let the solution be expanded by the series of functions in the domain of the
operator and let a1 , a2 , a3 ,... be coefficients such that
( x) n1 ann ( x)
(4-14)
For an exact solution, the basis or expansion functions must form a complete
set which is usually infinite in number. Rewriting (4-8) as
L ( x) g ( x) 0
(4-15)
R n1 an Ln ( x) g ( x)
(4-16)
and is equal to zero only if the coefficients and expansion functions can be
found such that they are the exact solution. In the method of weighted
residuals, the coefficients are found in such a way that the residual is forced to
approximation.
A suitable inner product is taken with the residual and some prescribed
functions over the range of the operator. These functions are called weighting
functions, or, more descriptively, testing functions. The inner product is defined
by
wm , R Rwm ds m 1,2,3,...
(4-17)
Chapter 4 – Technical Reference 105
where w1 , w2 , w3 ,... are the testing functions. The inner product is set to zero,
forcing the residual to be orthogonal to the testing functions
wm , R 0
(4-18)
Substituting the right-hand side of (4-12) into (4-14) and rearranging yields
n 1
an wm , L n ( x) wm , g ( x)
(4-19)
(4-20)
where
S mn wm , L n
bm wm , g
(4-21)
Assuming the matrix is not singular, it may be inverted, yielding the coefficients.
These coefficients may then be substituted into (4-10) giving an approximate
(on rare occasions an exact) solution for the current.
The approximation of the solution to the exact solution will obviously depend
upon the choice of the basis and testing functions, and the number of them
used. One requirement is that expansion and testing functions be linearly
independent as linear dependence will result in a singular S matrix.
The particular choice of the basis functions being the same as the testing
functions is called Galerkin's method. This is the method used by OERSTED.
106 2D Eddy Current Guide
The boundary element method arises from discretization of the boundary into
individual sections which are referred to as elements. The expansion and
testing functions, as well as the geometry, are then specified on an element-by-
element basis. Coefficients of the expansion functions are normally defined at
nodes on the element. Each node is then associated with a particular expansion
function. OERSTED uses linear shape functions defined parametrically over
each element. They are simply expressed as
1 1
2
(4-22)
i1 i i ( )
m
(4-23)
2 2 2 3 1
2 4( 2 )
3 2 2
(4-24)
over the domain [0,1]. Global positions in cartesian coordinates are specified
parametrically over each element as
x i1 i ( ) xi
m
y i1 i ( ) yi
m
(4-25)
Chapter 4 – Technical Reference 107
wm , K n wm , b
(4-26)
, K T , g
(4-27)
The operator K is dependent upon the boundary conditions where the inner
product is being calculated. For the Dirichlet sections of the boundary and for
the interior
K (r ) G(r , r ) (r )drr Bi
bbi
(4-28)
(4-29)
(4-30)
For the Neumann sections of the boundary, the inner product produces
(r )
b bbi
G (r ,r ) T (r )dr dr (r ) T (r )dr
b
(4-31)
108 2D Eddy Current Guide
OERSTED steps over each element and applies the appropriate inner product
depending on the particular boundary condition. All the integrals are calculated
over the simplex [0,1].
One of the major difficulties in the integral equation approach is the integration
of the Green function singularity which occurs when the observation and source
points coincide.
OERSTED caters to this problem by dividing out the singularity and using a
quadrature scheme containing the form of the singularity. This technique
enables very accurate integrations of the singular integrand.
The values calculated from each integration are stored in the matrix according
to their node numbers. The matrix equation is solved to find the values of the
coefficients at the nodes. The potential and magnetic field can then be
calculated at any specified point.
SUGGESTED REFERENCES
CHAPTER 5
The problem becomes much more complex in the case of AC (or phasor)
simulations. In these cases, the terminal current in a multi-turn coil will depend
on its impedance, which is the complex sum of its inductive reactance in
combination with its resistance. An even more difficult situation occurs when
the dimensions of winding conductors are comparable with the skin depth for
the simulation frequency. Then even the effective winding resistance will be a
variable dependent on the field solution.
112 2D Eddy Current Guide
Coil Properties
Coils are defined by selecting closed regions and assigning properties such as
the number of turns and effective terminal resistance. For 2D models, coils
must consist of two closed regions, one of which is designated as the input
(where positive current flows) and the other as the output (for negative
current). In RS models, only one region is needed, and it is designated as
having either a positive or negative polarity.
Chapter 5 – Coils & Windings 113
The schematic shows that the coil consists of 450 turns, and has an effective
terminal resistance of 2.4 Ohms. Note that MAGNETO does not calculate the
resistance of coils. This is a property that you must specify based either on
calculations or test measurements.
114 2D Eddy Current Guide
We will demonstrate the procedure for assigning a coil using the model from the
previous section.
2) The Command Line will show the prompt: Enter the Resistance of the
Coil Winding.
3) Type 2.4 and press the <Enter> key on your computer keyboard.
4) The Command Line will show the prompt: Enter number of turns.
6) The Command Line will show the prompt: Assign input of coil: Select
a region.
Chapter 5 – Coils & Windings 115
7) Move your mouse pointer into the region representing the coil input and
Left-click.
8) The Command Line will show the prompt: Assign output of coil:
Select a region.
9) Move your mouse pointer into the region representing the coil output and
Left-click.
Note that the definition of a coil does not include any information regarding the
source energizing it. This is specified when you assign the coil to a winding,
which we will describe in a later section.
116 2D Eddy Current Guide
Default Coils
Coils in Parametrics
2) The Command Line will show the prompt: Assigning Voltage Winding:
Select coils.
3) Move your mouse pointer into either one of the coil regions and Left-
click to select.
4) Both coil regions will fill with a solid green color, and the Command Line
will again show the prompt: Assigning Voltage Winding: Select coils
(this is to allow you to define a multi-coil winding in those cases where
more than one coil has been created).
5) Right-click to end the selection process (or alternatively you can press
the <Enter> key on your keyboard).
6) The Command Line will show the prompt: Enter the voltage modulus
(V) and phase (deg.).
7) Type 120, 0 and press the <Enter> key on your computer keyboard.
The winding defined in the previous section included a 120 Volt source. It is
also possible to assign a zero value for the voltage source, and this approach
can be used to analyze the performance of transformers under load conditions.
Chapter 5 – Coils & Windings 121
The second coil is assigned in the same manner as the first using the
appropriate values of 50 for the turns and 0.0296 for the resistance. When the
second voltage winding is assigned, values of 0,0 are entered for the voltage
modulus and phase, and the external resistance and reactance are entered as
0.533, 0 to model the load.
Under these conditions, the induced voltage on the secondary coil is only 12
Volts, and the secondary current is 22.5 Amps. The current in the primary
winding reaches a value of only 2.5 Amps. Both of these results are as
expected since we are modeling a step-down transformer.
Winding: Calculates the total voltage of a winding as if all coils and any
external impedances are in series. This command is most useful for cases
where zero current windings have been assigned.
Analysis>Current Submenu
Example Databases
Loaded Transformer.dbs
Unloaded Transformer.dbs
CHAPTER 6
TRANSIENT ANALYSIS
OVERVIEW OF TRANSIENTS
The simplest types of field solutions are those obtained by assuming equilibrium
or steady state conditions produced by constant time-invariant sources. When
these conditions are met, the Operation Mode of the Physics Setup Dialog
should be set to perform a Static analysis.
The second simplest solutions are the steady state conditions produced by
single frequency sinusoidal sources. For these conditions, the Operation
Mode of the Physics Setup Dialog should be set to perform a
Harmonic/Single frequency analysis.
The most complex field solutions are those that require analysis of non-
equilibrium or transient conditions. Solving these problems by numerical
methods requires a series of field solutions at multiple discrete time instances.
126 2D Eddy Current Program Guide
3. In Solution>Solver Setup specify the total time duration and the time
interval between steps of the transient. In the case of a rotational
transient, you must also select the objects that rotate.
Once the analysis is completed, post processing may be performed in the same
manner as for any solved model.
Chapter 6 – Transient Analysis 127
MOTION
In the next sections we will outline the key features of each signal type.
Chapter 6 – Transient Analysis 133
Standard Signals
For the parameter settings given above, the source will be the time function
shown in the plot below.
Chapter 6 – Transient Analysis 135
Function Signals
The resulting time signal is shown below. Note that Linear interpolation should
be used for signals with sharp transitions, but Nurbs should be used for
continuous signals.
138 2D Eddy Current Program Guide
If the other
components are set to
Multiply the resulting
source will have a
zero initial value
(because of the
ramp), and the
combined effect of the
ramp and constant
will be to produce a
sinusoidal source with
final amplitude of 4.
SATURATION SETTINGS
The example below shows a voltage signal that exceeds the Maximum
saturation level, which results in limiting of the final source.
Chapter 6 – Transient Analysis 141
Post-processing in Single time point mode requires that you enter the desired
time instant as shown below.
Appendix 145
Constant Source
146 2D Eddy Current Program Guide
Step Source
Sinusoidal Source
Power Source
148 2D Eddy Current Program Guide
Exponential Source