2D Eddy Current Guide

INTEGRATED ENGINEERING SOFTWARE
2D Eddy Current Analysis Guide*

Version 9.2
Users Guide and Technical Manual

2 2D Eddy Current Guide
*This document is your guide to the Physics, Solver, and Analysis menus for
the 2D Eddy Current Analysis module known as “OERSTED**”. It applies to the
single program known as OERSTED as well as to the mode accessed in
multiphysics programs via the menu Utilities > Mode > Oersted. The
document which describes common aspect for all IES 2D programs is the 2D
Program Guide.
Information in this document is subject to change without notice and does not
represent a commitment on the part of INTEGRATED ENGINEERING
SOFTWARE SALES Inc. The software described in this document is furnished
under a license agreement or nondisclosure agreement. The software may be
used or copied only in accordance with the terms of the agreement. It is against
the law to copy any part of the software onto cassette tape, disk or any other
medium for any purpose other than the licensee’s use.
This document contains proprietary information that is protected by copyright.

All rights are reserved.
Integrated Engineering Software Sales Inc.
220 – 1821 Wellington Avenue

Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
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Telephone: (204) 632-5636
Facsimile: (204) 633-7780
E-mail: info@integratedsoft.com
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**Copyright Integrated Engineering Software Sales Inc., 2013

* Copyright ENGINIA RESEARCH Inc., 1992
Table of Contents 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................... 3

CHAPTER 1 ....................................................................................................... 9
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 9
COMPONENT CHECK .......................................................................................... 9
Manual Organization................................................................................... 9
MANUAL CONVENTIONS .................................................................................... 10
SYMBOLS USED IN THE MANUAL ........................................................................ 10
OERSTED FEATURES ..................................................................................... 10

CHAPTER 2 ..................................................................................................... 15
ASSIGNING PHYSICAL PROPERTIES........................................................... 15
DEFINING THE TYPE OF MODEL ......................................................................... 16
Setting the Type of Model ........................................................................ 17
Defining how to Calculate Induced Currents in Conductors ................ 18
Considering the Displacement Current .................................................. 18
OERSTED MODE............................................................................................... 19
Using Mixed Mode .................................................................................... 20
Ambient Temperature ............................................................................... 21
Include Small Susceptibility .................................................................... 21
DEFINING PERIODICITY IN A MODEL ................................................................... 22
Angular Periodicity ................................................................................... 22

Linear Periodicity ...................................................................................... 23
Analyzing a Periodic Model ..................................................................... 25
MATERIALS ...................................................................................................... 26
The Material Table..................................................................................... 26
Magnetic Materials .................................................................................... 26
Permanent Magnets .................................................................................. 27
Ideal Magnets ............................................................................................ 30
ASSIGNING BOUNDARY CONDITIONS.................................................................. 30
Assigning a Constant Potential ............................................................... 30
Deleting and Displaying Boundary Conditions ...................................... 31
CURRENT SOURCES ......................................................................................... 32
Currents in Coils ....................................................................................... 32
Currents in Solid Conductors .................................................................. 36
PERMANENT MAGNETS ..................................................................................... 37
Creating a Magnetic Material ................................................................... 37
Assigning Magnetization Directions ....................................................... 38
Deleting Permanent Magnets ................................................................... 40
ASSIGNING A CONSTANT FIELD TO THE GEOMETRY SPACE ................................. 41
LAMINATIONS ................................................................................................... 43
DEFINING CONDUCTORS ................................................................................... 43
SIMULATING TRANSVERSE MOTION ................................................................... 45

CHAPTER 3 ..................................................................................................... 47
ANALYZING THE MODEL ............................................................................... 47
Table of Contents 5
TYPES OF ANALYSIS ......................................................................................... 49
Solver Types ............................................................................................. 49
Solver Method ........................................................................................... 49
SOLVING A MODEL WITH BEM (DEFAULT SOLVER).............................................. 49
To solve a model in Self-Adapt mode: .................................................... 49
To solve a model in Manual mode:.......................................................... 50
SOLVER PARAMETERS ..................................................................................... 51
FIELD CALCULATIONS ...................................................................................... 54
Setting the Field Quantity and the Type of Plot ..................................... 54
CREATING GRAPHS .......................................................................................... 57
View Settings ............................................................................................ 58
Integrating Graphs .................................................................................... 59
CREATING CONTOUR PLOTS ............................................................................. 60
Grid Density .............................................................................................. 61
Other Settings ........................................................................................... 62
Contour Menu Operations ........................................................................ 63
CREATING PROFILE PLOTS ............................................................................... 65
CREATING ARROW PLOTS ................................................................................ 66
Grid Density .............................................................................................. 67
Other Arrow Plot Settings ........................................................................ 67
CREATING LOCI PLOTS ..................................................................................... 70
CREATING SCATTER PLOTS .............................................................................. 72

THE VALUES MENU .......................................................................................... 73
CHECKING THE SOLUTION FOR ERRORS ............................................................. 74
Ensuring That the Solution Makes Physical Sense ............................... 74
FORCE CALCULATIONS ..................................................................................... 77
Calculating Force in Two-dimensional Mode ......................................... 80
Calculating Force on Rotational Symmetric Models ............................. 81
CALCULATING TORQUE .................................................................................... 85
POWER CALCULATIONS .................................................................................... 86
Calculating Source Power ........................................................................ 86
Calculating Power Loss ........................................................................... 87
CALCULATING TOTAL CURRENT ........................................................................ 87
CALCULATING ENERGY..................................................................................... 89
FLUX LINKAGE AND INDUCED VOLTAGE CALCULATIONS...................................... 90
IMPEDANCE AND INDUCTANCE OF SINGLE CONDUCTORS ..................................... 93
Calculating Impedance ............................................................................. 93
Calculating Resistance............................................................................. 94
Calculating Inductance ............................................................................. 94
IMPEDANCE AND INDUCTANCE MATRICES ........................................................... 95
Impedance/Resistance Matrix Calculations ........................................... 96
Inductance Matrix Calculations ............................................................... 97
PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS .................................................................................... 98
RUNNING UNATTENDED ANALYSES USING THE BATCH UTILITY ........................... 98

CHAPTER 4 ..................................................................................................... 99
Table of Contents 7
TECHNICAL REFERENCE .............................................................................. 99
PHYSICAL BASIS .............................................................................................. 99
BOUNDARY INTEGRAL EQUATIONS .................................................................. 101
METHOD OF WEIGHTED RESIDUALS ................................................................. 103
BOUNDARY ELEMENT METHOD ....................................................................... 106
SUGGESTED REFERENCES .............................................................................. 108

CHAPTER 5 ................................................................................................... 111
COILS AND WINDINGS ................................................................................. 111
COILS AND WINDINGS: A FUNDAMENTALLY NEW APPROACH TO DEFINING SOURCES

..................................................................................................................... 111
Coil Properties ........................................................................................ 112
Step-by-Step Example of a Coil Assignment ....................................... 114
Default Coils ............................................................................................ 116
Coils in Parametrics ............................................................................... 116
Coil Winding Properties ......................................................................... 117
Step-by-Step Example of a Coil Winding Assignment ........................ 118
Coil Windings in Parametrics ................................................................ 120
Zero Value Sources and their Application to Transformers ............... 120
Analysis>Induced Voltage Submenu .................................................... 122
Analysis>Current Submenu ................................................................... 122
Eddy Current Windings .......................................................................... 123
Example Databases ................................................................................ 124

CHAPTER 6 ................................................................................................... 125
TRANSIENT ANALYSIS ................................................................................ 125
OVERVIEW OF TRANSIENTS ............................................................................. 125
MOTION ......................................................................................................... 127
Mechanical Simulation of Motion .......................................................... 127
SETTING THE TIME VARIABLES IN TRANSIENT ANALYSIS ................................... 128
TYPES OF TRANSIENT SOURCES...................................................................... 129
TYPES OF COMPONENT SIGNALS ..................................................................... 132
Standard Signals..................................................................................... 133
Function Signals ..................................................................................... 135
Table Defined Signals............................................................................. 136
COMBINING COMPONENT SIGNALS INTO SOURCES ........................................... 138
SATURATION SETTINGS .................................................................................. 140
RUNNING TRANSIENT SIMULATIONS ................................................................. 141
ANALYSIS OF TRANSIENT SIMULATION RESULTS .............................................. 142

APPENDIX: STANDARD COMPONENT SIGNALS ...................................... 145
Chapter 1 – Introduction 9
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
COMPONENT CHECK
Check to see that your OERSTED package contains:
 The OERSTED 2D/RS Eddy Current QuickStart Guide.
 Storage media that contains the OERSTED program files.
 OERSTED security key. Check to make sure the serial number on the
security key matches the serial number on the storage media.
If you are missing any of these components, or if any have been damaged in
shipping, please contact Integrated Engineering Software immediately.
Manual Organization
The manual contains two main documents:
 The 2D Eddy Current Guide is for using and understanding OERSTED

and the specific references to Eddy Current analysis and properties.
 The 2D Program Guide is designed to guide the user through the
general program functionalities. They are intended to be helpful for first
time and experienced OERSTED users.
We recommend that you go through the Quick Start Guide sample sessions first
then move on to your own designs using the 2D Eddy Current Program Guide
and the 2D Program Guide as references on commands and Eddy Current
theory.
MANUAL CONVENTIONS
The manuals assume that you have a basic understanding of electromagnetic
theory, are familiar with basic operating system commands, and have had some
experience using a mouse.
Periodically, the manual uses tips, notes or important messages to help you
efficiently create and solve your models. These messages have the following
format:
SYMBOLS USED IN THE MANUAL
This manual uses a number of symbols to highlight specific parts of the text.
The meaning of these symbols is as follows:
The pencil and paper marks a note about how a function

works, or explains a screen display.
The light bulb marks a tip about how to use the program more
efficiently. For example, a tip might give you a keyboard
shortcut for a commonly used command.
The exclamation mark marks an important comment about

using a function or creating the model. These instructions are
crucial for obtaining an accurate solution.
OERSTED FEATURES
Computer-Aided Engineering (CAE) plays a vital role in today's engineering

workplace. Computers have brought the benefits of CAE within the reach of
most engineers and scientist. Until recently, the most common methods used
for solving electric field designs have been the finite difference or finite element
methods. The drawbacks of these methods include slow response time, the
need for huge amounts of input data, inaccurate calculation of derived functions
of potential, and the inability to deal with open region problems. Programs using
these methods generally are not very easy to learn or use. They also require
expensive computer hardware in order to solve moderate to large problems.
In 1992, Integrated Engineering Software introduced OERSTED. OERSTED

combined the efficiency of the Boundary Element method with a powerful
user-interface to alleviate the shortcomings of older methods while offering

advanced simulation features. OERSTED now also includes a Finite Element
and a hybrid method solver to offer even greater versatility.
The boundary element method (BEM) of calculating field distributions and

transmission line parameters is recognized as one of the most powerful field
solution algorithms available.
OERSTED is designed to help solve the specific problems inherent in the

design and analysis of magnetic equipment. OERSTED incorporates a number
of important features which work together to provide a fast, easy-to-learn,
efficient, and reliable working tool.
TOOL BAR Interface:
 Provides “Point and Click” operation of many functions.
 Allows resizing, reshaping, “docking and undocking” of tool bars.
 Movable and resizable Command bar.
Four different solvers are available in OERSTED.
1. Two-dimensional field solver delivers scalar and vector field

distributions.
2. Rotationally symmetric field solvers deliver scalar and vector field
distributions.
3. Two-dimensional self and mutual inductance.
4. Rotationally symmetric self and mutual inductance.
Five different analysis modes are incorporated into OERSTED.
1. The static mode is for time-invariant magnetic fields.

2. The quasi-static mode is typically for three-phase power transmission
line analysis.
3. The transient mode for applying non-harmonic signals
4. The rotational transient mode for induced effects from rotating model
components.
5. The translational transient mode for induced effects due to linear
motion of model components.
Various Analysis tools allow you to obtain easily recognizable results and
produce visually appealing documentation, including:
 Induced Current (eddy current), electric field and magnetic vector
potentials and magnetic field values at any desired location
throughout the entire model domain.
 Magnetic field components displayed in the form of contour plots,
profile plots and graphs.
 Magnetic fields displayed in the form of arrow plots, loci plots, and
graphs.
 Resistance and inductance values displayed by selecting the
appropriate objects.
 Graphs obtained along any arbitrary line or segment(s).
 Permeability ( B-H curves), permittivity and conductivity are stored in a
table that associates colors or patterns with materials. Materials from the
table are assigned easily to the appropriate regions.
 Various Boundary Conditions such as potentials, floating potentials,
normal derivative of potentials, and impressed fields are easily assigned.
 A Batch utility is provided for unattended operation of OERSTED.
 The Geometry tool allows you to draw lines, arcs, circles, and free-form
curves using splines. It also allows you to re-shape, rotate, displace, mirror,
round, or scale to size the geometrical model.
 File management utility allows you to save, list, open and delete files of
different formats as well as forward data and pictures image to a printer or
text file.
 Inquiry commands display information about the current geometry,
boundary conditions, and elements.
 Numerous editing tools provide easy modification of geometry, boundary
conditions, elements, or materials makes it possible for a design to be
entered at the conceptual stage and changed until optimum results are
obtained.
 Text utilities enable you to annotate or document displays and results.

 Interfaced and closed regions are automatically determined by OERSTED
from the topology.
 Output and displays are saved in formatted files for easy integration with
other programs. Hard copies of all displays are easily obtained for reference
or documentation.
Analyzing a design with OERSTED requires the device’s physical description.

To analyze the design, first draw the boundaries, place the materials in the
appropriate regions, and then assign the boundary conditions.
Chapter 2 – Assigning Physical Properties 15
CHAPTER 2
ASSIGNING PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
To completely define a model, the geometry must have physical properties that
define how the various parts of the geometry interact.
Using commands in the various submenus

of the Physics menu, shown at right, you
can:
 Define the type of model and the

operation mode
 Reduce the size of the model and time
required for the solution by assigning
periodicity conditions
 Define materials and add these
materials to closed regions of the
geometry
 Assign boundary conditions to the
interfaces
 Assign surface and volume sources,
such as permanent magnets,
conductors, currents and impressed
fields
DEFINING THE TYPE OF MODEL
There are many settings for the type of model. For example:
 Whether the geometry of a model represents a semi-infinite geometry (two-

dimensional math) or a rotationally symmetric geometry (cylindrical
coordinates math).
 How OERSTED calculates induced currents in conductors
 Whether or not OERSTED considers the displacement current in the

solution
You can define all of these types using the Physics Global Setup dialog,
shown below.
Setting the Type of Model

In OERSTED, you can create two-dimensional or rotationally symmetric (RS)
models. Both of these types reduce a three-dimensional design into a two-
dimensional model. OERSTED requires only a cross-section of a model in order
to calculate the solution, as the fields only vary slightly in the ‘ignored’
dimension. Modeling the cross-section greatly reduces both the modeling and
solution time. Please see the 2D Program Guide for more detailed
information.
To set the type of model:
1) From the Physics menu, select Physics Global Settings. This displays
the Physics Global Setup dialog.
2) In the Geometry Model Type section, select Two-D, X Rotation or Y

Rotation as the type.
3) In the Operation Mode select Static, Phasor, Transient, Rotational
Transient, or Translational Transient.
4) For X or Y Rotation, enter the location of the rotation axis in the Y= or X=
fields.
5) Depending on the design, you may need to select the Balanced option.
See the following section for more information about balanced and
unbalanced models.
6) Click [OK] to set the type and close the Physics Global Setup dialog.
Defining how to Calculate Induced Currents in Conductors

A two-dimensional model does not assume any connection between parts of
the defined geometry. When currents are induced in more than one conductor,
the conductors are assumed to extend infinitely and are disconnected. If you
need to use the obtained solution to calculate the current induced in a coil of
conductors, an extra restriction must be made on the solution. You must specify
that the same current that flows in the forward path of the conductor must also
flow in the return path. In this case, the total current flowing through any two
dimensional section must be zero.
The Balanced checkbox on the Physics Global Setup dialog specifies if you
want to consider the induced currents.
Unbalanced The conductors where current is induced are not

connected at any point. The total current flowing does
not equal zero.
Balanced The conductors where current is induced are connected

as a coil. At some point away from the plane of the
geometry cross-section, the sum of the current flowing
away from the conductors is zero.
Considering the Displacement Current
OERSTED obtains the solution by applying the integral forms of Maxwell’s

equations when using the BEM solver, and in differential form when using the
FEM solver. In the time domain, Maxwell’s differential equations can be written
as follows:
B D
 E  and   H  J 
t t
D
Where J is the diffusion current and is the displacement current. In the
t
D
above equation, J  E and in the time harmonic case,  jE .
t
In systems where the conductivity of materials such as copper and steel are
considered, the diffusion current dominates. This is due to the fact that the
conductivity of these materials, and therefore the diffusion current in them, is
high. In a small number of cases, when the frequency is high or when the
permittivity is large and conductivity is low, the displacement current becomes
comparable to or larger than the diffusion current.
By default, OERSTED does not consider the displacement current. To

determine when to consider this current, apply the following general rule using
the largest conductivity and permittivity values in the model:
  2f r  0
If this rule is true, do not consider the displacement current. If the rule is not
true, consider the displacement current by selecting the Displacement Current
check box in the Physics Global Setup dialog.
OERSTED MODE
The Utilities menu contains an Oersted

Mode submenu listing Normal Mode and
Mixed Mode settings as shown at right.
In most cases you will use the Normal

Mode for performing steady state Static or
Phasor simulations, or for performing full
Transient simulations.
The Mixed Mode setting allows you to solve steady state Phasor models for
cases where Static sources (i.e. permanent magnets and/or DC current
sources) primarily determine the magnetic properties of model materials. This
allows you to include saturation effects without having to perform a full
Transient simulation.
The fundamental assumption in Mixed Mode analyses is that the phasor

sources are “small” compared to the static sources. By this we mean that the
static sources establish essentially constant operating points on material BH
curves, and the phasor sources produce “small signal” variations around the
operating points. If the phasor sources do not meet these conditions than a full
transient analysis (using the Normal Mode setting) should be performed.
Using Mixed Mode
The Oersted Mode is not a property that is saved with your files. To perform a
Mixed Mode analysis, first select the menu Utilities>Oersted Mode>Mixed
Mode before opening a saved model or generating a new model.
Once you are in Mixed Mode, use the

Utilities>Mixed Mode Settings submenu
to change between AC and DC modes.
Use the DC mode to assign permanent
magnets and DC current sources, and the
AC mode for harmonic currents.
When you solve the model, first a DC

solution and then an AC solution will be
generated. You can switch between modes
to view analysis results from either mode.
Ambient Temperature
OERSTED may be integrated with KELVIN for coupled magnetic/thermal

analysis. However, even on its own it is still able to make use of temperature
dependent permeability or conductivity that may be entered in the material
table. The Ambient Temperature refers to a uniform surrounding temperature,
which in the absence of thermal coupling is the uniform temperature of the
whole model. Hence it is possible to enter temperature dependent material
data then simulate device performance at various temperatures. Using a
temperature parametric is a particularly easy way to do this.
Include Small Susceptibility
This check box works with the

setting shown to the right in Utilities
> Settings > Document Properties
> Solver, which defines what is
meant by “small susceptibility”.
When this box is checked, all non-
zero susceptibilities (permeability not
equal to one) will be included in the
solution no matter how small the
contribution is. When it is
unchecked, materials with
susceptibility less than the number
indicated to the right are ignored by
the solver.
The purpose of this switch is to enable the Materials Table to contain the
correct values for materials, even if the values are so small as to have
negligible effect. Users can then assign materials such as Aluminum and water
for visual clarity of the model without having them greatly complicate the
solution. Users wishing to model small susceptibility materials can either
redefine the critical value, or check the box to include the effects, without having
to re-enter material properties if those susceptibilities are already entered for
their chosen materials.
DEFINING PERIODICITY IN A MODEL

Linear and Angular Periodicity is covered in more detail in the 2D Program
Guide. The following information contains a quick review and some items that
are particular to magnetic physics and analysis.
Angular Periodicity
In many devices, the geometry and sources occur in a periodic pattern around
some point in the geometry. Consider the structure below. One quarter of the
geometry repeats itself in a periodic pattern about the center and the sources
repeat in a similar manner.
The polarity of the sources alternate

between + and -. This is an “anti-
periodic” condition. If all of the sources
were the same, the structure would
illustrate a periodic condition. You can
dramatically reduce the design and
solution time for a periodic or anti-
periodic device if you create only the
basic repeating unit, rather than the
entire model. OERSTED can solve the See caution below
entire model using only this basic unit.
Caution about Contact and Periodicity or Symmetry
Note that the BEM solver must put elements on an interface where the material
changes. When there is contact between parts, as shown above one must
consider whether the contacting surfaces require elements. The
symmetry/periodicity conditions cannot have elements on the surfaces where
the parts contact images.
 If the “+” and “-” regions are coils carrying current this is no problem.
Volume current sources do not require surface elements.
 If the “+” and “-” regions are two materials with different permeabilities, then
elements are required at the interface between them.
 If the “+” and “-” regions are the same material, but are permanent magnets
with opposite “equivalent surface current”, elements are required at the
interface between them.
In cases where this conflict arises, consider the following alternatives for
drawing the geometry:
Periodic
Draw the geometry such that the interfaces between
images are like structures. Shown on the right, the
lower blue + region will meet the upper blue + region.
Thus the connection is not an interface, no elements are
needed.
Antiperiodic
Draw such that interfaces between images are opposite

structures. Shown on the right the lower blue region is a
red - region in the image that connects to the red –
region above. Hence, the connection is not an interface,
no elements are needed.
Linear Periodicity
The linear periodicity option allows you to truncate models containing a basic
unit that repeats in a linear pattern. In figure 5, a basic unit repeats linearly
along the x-axis. The solution for a given unit does not deviate significantly from
the solution for any other unit, so you can use a small section to find the
solution for the complete model. Rather than modeling the entire design, create
the basic unit and then define a linear periodicity condition.
The total number of periodic sections must be fairly large in order

to generate an accurate solution from the basic unit.
There are two types of linear periodicity. You can define a periodic or anti-
periodic condition. The type of condition depends on the nature of the source. If
the sources repeat with the geometry, as shown, define a linear periodic
condition.
If the sources or boundary conditions alternate in each unit of the model, as

shown, you can use an anti-periodic condition. This condition reverses the
source or boundary conditions direction, with every new unit.
For any linear periodic condition, you must model an odd number of units. The
accuracy of the solution improves with the number of units that you model. For
linear periodicity, you do not need to model more than one unit. For an anti-
periodic condition, model a minimum of three units for an accurate solution.
Analyzing a Periodic Model
Symmetric, Angular Periodic, and Linear Periodic conditions cannot be mixed

together. In a given model, you can define only one of the three conditions. For
example, If you have symmetric conditions set, and you need to change to an
Angular Periodic condition, you must reset the symmetric condition.
Once you define the symmetry or periodicity, OERSTED needs to know about
the segments that you added in order to truncate the model. These segments
do not represent true interfaces. OERSTED will automatically detect straight
segments on lines of symmetry when symmetry is selected, but you need to
define periodic conditions yourself.
To define the periodic
segments:
1) From the Symmetry
and Periodicity dialog
click the Select Periodic
Geometry button.
2) Select all of the segments that you added in order to truncate the
geometry
3) Press the right mouse button to assign conditions to the selected
segments and return to the dialog.
Segments that contain a symmetric or periodic boundary

condition will not have boundary elements.
Perform the analysis for a periodic model just as you would for a non-periodic
model. You can do post processing in any part of the window space regardless
of where truncations occur, although keeping field plots close to the defined
geometry regions makes it easier to reference the plots to the model
You can perform post processing in any part of the window space, regardless of
where you truncated the model. Plots are more easily referenced to the device
if you keep them close to the defined geometry. OERSTED scales torques,
energies and other calculations for the total device, except for forces. You must
multiply force values by the number of periodic sections.
MATERIALS
The Material Table

The INTEGRATED Material Table dialog enables you to assign material
properties in a two-step operation. First, you define the name and properties of
the materials. Once you have the required materials, you can place the defined
materials in the appropriate volumes of the model. The Material Table is
common to all INTEGRATED software. It is described in detail in the dedicated
chapter in the 2D Program Guide.
Magnetic Materials
Magnetic materials generally have a

nonlinear and history dependent B-H
magnetization characteristic, as
illustrated in the generic hysteresis curve
to the right. However, for practical
purposes magnetic materials can usually
be considered as one of two types:
1) Red curve: ferromagnets (e.g.

steels), paramagnets, and
diamagnets
2) Blue curve: permanent magnets
The Material Editor screen capture to

the right shows the material types for
“Parameter: Permeability” corresponding
to the descriptions above. Ferromagnets
can be Linear (permeability only) or
Nonlinear (B-H magnetization curve).
Paramagnets and diamagnets are linear.
They are specified by relative
permeability or susceptibility. The input
boxes are linked by formula as:
χ = µr – 1 and µr = χ + 1
A full hysteresis curve would require a lot of data (several minor hysteresis
loops besides the major one shown above) to be measured and entered for the
material, plus it would require a history to be used. The most common reason
for wanting to model hysteresis is to obtain power loss. INTEGRATED makes
this much easier by the “Parameter: Hysteresis Loss” option. With this option
the power versus B data can contain any contributions you wish. Normally it is
used to calculate the energy lost due to cycling around minor hysteresis loops
in AC problems. It can also, for example, have a contribution from small eddy
currents (ones which are too small to significantly affect the field) to simply
analysis by setting electrical conductivity to zero.
Permanent Magnets
Many materials cross the second

quadrant reversibly along a straight line.
These can be modeled as shown to the
right by inputting the axis points Br and
Hc.
In some other cases the behavior is

linear and reversible enough over the
range of operation that the option show to
the right still works.
In other cases the B-H characteristic may show significant curvature, but the
behavior is still essentially reversible. Then the Nonlinear Permanent Magnet
type works in a straightforward way.
For some materials and applications, irreversibility is a significant consideration.

For example, for Alnico 5 shown below:
Over a small range of operation

near H=0 the curve will retrace as
H is increased and decreased.
However, by the curve of the knee
the magnet is changing material
properties. If H becomes so
negative that the blue point is
reached, then as H changes
between this value and zero the
magnet operates along the blue
line show. Likewise if H becomes
so low that the green dot is
reached, then the magnet operates
along the green line.
With such materials, the analysis necessarily involves several steps because
the range over which the magnet is used will affect the appropriate material
curve.
Step 1:
Using the supplied (pink to the
right) data analyze the model over
the range of operation to determine
the largest (negative) values for H.
Step 2:
Replace the data curve, or define a
new material, with the red curve
shown to the right, corresponding
to the correct characteristic for the
material after a cycle through the
range of operation for the device.
Note the data to the left of the operating range is irrelevant. Hence, it is
common to define the material as linear with a selected Br, Hc which produce
the correct behavior over the range of operation.
A supplied magnet will generally have been transported in an open

circuit (no ferromagnetic return path) condition. This should be
modeled as one of the scenarios for determining the true operating
state.
A supplied magnet may have been “stabilized”. That is, it may have
been deliberately demagnetized to a state which will be reversible
under a large range of operation. In this case the B-H data entered
should not be the general data for the material, but should be provided
by the supplier to specify the state after stabilization
Ideal Magnets
Materials with uniform magnetization are

sometimes defined for quick manual
estimations, or for benchmarking
purposes using some standard formulas.
To create an ideal uniform magnetization
material to compare a simulation with
such a calculation, the permeability
needs to be 1. The simplest way to do
this is to set the units to Gauss-Oersted
and make a Linear Permanent Magnet
with Br = -Hc.
ASSIGNING BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
In magnetic circuits, you can use boundary conditions to truncate models for
faster computation time.
If possible, use the periodicity options to truncate models, as this

produces more accurate results. The Periodic boundary condition
applies only to models with defined periodicity.
The physics of a model determines the

appropriate boundary condition that you
should assign. The Boundary Conditions
menu, in the Physics menu, contains
commands for assigning, deleting and
viewing boundary conditions.
Assigning a Constant Potential
Assign a potential boundary to a segment when you know the magnetic vector
potential on part of the boundary.
To assign a constant potential boundary condition:
1) Select the menu Physics>Boundary Conditions> Potential.
2) Select the segments where you want to assign the boundary condition.
3) Right-click to end selection
4) Enter the value of the potential that you want to assign (for phasor
problems you must specify a magnitude and phase angle).
5) Repeat steps 2) - 4) or right-click to exit the command.
Deleting and Displaying Boundary Conditions

To delete a boundary condition:
1) Select Physics>Boundary Conditions> Cancel.
2) Select the segments where you want to delete the boundary condition.
3) Right-click to delete the boundary condition and exit the Cancel

command.
To display the boundary condition assigned to a segment:
1) Select Physics>Boundary Conditions> Display.
2) Left-click to select the segment. The Message Area displays the

boundary condition assigned to this segment.
3) Select another segment or right-click to exit the Display command.

CURRENT SOURCES
There are two purposes for currents in OERSTED. The first purpose is to
examine the current induced in a conductive material when you place a current
carrying coil close to it. In this case, skin effects on the coil filaments are not
considered and the current is assigned simply as a current filling a volume. The
second type of current is a current in a solid conductor. In this case, the current
does not completely fill the volume. Instead, a skin effect is noticed depending
on the frequency of excitation and the material conductivity. The type of current
defined depends on the type of result desired for the model.
Currents in Coils
In most electromagnetic devices, the excitation current is supplied by a bundle
of wires, more commonly called the coil. This method is chosen over using a
solid conductor because a large solid conductor exhibits skin effects (where the
current essentially exists only on the conductor’s surface). Using several
smaller conductors maximizes the efficiency of materials and the amount of
current that can be supplied to the device.
In OERSTED, a current carrying coil is defined by a region or line carrying a

constant current. This is an approximation, as there is always small variation of
the current density through the cross-section of the coil. The effect on other
parts of the device, however, is essentially equivalent.
There are four ways to assign a current to a coil region:
 Assign a volume current to the entire geometry region that represents the
coil.
 Assign a volume current density to a geometry region. If you change the
size of the region, OERSTED keeps the same density.
 Assign a volume current by defining the current per turn of the coil, the
number of turns in the coil and the resistance of the coil.
 When one dimension of the coil is much greater that the other, you can
simply create a line to represent the coil and assign a surface current to the
line.
Assigning Constant Volume Current
Using the Volume Current menu, you can simply define a current by assigning
a total current in Amp*turns to the region.
To assign a volume current to a region:
1) Select Physics>Volume Current>

Assign.
2) Select the regions where you want

to assign the current
3) Enter the total current, in Amp*turns.
4) Repeat 2) - 3) or right-click to exit the Assign command.
The regions change color when you assign the current.
2D Elements must be assigned to regions that contain volume

currents.
Assigning Volume Current Density
Instead of total current you can assign current density to a region. This is very
useful if you intend to change the size of the region using parametrics.
OERSTED keeps a constant density, regardless of the size of the region.
To assign a current density:
1) Select Physics>Volume Current menu> Assign Density.
2) Select the regions where you want to assign this density.
3) Right-click to end selection.

4) Enter the current density, in A/m2.
5) Repeat 2) -4) or right-click to exit the command.
Assigning Surface Currents
Use a surface current when one dimension of the coil is much larger than the
other. Model the coil as a line segment and assign a surface current to the line.
To assign a surface current to a segment:
1) Select Physics>Surface
Current>Assign.
2) Select the segments where you want

to assign the current.
4) Enter the total surface current, in Amp*turns, that you want to

assign to the segment.
5) Repeat 2)-4) or right-click to exit the Assign command. The

segments change color when you assign the current.
Assign boundary elements to segments containing surface

currents.
Editing Currents
To change the current in the model, you can delete the assigned current and
assign a new current or you can scale a volume or surface current by a
constant value.
To delete a current:
1) Select Physics>(Volume Current or Surface Current)> Delete.
2) Select the regions or segment where you want to delete the current.
3) Right-click to delete the highlighted currents and exit the Delete

command.
To display a current:
1) Select Physics>(Volume Current or Surface Current)>Display.
2) Select a region or segment. The Message Area displays the current

assigned to that region or segment.
3) Select a new region or segment or right-click to exit the Display

command.
To scale a volume or surface current:
1) Select Physics>(Volume Current or Surface Current)>Scale.
2) Select the regions or segments where you want to scale the current.
4) Enter any real number as the scaling factor. OERSTED multiplies the
current by this value.
5) Repeat 2) - 4) or right-click to scale the selected regions and exit the

Scale command.
Currents in Solid Conductors

You may require the effects of current distribution on individual conductors for
microscopic calculations. For example, imagine that you need to calculate the
self and mutual inductances of two wires. You need the current distributions on
each wire to accurately account for volume distribution effects. In this case,
create a region for the conductor geometry. Even if the conductor is very thin,
you must always create a region, not a line. Then, assign a volume current,
boundary elements and materials. Do not assign 2D elements to the region.
OERSTED always maintains the total current assigned to the conductor. The
distribution of current density through the conductor cross-section is not
constant, as is assumed with a bundle or coil.
Before you assign currents, you must associate the conductors using the
Serial/Parallel connection switch in the Volume Current menu. The setting
depends whether the conductors are connected in serial (not at all) or in
parallel.
To set up parallel conductors:
1) From the Volume Current menu, select Serial/Parallel Connection to

set the Parallel setting. When you select Parallel, the menu contains a
check beside the switch.
2) From the Volume Current menu, select Assign.
3) Select all of the regions representing the conductors connected in

parallel.
5) Enter the total current in all of the regions representing the set of parallel
conductors.
6) Repeat 2) - 5) or right-click to exit the command
If you accidentally skip a region when assigning parallel

conductors, you must repeat the above procedure. You cannot
add a region.
You always assign current to conductors using the Assign command in the
Volume Current menu. You can also use commands in this menu to edit
conductor currents.
PERMANENT MAGNETS
A permanent magnet requires a magnetic material and a defined direction. The
general procedure for assigning a permanent magnet is:
1) Assign a second quadrant B-H curve (demagnetization curve) to a

material.
2) Assign this material to the regions where you require magnets.
3) Assign a direction of magnetization to these regions.
Creating a Magnetic Material
To create a magnetic material, you assign a demagnetization curve. Use the

steps for creating B-H curves, using the following values for the end points of
the curve:
H-Min (for B=0)= -Hc of the material

B-Max (for H=0)= Br of the material
If you require more than simply the end points of the curve, obtain additional
second quadrant curve data from the manufacturer of the material.
Manufacturers often provide two different magnet curves.

OERSTED uses the “normal” (B-H) curve, not the “intrinsic” curve.
Once you define the magnetic material, use the [Assign] button to assign the
material to the appropriate regions of the model.
Assigning Magnetization Directions
After you assign the magnetic materials to the geometry regions, you must
assign a magnetization direction to each region.
You can assign the direction as an angle or as

oriented in the radial direction about a point. The
Permanent Magnet sub-menu of the Physics menu,
shown at right, contains commands for assigning
magnetization directions.
Assigning Directions as Angles or around Origin
To assign the magnetization direction as an angle:
1) Select Physics>Permanent Magnet>Magnetization Angle.
2) Select the regions where you want to assign an angle of magnetization.
3) Enter the angle, in degrees, for the magnetization direction. OERSTED

measures angles counter-clockwise from the horizontal axis.
4) Repeat steps 2) & 3) or right-click to exit the Magnetization Angle

command.
To assign the magnetization in a radial direction about the radial origin (x=0,
y=0 by default):
1) Select Physics>Permanent Magnet>Radial Outwards to assign

magnetization in the positive radial direction or Radial Inwards for the
negative radial direction.
2) Select the regions where you want to assign the magnetization direction.
3) Right-click to assign the direction and exit the command.

If you require a magnet that is radially oriented about a point other

than the global origin (0,0), change the origin before assigning the
direction.
To change the radial origin:
1) Select Physics>Permanent Magnet>Radial Origin. A small circle

appears, with the center representing the current origin.
2) Enter the coordinates of the new origin.
3) The circle moves to show the new location. Right-click to accept the
new origin.
Assigning the Direction Based on a “Magnetization Fixture”
Some magnets contain a non-uniform distribution of magnetization directions

given by an external fixture used to magnetize the volume. To imitate this
process numerically, you assign the region as “to be magnetized” and then
calculate the magnetization.
To assign a direction from a fixture:
1) Select Physics>Permanent Magnet>To be Magnetized.
2) Select the region containing the magnetic material.
3) From the Solution menu, select Magnetize. This assigns a

magnetization direction from the average direction of the applied field.
This is now a fixed property of the region, the magnetization fixture can
be removed from the model.
To change the magnet or if you change the associated geometry,

you must repeat the above procedure.
To obtain a distribution of magnetization angles the region must be

subdivided into smaller regions, all assigned the permanent
magnet material and set as “To be Magnetized”. Each region will
obtain the local magnetization direction of the applied field.
Displaying Magnetization Direction
To display the assigned direction of a magnet:
1) Select Physics>Permanent Magnet>Display Magnets.
2) Select the region that contains the magnet. The Message Area displays
the magnetization direction.
3) Select a new region or press the right mouse button to exit the Display
Magnets command.
Due to the context sensitive display in INTEGRATED software, as

soon as your mouse is over Physics>Permanent Magnet all
regions assigned magnetization will highlight purple and display
arrows showing the magnetization direction.
Deleting Permanent Magnets
To completely delete a magnetization direction, you must delete the

magnetization direction and remove the magnetic material from the region.
If you delete a magnetization direction without deleting the

material from the region, you receive an error message when you
try to solve the model.
To delete a magnetization direction:
1) Select Physics>Permanent Magnet>Delete Magnets.
2) Select the regions where you want to delete the magnetization direction.
3) Right-click to delete the direction in the selected regions.
To remove a permanent magnet material, simply assign a new material to the

region. If you no longer require a specific material, assign the Background
material to the region or use the [Delete] button in the Materials dialog.
ASSIGNING A CONSTANT FIELD TO THE GEOMETRY SPACE
You can study the reaction of a model in the presence of a constant magnetic
field by impressing a B-Field to the geometry space. This field has a constant
magnitude and direction. You assign a constant field by defining the x and y
components of the field. Use the Impressed Field menu, found under the
Physics menu, to assign these coordinates.
To assign a constant field to the geometry space:
1) Select Physics>Impressed B Field>Assign X and

enter the value of the x component in the units
defined for B-Field in the Units dialog.
2) Select Physics>Impressed B Field>Assign Y and enter the value

of the y component in the units defined for B-Field in the Units
dialog.
3) In Phasor mode assign a phase angle to both of these fields. Keep

in mind that all source in the model, including the impressed field,
oscillate at the same frequency.
To cancel the impressed field in the geometry space, select

Physics>Impressed B Field>Delete.
The default frequency of a model is 60 Hz. You can change the frequency using
the Physics Global Setup dialog. If you assign an impressed field to the
model, the frequency you define in this dialog is the frequency of the impressed
field.
To change this frequency:
1) Select Physics>Physics Global Settings... This displays the Physics

Global Settings dialog, shown below.
2) In the Frequency field, enter the new frequency.
3) Click [OK] to set the frequency and close the Physics Global Settings
dialog.
LAMINATIONS
From the submenus of Physics>Laminations you can approximate the

effective change in permeability due to lamination. Directly modeling layers of
ferromagnetic material is not only tedious for drawing, but tends to make the
solution time very long. By using this feature the permeability of the region is
changed to be anisotropic based on the specified packing fraction (number
between 0 and 1) and direction of layering the laminations.
Solving anisotropy, hence laminations, requires using the Finite

Element solver.
DEFINING CONDUCTORS
The Conductors submenus are only applicable when the Solver Type in the
Physics Global Setup dialog is set to Circuit Parameters.
To calculate the self and mutual inductance of current carrying coils, you must
associate the coil with conductor numbers. You can do this by assigning a
conductor number to each coil. Conductor numbers simply group the coils
together into a conductor.
The Conductors menus contain commands for

assigning and editing conductors. You can assign
surface conductors (for thin coils) or volume
conductors (for a thicker bundle of coils). Use
Physics>Surface Conductors or Physics>Volume
Conductors to determine the type of conductor that
you assign.
For a two dimensional model, assign a forward conductor and return path
conductor. The return path can be a second coil region or a defined
ground for the model. For a rotationally symmetric model, assign only the
forward path. Ground has no meaning for rotationally symmetric models
since no return path is needed – any current is a full path.
To assign a forward path conductor:
1) Select Physics>Volume Conductors>Conductor+.
2) Select all of the regions that you want to associate with this conductor
number.
3) Enter an integer for the conductor number. Number conductors in the

model in ascending order, starting at 1.
4) Repeat steps 2) & 3) or right-click to exit the Conductor+ command.
You can assign the return path by assigning a conductor in the opposite
direction or by assigning a ground to the entire model.
To assign an opposite conductor as the return conductor:
1) Select Physics>Volume Conductors>Conductor-.
2) Select the coil regions that you want to assign as the return conductors.
3) Enter the conductor number of the associated forward conductor.
4) Repeat steps 2) & 3) or right-click to exit the Conductor- command.
To assign a ground to the entire model as the return conductor:
1) From either Conductors menu, select Ground.
2) Select the segments or regions that you want to define as ground.
3) Right-click to assign the selected regions as ground.
Positive and negative conductors (not ground) must carry a

current. The value of the current is only significant when the
model uses non-linear materials. In addition, you must assign
boundary elements to surface conductors and subareas to
volume conductors.
SIMULATING TRANSVERSE MOTION
In some devices, eddy currents are induced in a conductor by passing it

through a magnetic field. This system can be simulated in OERSTED by
assigning a velocity to a region containing conductive material.
You can assign velocity by defining the

individual x and y components.
To assign a velocity to a region:
1) Select Physics>Velocity>Assign-X (or Assign-Y).
2) Select the regions where you want to assign the velocity
4) Enter the desired velocity in that direction.
5) Repeat 2) - 4) or right-click to exit the command.
To display an assigned velocity:
1) Select Physics>Velocity>Display.
2) Select a region. The Message Area displays the assigned velocity.
3) Select another region or right-click to exit.
To delete the velocity assigned to a region:
1) Select Physics>Velocity>Delete.
2) Select the regions where you want to delete the velocity right-click.
To assign velocity, the geometry of the region passing through the

most significant part of the field must be continuous. If an edge
passes through the field, this constitutes a transient model, which
you cannot simulate using OERSTED.
Chapter 3 – Analyzing the Model 47
CHAPTER 3
ANALYZING THE MODEL
OERSTED provides several options for solving a model, performing

calculations, and displaying results for a device. The Solution menu contains
commands for obtaining a solution for the model. The Analysis menu contains
commands for obtaining specific results from the solution.
From the Solution menu you can:
 Predefine your Outputs
 Select the solver type (FEM,BEM, FE-BE)
 Select exit criteria for the solver
 Choose matrix solving parameters
 Refine an existing solution
 Magnetize a region designated from Physics >

Permanent Magnet >To Be Magnetized
 Define and run Parametrics
 Customize the element distribution
 Scale the solution to a linear problem
 Solve (by default, most users should simply use Solution>Solve without
concern for the setup possible as mentioned above)
In Circuit Parameters mode, from the Analysis menu you can:
 Analyze mutual inductance, resistance and

impedance between current-carrying conductors
in the model
 Review Parametric results (when defined)
In Fields mode, from the Analysis menu you can:
 Determine the field in specific parts of the model
 View Outputs (when defined)
 Check the accuracy of a solution
 View field calculations using graphs and plots, or at

a specific point in the geometry
 Use file input and output to perform calculations

outside of OERSTED
 Calculate force and torque on the model
 Calculate power supplied to the model and power

loss in the model
 Calculate total stored magnetic energy, total

current, flux linkage and induced voltage in the
model
 Calculate resistance for single conductors
 Calculate inductance and impedance for single

conductors or systems of conductors
 Review results from Parametric analysis

TYPES OF ANALYSIS
There are several different types of solutions that you can perform. The type of
solution defines the calculations that OERSTED performs. You can change a
model and re-solve it as many times as you want in order to test different
properties or perform a different type of solution.
Solver Types
The solver type defines the type of calculations that OERSTED performs. On
the Physics Global Setup dialog (top of the Physics menu), you can select
one of the following solver types:
Fields Calculate the fields in the model

Circuit Parameters Calculate the inductance matrix for a set of
conductors
Solver Method
The solver method defines the way that OERSTED performs the calculations.
There are two solver methods.
Manual In Manual mode you specify the element distribution yourself.

Self-Adapt In Self-Adapt mode OERSTED puts on trial elements and adapts
them and re-solves until some exit error criteria is reached.
SOLVING A MODEL WITH BEM (DEFAULT SOLVER)
To solve a model in Self-Adapt mode:
Since OERSTED by default works in Self-Adapt mode, to solve a model you

will normally just use the menu Solution>Solve.
With experience you may choose to adjust some of the solver parameters
according to the needs of a given analysis. The most critical numbers are the
Self-Adaptive Accuracy and the Material Nonlinear Convergence Factor.
Lowering the former will cause the solver to iterate more often, creating a finer
element distribution, in order to finish with a smaller average error on the
boundaries. The latter has a similar effect, but is specifically related to the
nonlinear accuracy. When fields seem unreasonably high given the
magnetization curve of the materials, this number can be decreased to get a
better answer.
To solve a model in Manual mode:

 Select Solution>Solver Setup…. The Solver Setup dialog appears.
 In the Manual/Self Adaptive field, set Manual.
 Click [OK] to close the dialog
 Assign 1D and 2D elements to the model using the appropriate

Solution>Elements menus. 1D elements are required on the surface of
magnetic materials and where there is surface current. 2D Elements are
required in volume current regions and where there is significant nonlinearity
in a material
 Select Solution>Solve
SOLVER PARAMETERS
The main solver parameters are edited in
the Solver Setup dialog, opened from
Solution>Solver Setup…. For much more
advanced configuration of the solver there
are more parameters accessible from
Utilities>Settings… in the [Document
Properties] tab. These advanced settings
are described in the 2D Program Guide. In
this guide a summary is given of the
parameters in the Solver Setup dialog.
More information can be found in the 2D
Program Guide.
Method of Solution
OERSTED can solve by 4 methods:

Boundary Element (BEM)
Finite Element (FEM or FEA)
Hybrid Automatic (FE-BE) *
Hybrid Manual (FE-BE) *
 The hybrid solver has been temporarily disabled in version 9.2 while some
improvements are being completed.
The Boundary Element solver is found to be the fastest and most accurate
solver for most problems. However, many highly nonlinear problems are solved
better with the Finite Element solver, and the transient solver requires Finite
Elements. For problems where there are significant problems with both of
these in some areas, the hybrid solver enables you to use each in different
parts of the problem. The Automatic option selects the solver type for you in
each part, with the Manual option you select what solver to use on each part.
Matrix Solver Type
Either BEM or FEM involves solving for unknowns in a formula of the type:
[vector of knowns] = [MATRIX] * [vector of unknowns]
The Direct option provides an answer “exact” (to the precision level of the
variables), however, the time taken is proportional to the cube of the number of
unknowns.
To reduce the computation time for large numbers of unknowns the Iterative
option applies a trial solution and then adapts it repeatedly until the Iterative
Accuracy figure is achieved. The default is set as 1E-6, experience has shown
that that this provides sufficient accuracy for most users most of the time.
The Auto option passes the choice of Direct or Iterative to OERSTED. It will
estimate the problem size and choose the Iterative solver if it is considered a
big enough problem to warrant the slightly less accurate solution.
Manual/Self-adaptive
In Manual mode you must setup the elements and the FEM bounding box (if
applicable) yourself. In Self-Adaptive mode OERSTED does this for you.
Self-Adaptive Accuracy
This is a measure of the accuracy of the solution. The default level of 0.01 can
be interpreted as the average error of the solution on the boundary being
accurate to better than 1%. Decreasing this target number will cause the solver
to iterate the element refinement and re-solving more often.
Accuracy/Speed Factor
This number applies only to the BEM solver. Making this number larger will
cause the integrations from each element to be more accurate – however, the
time taken will be longer. This is not generally the way to obtain a more
accurate solution – more elements or a small Self-Adaptive Accuracy factor
are the ways to do that. However, increasing this number can be helpful when
refining the elements is not decreasing the average error. In fact, the solver will
automatically start increasing this number if the Self-Adaptive solver does not
appear to be converging.
Material Nonlinear Convergence Factor

To solve a non-linear design, OERSTED applies an iterative procedure until
reaching a degree of accuracy that depends on the Material Non-Linear
Convergence Factor used to test the exit criteria.
A common approach to test for the desired convergence is to compare the

difference between two consecutive solutions. If the ratio between the two is
below a specified value, assume adequate convergence.
The default ratio (exit criteria) is 0.01. If a model requires greater accuracy,
reduce this value to increase the number of iterations. To see the effects of the
exit criteria decrease the value and resolve the model. If the results do not
change significantly, use the larger exit criteria.
Finite Element Type
The finite element solver works by finding the vector potential at the element
nodes. The Linear option finds the vector potential at positions inside the
element by linear interpolation from the values at the nodes. The Quadratic
option has an extra unknown so that it can do a quadratic interpolation. This
means the Quadratic option will be significantly larger, hence it will take longer
to solver. Also, the quadratic matrix is not as well conditioned, so the iterative
solver will have more trouble with it. The benefit of the Quadratic option is
seen by comparing field line or contour plots with the same element distribution
– the Quadratic plots are much smoother or less noisy than the Linear plots.
FIELD CALCULATIONS
OERSTED provides several options for working with field results. You can:
 Display plots and graphs of field calculations using the Field Analysis
Result dialog, shown below
 Display results at a specific point in the model.
 Use File Input to enter geometry points and calculate results.
Select Analysis> Field Results to display the Fields Analysis Result dialog.
The appearance of this dialog depends on the type of display form that you
choose. The following figure illustrates the Field Analysis Result dialog for
displaying a coarse Field Line plot.
The Field Analysis Result

dialog, at right, contains the most
frequently used functions. For
additional settings, such as view
range, press the View Additional
Setting button to reveal the full
dialog.
Setting the Field Quantity and the Type of Plot
The first step in creating a graph or plot is to select the field quantity that you
want to view and the type of plot that you want to use to view this quantity. You
can do this using the View Type Selection and Display Form boxes in the View
Selections section of the Field Analysis Result dialog.
View Type Selection
Use the View Type selection box to specify the field quantity that you want to
plot. The View Type selections are:
Field Lines Plot of field (flux) lines
B-Field Magnetic flux density.
H-Field Magnetic field intensity.
M-Field Magnetization field (B-0H).
J-Field Surface Current Density field (J).
E-Field Induced Electric field (xE = -dB/dt).
Vector Potential Z-component (2D) or angular component (RS) of

the magnetic vector potential (A).
Energy Density
Power (Eddy) Power Density from Eddy current = JxE
Power (Loss Curve) Power density computed from the Loss Curve
entered for a material
Permeability Permeability (B/H)
Diff. Permeability Effective differential permeability (dB/d0H)
Relative Permeability Permeability/o
Relative Diff. Relative Permeability/o

Permeability
Conductivity Effect Conductivity E/J
Surface Current Assigned surface current – e.g. representing a

very thin coil
Surface Magnetization Current equivalent to the change in magnetization

Current across an interface
Surface Equivalent Total equivalent current on a surface – sum of

Current Surface Current and Surface Magnetization
Current.
Surface Force Density For surface current or equivalent surface current –

[J] x [B]
Volume Force Density For volume current or equivalent volume current –

[Volume current density] x [B]
Display Form
Use the Display Form field to specify the type of plot you want to create. When
you change the Display Form, the fields and menus on the Field Analysis
Result dialog change to suit the plot type. See the page listed below for more
information about creating each display type.
Display Description
Form
Graphs An x vs. y type plot of a scalar field quantity on the vertical (y) axis
and geometry coordinates on the horizontal (x) axis.
Contour A two-dimensional plot referencing a scalar field quantity against

the geometry.
Profiles A three-dimensional plot with the geometry on the horizontal plane

(x and y axes) and the scalar field quantity on the vertical (z) axis.
Arrows A directional plot where arrows represent the magnitude and

direction of the field.
Loci A time harmonic plot displaying the change in field magnitude and
direction through one cycle.
Scatter Displays a scalar quantity (e.g. magnitude of B) as a series of dots,

with color representing the value
The available Display Forms depend on the View Type selection

setting. If a plot type is not listed, it means that you cannot use that
type to display the selected field quantity.
CREATING GRAPHS
You can plot any scalar field quantity

along a line or geometry segment, or
plot the fields tangential and normal to
a geometry segment. When you set
the Display Form to Graphs, the Field
Analysis Result dialog appears as
shown to the right and the plot appears
in an AutoGraph window as shown
below.
To create a graph:
1) In the View Type selections box on the Field Analysis Result dialog,
select the field quantity that you want to display. In the Display Form
box, select Graphs.
2) In the Location select whether to plot a graph along a line (given by two
end points) or along a geometry segment.
3) Click the [New Graph] button.
4) If you selected Graph Along Line in the Location, enter two end points
of a straight line. For Graph Along Segment, select one or more
connected geometry segments. Right click when you are finished
selection. If the quantity is discontinuous across the segment OERSTED
will prompt you to click on the side where you wish to calculate. For
Graph Along Segment, OERSTED will also display a selected direction
to plot and prompt you whether to toggle to the opposite direction.
See the AutoGraph Appendix for information how to change the display of a
graph within AutoGraph.
View Settings
The expanded form of the of the Field

Analysis Result dialog contains
settings for the View Range of a Plot,
the number of intervals to use and the
time angle at which to plot for a phasor
model, or the time at which to plot for a
transient model. When any of these
settings are changed, click the [Apply
Settings] button to create a new plot
in AutoGraph with those settings, or
[New Graph] to plot along a different
line or segment than the previous plot.
The following list summarizes various settings for Graphs.

Component Select one of the following field quantity scalar components to

view on the graph:
X Component
Y Component
Magnitude (default, for a scalar field quantity)
dot Normal
dot Tangential
Complex For a phasor analysis, select one of the following components of

Selection the complex field quantity:
Real
Imaginary
Magnitude
Phase
Instantaneous (you must enter a time angle)
View Select either the User Range and enter the minimum and
Range maximum values for the vertical graph axis or select Default
Range to set these values to the defaults calculated by
OERSTED.
Number of Enter the number of points that you want to plot. The default is
Intervals 50 intervals (51 points). Using more intervals creates a smoother
graph, but the calculations require more time. The maximum
number of intervals is 10000.
Time Angle (Active only if the Complex Selection is Instantaneous). Enter

the time angle for the instantaneous plot.
Integrating Graphs
Within AutoGraph you can integrate a field quantity along a line or geometry
segment. See the AutoGraph Appendix for details.
The units for the integral depend on the units chosen for the field
values and for model. Be sure to make any necessary
conversions, or change the units using the Unit Setup dialog.
CREATING CONTOUR PLOTS

Use a contour plot for displaying values of
scalar quantities. OERSTED calculates the
plot at several points based on the current
screen limits or selected region and joins
points that fall within the same range with
contour lines. If you request a solid contour
plot, OERSTED maps unique colors to
regions where the field values fall into a
certain numerical range.
When you set the Display Form to

Contours, the Field Analysis Result
dialog appears as shown to the right.
To create a contour plot:
1) Set the View Type selection to the quantity that you want to view.
2) In the Display Form box, select Contours.

3) If the View Type is a vector quantity, select the appropriate Component.
4) If this is a phasor analysis, select the Complex component to plot.
5) In the Grid Density section, select the density of the grid that you want
to use to calculate and display the plot.
6) In the Location section, specify whether you want to plot on the whole
visible plane (On Plane) or on selected regions (On Region)
7) Click [New Plot]. OERSTED calculates and draws the contour plot.
Grid Density
Use the Grid Density box to define the density of the grid used to create the
plot. A denser grid produces a smoother looking contour plot, but requires more
time. The approximate number of grid points for each density setting is as
follows:
Coarse 400 points
Medium 800 points
Fine 1600 points
Very Fine 6400 points
User Defined Grid Select the number of division

in the x & y direction
After creating a contour plot, the Message Area displays the number of points
that were used.
Other Settings
Component For vector quantities (e.g. B-Field, H-Field or M-Field),

Selection select one of the following components to view:
X Component
Y Component
Magnitude (default, for a scalar field quantity)
Complex (Active only for a phasor analysis) Select one of the

Selection following components of the complex field quantity:
Real
Imaginary
Magnitude
Phase
Instantaneous (you must enter a time angle)
Maximum
Maximum Time Angle
View Range Select either the User Range and enter the minimum and
maximum values for plotted quantity or select [Default
Range] to set these values to the defaults calculated by
OERSTED.
Number of Enter the number of contours that you want to plot. Using
Contours more contours creates a smoother plot, but the
calculations require more time. The maximum number of
contour is 48 for a line contour plot and 31 for a solid
contour plot.
Log Scale Display levels with logarithmic spacing
Presentation Select line/solid/gradient and color options.

Contour Menu Operations
The Field Analysis Result menu

bar has three options which affect
contour plots: Options, Underlay
and Integrate.
The Options Menu

Put Scale (Active only for color contours) Displays a legend
relating the contour colors to ranges of the field values.
Move Scale Move the scale with the mouse to a different part of
the screen.
Delete Plot Delete a plot or selection of plots

Delete All Plot No selection is required, all plots are deleted.
The Underlay Menu

Select one of the Underlay menu options to change what you can see beneath
the contour plot. The options are:
 None
 Outline - an outline of the model geometry
 1D Elements - along the segments
 Boundary – boundary conditions
 Media - the materials in the model
 Geometry - the geometry, including points

 2D Elements – triangular elements
 Surface Sources - surface currents
 Volume Sources - volume currents
The Integrate Menu

The Integrate menu provides various options for integration from contour plots:
 I(G)dS – integral of the plotted quantity
 I(|G|)dS - integral of the absolute value of the plotted quantity
 Area RMS(G) – RMS value of the plot over the plane
 I(G)dV - integral over the 3D volume that would be swept out by

the plot
 I(|G|)dV – integral of the absolute value over the 3D volume that

would be swept out by the plot
 Volume RMS(G) – RMS value over the 3D volume that would be

swept out by the plot
CREATING PROFILE PLOTS
A profile plot is a contour plot with

an added third dimension to
enhance the differentiation
between scalar quantities.
OERSTED calculates the plot at
several points based on the
current screen limits and uses
contours to join points with the
same scalar field value. When
you set the Display Form on the
Field Analysis Results dialog to
Profiles, the dialog appears as
shown to the right
Options for Profile plots are described in the 2D General Guide.

CREATING ARROW PLOTS
Use an Arrow plot to display the magnitude

and direction of vector quantities. When you
set the Display Form to Arrows, the Field
Analysis Result dialog appears as shown
to the right.
To create an arrow plot:
1) Set the View Type selection to a vector quantity (e.g. B-Field, H-Field, or
M-Field).
2) Set the Display Form to Arrows.
3) In the Grid Density section, select the density of the grid that you want
to use to create the plot.
5) Click [New Plot] to draw the plot based on the current settings.
Grid Density
Use the Grid Density box to define the density of the grid used to create the
plot. A denser grid produces a smoother arrow plot, but requires more time. The
approximate number of grid points for each density setting is as follows:
Coarse 200 points
Medium 400 points
Fine 1600 points
Very Fine 6400 points
User Defined Grid Select the number of division in

the x & y direction
Other Arrow Plot Settings
The following settings specify how you want to calculate and view the arrow
plot.
Component Selection is not available for an arrow plot because

this plot type displays both the magnitude and direction of the
vector field quantity
View Range Select either the User Range and enter the
minimum and maximum values for the plotted
quantity or select [Default Range] to set these
values to the defaults calculated by OERSTED.
Log Scale Select the color scale for values with logarithmic
spacing.
Number of Colors Enter the number of colors that you want to

display. Each color represents a different range
of the vector magnitude. The maximum number
of colors is 31.
Time Angle In phasor mode the Complex switch is forced

to Instantaneous. The time angle determines
the phase at which the plot is made.
Arrows:Type Line – draws arrows as with three line
Solid – draws arrows as filled triangles
Arrows:Magnification Size of the arrows
Arrows:Aspect Ratio The ratio width:length of the arrow display
The Options Menu
The Options menu in the Field Analysis Result dialog contains the following
commands for working with arrow plots.
Put Scale Displays the legend that relates the color of the arrows
to values of the field quantity.
Move Scale Move the legend with the mouse.
Delete Plot Deletes the selected plot
Delete All Plots Delete all existing plots.
Scaled Select the Scaled switch if you want the length of the
arrows to represent the magnitude of the vector. If you
leave this menu option unchecked, all of the arrows
have the same length.
The Underlay Menu

Select one of the Underlay menu options to change what you can see beneath
the contour plot. The options are:
 None
 Outline - an outline of the model geometry
 1D Elements - along the segments
 Boundary – boundary conditions
 Media - the materials in the model
 Geometry - the geometry, including points
 2D Elements – triangular elements
 Surface Sources - surface currents
 Volume Sources - volume currents

CREATING LOCI PLOTS

A Loci plot displays the magnitude and
direction of fields. Loci plots provide
additional information for models solved in
Phasor mode. When you set the Display
Form to Loci, the Field Analysis Result
dialog appears as shown to the right.
To create a loci plot:
1) Set the View Type selection to a vector quantitiy (e.g. B-Field, H-Field or
M-Field).
2) Set the Display Form to Loci.
3) In the Grid Density section, select the density of the grid used to create
the loci plot. The approximate number of grid point for each setting is as
follows:
Coarse 60 points
Medium 120 points

Fine 250 points
Very Fine 500 Points

the x & y direction
5) Click [New Plot] to draw the plot with the current settings.
For a loci plot, you cannot change the Component Selection

because the plot displays both magnitude and direction. You
cannot change the Complex Selection because OERSTED
considers all time angles.
CREATING SCATTER PLOTS

A Scatter plot displays the scalar
quantities as a colored dot. When you
set the Display Form to Scatter, the
Field Analysis Result dialog appears as
shown to the right.
To create a scatter plot:
1) Set the View Type selection to a quantity (e.g. B-Field, H-Field or M-

Field).
2) Set the Display Form to Scatter
3) For a vector View Type set the component
4) In the Grid Density section, select the density of the grid used to create
the loci plot. The approximate number of grid point for each setting is as
follows:
Coarse 200 points

Medium 400 points
Fine 1600 points
Very Fine 6400 Points

the x & y direction
visible plane (On Plane) or on selected regions (On Region).
6) Click [New Plot] to draw the plot with the current settings.
After a plot is drawn you can change the size of dots with the Magnification
number, and make the dots size scale with value from the menu
Options>Scaled.
THE VALUES MENU

The Values menu in the Field Analysis Result
dialog contains options for querying field values
at specific points. The quantity calculated by this
menu is determined by the View Type setting.
 Values at Point – select a point by clicking with the mouse or typing (x, y)
coordinates on the Command Line. The point and value at the point will be
shown in the Message Area.
 Values from File… - opens a dialog to select a file containing points to

perform Value calculations. The format of the file is rows of x y values with
spaces or tabs separating the values.
After selecting the From File, the Output File is selected. OERSTED will
write the x y values followed by the Value of the View Type on separate
lines.
 Close – closes the dialog
CHECKING THE SOLUTION FOR ERRORS
Before you begin displaying results or performing calculations, you should

ensure that the results are within a reasonable degree of accuracy. Ensure that
the solution makes physical sense by verifying some simple rules and magnetic
principles. If the results are not sufficiently accurate, you can increase the
boundary element distribution (Manual mode) or decrease the Self adaptive
Accuracy (Self Adapt mode) and re-solve the model then check again.
Ensuring That the Solution Makes Physical Sense
You can check to make sure that some basic electromagnetic laws are satisfied
by:
 confirming the continuity of the tangential H-field by graphing the field on

both sides of any segment
 verifying the satisfaction of Ampere’s circuital law by integrating the graph of

the tangential H-Field around a closed path
To create the tangential H-Field graph:
1) Perform a Fields mode analysis.
2) In the Field Analysis Results dialog set the View Type selection to H-
Field and the Display Form to Graphs.
3) In the Location, select Graph Along Segment.

4) Set the Component selection to dot Tangential.
5) Click the [New Graph] button.
6) Select any geometry segment(s) and right-click to end selection.
 If H is discontinuous across the segment (e.g. an interface with changing

permeability) you will be prompted on the Command Line with Left Click
on side to calculate Field or Right-Click for field on both sides>. In this
case a left-click on one side or the other selects the side to calculate, right-
clicking produces two plots (on either side of the interface) in AutoGraph.
 Blue triangles will appear along the segment(s) indicating the default
direction of the plot. The Command Line prompt will read Left-Click to
confirm display direction; <Ctrl>+Left-Click to toggle direction>. Each
time you <Ctr>-Left-Click the direction indicated will toggle. Left-Click at
any time to accept the indicated direction and create the plot.
If you plot Htangential on both sides of a segment, and the plots look significantly
different, then you should try a more accurate solution. In Manual mode add
more elements, in Self-Adapt mode lower the Self-Adaptive Accuracy criteria.
If you see a large peak on one side of the graph, this means that
the field is calculated as singular at a corner, which is expected but
it creates a graph scale too large to examine the rest of the
segment. Right-click on an empty part of the graph and select Axis
from the pop-up menu. In the Property Sheet dialog set limits for
the y-axis which reduce the scale of the graph so that the field on
the rest of the segment can be examined more closely.
By graphing the tangential H-field along a closed path around parts of the
model, you can check the satisfaction of Ampere’s circuital law:
 
I   H  dL
You can do this by integrating the graph of the tangential H-Field around a
closed path. Before you start, make sure that the units for H are A/m and the
units for length are meters.
To integrate an H-Field graph:
1) Right-click a data point in AutoGraph, and from the popup menu select
Integrate>I(G).
2) The integration graph appears in a new window within AutoGraph with

the total integral shown on the right:
3) There are various display options for the multiple windows within
AutoGraph. These options are selected from the Window menu:
You can perform this check along any defined geometry segments or by
creating geometry segments that are not part of the physical model. If you want
to use segments that are not part of the model it is best to create these
segments before solving. Creating a new region after solving will automatically
force a new solution.
FORCE CALCULATIONS
When a system contains magnetic fields, forces act on materials with magnetic
properties or on any current carrying coils.
The Force submenu

of the Analysis
menu contains
several options for
calculating force on
objects.
AMPERIAN versus MAXWELL STRESS Calculation Methods
1) AMPERIAN:
The Amperian method calculates total force by integrating the force
density = {current density} x {B field}.
This method only applies to the BEM solver, and the context provides the
current density. This may be:
* real volume current density of a coil assigned volume current
* real surface current density of a coil assigned surface current
* equivalent volume current density due to nonlinear magnetization
* equivalent surface current density to satisfy a permeability change
boundary condition
2) MAXWELL STRESS:
This calculation method integrates the Maxwell Stress Tensor, which
can be interpreted as a pressure or force density. The integral over an
entire boundary thus produces the force on everything inside.
3) Virtual Work on Region:

The Virtual Work on Region method calculates forces and torques by
taking the derivative of the coenergy in a region with respect to a
displacement or rotation respectively.
For an equivalent calculation these methods should produce the same force
number. The difference between the two calculations is an indication of the
amount of error in the calculation. When they disagree by an unacceptable
amount, refine the solution and compare again.
REGION versus SEGMENT or PATH Calculations
1) REGION:
The on Region options calculate the total force on everything selected
as a region. This will even include the surface force on a surface
current. It will also cut out holes etc. as appropriate for the Maxwell
Stress method – i.e. the integral on the inside boundary is subtracted
from the integral on the outside boundary.
2) On Segment:
The on Segment command calculates the force on a segment due to
real surface current or equivalent currents due to a permeability
boundary condition. The former is a real force, the latter is an
approximation to the force distribution on a ferromagnetic material. If on
Segment is used to calculate the force on the whole boundary of a
region, the answer will be the same as from on Region.
3) On Path:
This method integrates the Maxwell Stress Tensor along any selected
path. If the path is the boundary of a ferromagnetic region, the result is
identical to Maxwell Stress on Region. However, when calculating
Maxwell Stress right on the surface of materials, or running along the
edges of elements, it is often difficult to obtain accurate results. If a path
of connected segments is drawn in the free space around a region,
leaving a small gap, the Finite Elements do not have edges along the
segment. The integral along this path is often superior to the integral
along the boundary itself.
Test Line Current
The Test Line Current is applicable to cases where a force is required on a

straight line of current which directed along the x-y plane and which does not
carry sufficient current to significantly affect the magnetization of materials.
This could represent a long current sheet, or a wire. This force will be
perpendicular to the screen. The local force density will be given by IxB, or
I*Bnormal. Hence this force is equal to the integral of Bn along the line, for a 1 m
depth of current sheet. The meaning of the prompts is shown in the graphic
below.
1) Select the menu

item
Analysis>Force>
Test line current
2) Type or click to
enter a coordinate
for the start of the
line. (This location
is shown in the
model as shown as
a blue dot).
 The interface now shows a green line from the blue dot to the cursor
location. Left-click to accept, or enter and end location on the Command
Line.
 The interface now shows a green line to the cursor location. Click to accept,
or enter and end location on the Command Line.
 You will be prompted for a current value. The current will be from the blue
dot to the end point, as shown by the black arrow above.
Calculating Force in Two-dimensional Mode

In Two-D mode, OERSTED expresses the forces as follows:
Fx The x-component of the force
Fy The y-component of the force
Fm The magnitude of the force
Fa The angle of the force

In Static or transient mode this is the force:
In Time-Harmonic (Phasor) mode the force is time-averaged:
Expressing force either as X and Y components or as magnitude and angle will

both provide complete equivalent representations.
For a two dimensional design, all forces are given according to

the Length in the z-direction set in Physics Global Setup.
Calculating Force on Rotational Symmetric Models

In a rotationally symmetric design, OERSTED gives forces as a component
along the axis of symmetry (e.g. the y-direction for a Y Rotation model), a “hoop
force” and a radial component.
The force Fy above is the result of integrating all of the incremental forces in
that direction.
The  component of the force is always zero. Integrating the radial component
( direction) of the forces on any object over a complete cycle of 0    2
cancels the effect of each force and results in a net force of zero. Even though
the net force is zero, you may want to know the magnitude of the incremental
forces in the radial direction. There are two ways of calculating the magnitude of
the radial force and the following sections, Hoop Force and Radial Force,
describe these methods.
For a rotationally symmetric design, the output force is the actual

force and you do not need to multiply by an additional factor.
Assume the following Y-rotational symmetric structure is defined:
y1

y2
Z 1 2 X
In rotational symmetric mode, the Y-axis plays the same role that the Z-axis
plays in a standard cylindrical coordinate system. In this diagram, the Z-axis
comes out of the page in a perpendicular direction.
Hoop Force
The “hoop” force is a stress force that acts in the radial direction. The
significance of the hoop force (or double its value, Fx) is that it represents the
force that wants to rip the Donut-shape object apart. This force is important for
designers who need to model a transformer and want to ensure that a sudden
current surge (because of a short circuit or a current induced by lightning) will
not pull the whole transformer structure apart.
y 2  2 2
 
F aˆ      J  Bdddy  F aˆ
y1 0
x x  Fy aˆ y
1
 y 2  2 2
  y2  2 2 
 
    J  B y cos  dddy aˆ x      J  B y sin  dddy aˆ y
y  0  y  0 
 1 1   1 1 
 y2  2 2   y2  2 2  
  
   J  B y ddy  cos d aˆ x    J  B y ddy  sin d aˆ y  0
y   y  
 1 1 0   1 1 0 
The first non-zero force definition is based on taking the above integration over
half or quarter of a cycle instead of a complete one.
Fhoop 
Fx 2
2
1 Fx
x
Fx
Fhoop 
2
z
 y2  2 2  y2  2 2
 
Fhoop  Fx 1
 2    J  B y cos  dddy     J  B y cos  dddy
2   
 y1 1 2  y1 1 0
J  and B y are not functions of , so we can process the integral one step
further:
 
 y2  2  2  y2  2
Fhoop     J  B y ddy   cos d     J B ddy

y   0 
y
 1 1  y1 1
 
For a half a cycle integration of the force vector, the Y-component of the partial
force exerted on any part of the geometry is canceled by its corresponding
mirror point (with respect to the x-axis). This reduces the vector integration to a
scalar integration along the X-axis.
Radial Force
The next definition of a non-zero radial force indicates the strength of the partial
forces applied on an object in the radial direction. This radial force is:
 y2  2 2     y2  2 2 
Fradial  1
360

 y  0
J  B 
 ˆ
a   dddy   1 
 360  y  0  y
J B  dddy 

 1 1   1 1 
 y2  2  2  y2  2
  d  
 y   y  0    J B ddy
Fradial  1
360 J B ddy 2
360 y
 1 1   y1 1
y2  2
Fradial  180   J  B y ddy  180

 
Fhoop
y1 1
The unit for Fradial is [ force _ unit]

deg ree (that is the purpose of the 360
1
factor) and Fhoop
uses the force unit. For any small portion of the object, you can approximate the
amount of the radial force by multiplying Fradial by the sector angle in degrees.
The normal component of the force (perpendicular to screen) is

zero. This is why OERSTED does not report the Z-component
(Two-D models) or  component (rotational symmetric models) of
the force. In each case, they are zero.
CALCULATING TORQUE
Forces can be expressed as torques when exerted at a distance according to:

Tm   (r  Fm )dV
The Torque submenu of the Analysis menu contains two types of commands
for calculating torque:
Segments Calculates torques on geometry segments

Regions Calculates torques on whole regions of the geometry.
As with Force, there are both AMPERIAN and MAXWELL STRESS TENSOR
options for computing each of these. To calculate torques:
1) Select one of:

* Analysis>Torque>Torque on Region
* Analysis>Torque>Torque on Segment
* Analysis>Torque>Maxwell Stress on Region
* Analysis>Torque>Maxwell Stress on Path
2) Select the segments or regions on which to calculate the torque. Right-

click to finish selecting geometry.
3) Enter the torque point. This point determines the distance for the force
calculation in the integral (above). OERSTED calculates and displays the
torque in the Message Area.
You cannot calculate torque for a rotationally symmetric design.
POWER CALCULATIONS
In OERSTED, you can calculate the power loss in a model or the power
supplied to the model. The menus Analysis>Power Loss and
Analysis>Source Power contain commands for these power calculations.
Calculating Source Power

The Source Power menu contains the following six commands for calculating
the power supplied to the model. These commands allow you to determine the
total, real and reactive power for the entire model or a specific region in the
model.
Total Complex Power Returns the total complex power supplied to the
modeled device.
Total Real Power Returns the total real power supplied to the
device.
Total Reactive Power Returns the total reactive (imaginary) power

supplied to the device.
Complex Power by Returns the total complex power supplied to a

Region region. The region must contain a current or
voltage source.
Real Power by Region Returns the total real power supplied to a region.
The region must contain a current or voltage
source.
Reactive Power by Returns the total reactive (imaginary) power

Region supplied to one region. The region must contain a
source (current or voltage).
The total real power is always positive. The source power of a

region can be positive (meaning that the region acts as a true
source) or negative (meaning that power is supplied to the
region).
Calculating Power Loss
The Power Loss menu contains the following two commands for calculating
power loss in a model.
Conductor Loss Returns the real power loss in a conductor due to

eddy currents. In this case, the conductor does not
have to be a source.
Loss due to Loss Returns the real power loss in a region that has an
Curve assigned loss curve in the Material Editor. To
perform this calculation, the region with the assigned
loss curve must also contain subareas.
The total real source power supplied to a model is also the total of
all conductor losses in the model. The source power calculations
do not account for loss curve losses.
CALCULATING TOTAL CURRENT
Use the Current command to calculate

the total current or current density, either
induced or impressed using a voltage
assignment.
To calculate the total current in a region:

1. Select Analysis>Current>Total Current (At)
2. Left-click the region where you want to calculate the current. The
Message Area displays the total current in the selected region.
3. Select another region or right-click to exit the Current command.
For a region with an assigned current source, the calculated

current should be the same as the assigned current. If this is not
the case, you probably need to assign more elements on the
conductor surface.
To calculate the current density in a region:
1) Select Analysis>Current>Current Density
2) Left-click the region where you want to calculate the current. The
Message Area displays the average current density (Itotal/area) in the
selected region.
3) Select another region or right-click to exit the Current Density

command.
To calculate the coil current in a winding:
1) Select Analysis>Current>Coil Current.
2) Left-click the winding (specified in the Physics menu) where you want
to calculate the current. The Message Area displays the total coil current
in the selected winding.
3) Select another winding or right-click to exit the Coil Current command.

CALCULATING ENERGY
To calculate total energy in a model:
1) Select the menu Analysis>Total Energy
2) The Message Area displays the total energy in the model.
To calculate total energy in a region (or regions) of a model:
1) Select the menu Analysis>Energy by Region
2) Left-click the region(s) in which to calculate the energy
4) The Message Area displays the total energy in the region(s).
5) Select another region or regions, or right-click to end the command.
To calculate total coenergy in a model:
1) Select the menu Analysis>Total Coenergy
2) The Message Area displays the total coenergy in the model.
To calculate total coenergy in a region (or regions) of a model:
1) Select the menu Analysis>Coenergy by Region
2) Left-click the region(s) in which to calculate the coenergy
4) The Message Area displays the total coenergy in the region(s).
5) Select another region or regions, or right-click to end the command.

FLUX LINKAGE AND INDUCED VOLTAGE CALCULATIONS
The flux linkage between two coils is a very important value for designers of
speed sensors, inductors and transformers. The flux linkage is simply the flux
that links the filaments of a coil or coils. When, for example, the flux linking the
forward and return paths of a coil changes with time, a voltage is induced in the
coil according to:
dN
V
dt
where N is the flux linkage and N is the number of turns of the coil. Knowing
how the flux linkage changes with linear or rotational displacement allows you
to calculate the relationship between voltage and speed using the following two
equations relating to translational and rotational motion.
d dx
V N( x)
dx dt
and
d d
V N( )
d dt
Using OERSTED to determine (x) or () for a number of values of x or 

provides the critical information to solve this problem. If you know the derivative
of the flux linkage with respect to the translational or rotational displacement
and either the voltage created or the speed (translational or angular), you can
easily extract the missing information.
The Flux Linkage/Induced Voltage commands allow you to calculate the

voltage drop or the voltage induced in a conductor region. They also allow you
to find the flux linkage of a coil and the voltage induced in that coil due to the
flux varying at the operating frequency of the model.
To calculate the induced voltage in a region:
1) Select Analysis>Induced Voltage>Region
2) Select the region(s)

* In RS mode, select the region(s), then right-click to end selection.
* In 2D mode select the forward region(s), then right-click to end
selection. Next, select the return regions, then right-click to end
selection.
3) The Message Area displays the voltage in the region(s).
4) Repeat from step 2) or right-click to end the command.
To calculate the induced voltage in a coil:
1) Select Analysis>Induced Voltage>Coil
2) Left-click a coil (defined from the Physics menu)
3) The Message Area displays the voltage on the coil.
To calculate the induced voltage in a winding:
1) Select Analysis>Induced Voltage>Winding
2) Left-click a winding (defined from the Physics menu).
3) The Message Area displays the voltage in the winding.

To calculate the induced voltage over the external load on a winding:
1) Select Analysis>Induced Voltage>Vexternal
2) Left-click a winding (defined from the Physics menu).
3) The Message Area displays the voltage across the external load defined
for the winding.
In 2D mode, all assigned voltages and computations of Flux

Linkage or Voltage on the Analysis menu are dependent on
the Length given in Physics Global Setup. Without the
correct Length given the applied voltage will not have the
correct effect in the field solution, and the post-processing of
Flux Linkage or Voltage will not be correct.
To calculate the flux linkage of a region:
1) Select the menu Analysis>Flux Linkage>Region.
2) Select the region(s)

* In RS mode, select the region(s), then right-click to end selection.
* In 2D mode select the forward region(s), then right-click to end
selection. Next, select the return regions, then right-click to end
selection.
3) The Message Area displays the flux linkage.
To calculate the flux linkage of a coil:
1) Select the menu Analysis>Flux Linkage>Coil.

2) Left-click to select the coil.
3) The Message Area displays the flux linkage on the coil.
To calculate the flux linkage of a winding:
1) Select the menu Analysis>Flux Linkage>Winding.
2) Left-click to select the winding.
3) The Message Area displays the flux linkage on the winding.
IMPEDANCE AND INDUCTANCE OF SINGLE CONDUCTORS
When you need to calculate the impedances or inductances of individual

conductors, use the results of a Fields analysis with the menu options:
Analysis>Impedance, Analysis>Resistance or Analysis>Inductance. The
following conditions must apply for this type of calculation:
 the region must contain a material with a non-zero conductivity

 the region must have an assigned volume current
 the operation frequency of the model must be greater than zero
For impedance or inductance matrices, choose the Solver Type

as Circuit Parameters in Physics Global Setup.
Calculating Impedance
Use the Impedance command to calculate the impedance (R + jX) of a single

conductor.
To calculate the impedance in a region:
1) Select the menu Analysis>Impedance.
2) Left-click to select the region where you want to calculate the

impedance.
3) The Message Area displays the resistance and reactance for the
equivalent 3D volume created by the region and settings in Physics
Global Setup.
Calculating Resistance
Use the Resistance command to calculate the resistance of a single conductor.
To calculate resistance:
1) Select the menu Analysis>Resistance.

resistance.
3) The Message Area displays the resistance for the equivalent 3D volume
created by the region and settings in Physics Global Setup.
Calculating Inductance
Use the Inductance command to calculate the inductance of a single

conductor.
To calculate inductance:
1) Select the menu Analysis>Inductance.

inductance.
3) The Message Area displays the unductance for the equivalent 3D

volume created by the region and settings in Physics Global Setup.
IMPEDANCE AND INDUCTANCE MATRICES
To solve for impedance/inductance

matrices, set the Solver Type to Circuit
Parameters in the Physics Global Setup
dialog.
This will activate the Conductors section of

the Physics menu.
Also, the Analysis menu changes to commands which query

the Circuit Parameters matrices.
An impedance matrix is useful if the model contains a system of conductors that

can be described as a network. Then, you can use an Circuit Parameter
analysis to obtain the impedance matrix of the network. In the case of a static
analysis, you obtain inductance matrices of groups of coils using the Impedance
analysis with the frequency set to zero.
Impedance/Resistance Matrix Calculations
For impedance or resistance matrix calculations:
1) Draw each individual conductor as a separate region in RS mode or pair

of conductors (forward and return path) in 2D mode.
2) In Physics Global Setup, set the Solver Type to Circuit Parameters.

Make sure that the operating frequency of the model is greater than zero.
3) Assign materials with assigned with non-zero conductivity to the regions.
4) Group the regions together as conductors using commands in the

Conductors submenus of the Physics menu. Assign the same number
to conductors which share the same current (e.g. as parallel conductors
or as forward and return paths).
5) Select the menu Solution>Solve.
6) After the solving is completed, select the menu Analysis>Resistance or

Analysis>Impedance
7) Click on pairs of conductors to obtain the Rm,n or Zm,n matrix entries

(shown in the Message Area). I.e. OERSTED first prompts you to select
a conductor (m) then prompts you to select a second conductor (n).
To output the whole matrix to a text file, select the

menu File>Save Data to File… and select Circuit
Parameters from the dialog box that opens.
Inductance Matrix Calculations
For inductance calculations:
1) Draw each individual conductor as a separate region or segment in RS

mode or pair of conductors (forward and return path) in 2D mode. Use a
region to represent a volume current flow, or a segment for surface
current.
2) In Physics Global Setup, set the Solver Type to Circuit Parameters.
3) Group the regions together as conductors using commands in the

Conductors submenus of the Physics menu. Assign the same number
to conductors which share the same current (e.g. as parallel conductors
or as forward and return paths).
4) Select the menu Solution>Solve.
5) After the solving is completed, select the menu Analysis>Inductance
6) Click on pairs of conductors to obtain the mutual inductance Lm,n matrix

entries (shown in the Message Area). I.e. OERSTED first prompts you
to select a conductor (m) then prompts you to select a second conductor
(n).
7) To obtain the self-inductance of a conductor, select it twice.
To output the whole matrix to a text file, select the

menu File>Save Data to File… and select Circuit
Parameters from the dialog box that opens.
Note that the conductor definition does not include numbers of turns. You will
need to multiply by the number of turns in each conductor to get the total
inductance of the coil.
Ltotal  Lm,n * N m * N n
where Lm,n is the inductance displayed in the Message Area.
PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS
Parametric analysis is a design-optimization feature that allows you to use

variables, rather than static values for specifying design parameters. You define
parametric variables by type and by a series of values. You define all
parametric variables in the same fashion as the non-parametric variables.
Parametric analysis reduces the tedious, repetitive tasks associated with fine-
tuning design parameters. The Parametric utility is described in detail the 2D
General Guide.
RUNNING UNATTENDED ANALYSES USING THE BATCH UTILITY
You may often find it convenient to set up a number of models during the day
and then leave them to run overnight or during the weekend. The batch utility
allows you to set up a batch file that retrieves database files and works on them
automatically. The file stores all of the operations that you want to perform.
Using the batch utility optimizes your working time by eliminating the need to
wait for one analysis to finish before starting another. The Batch utility is
described in detail the 2D General Guide.
Chapter 4 – Technical Reference 99
CHAPTER 4
TECHNICAL REFERENCE
PHYSICAL BASIS
Two distinct approaches exist for the solution of boundary value problems:
domain-type and boundary-type.
Domain-type formulation is the direct solution of the governing differential

equation for the potential. The finite difference and finite element methods are
the two most commonly used direct methods.
In the finite difference approach, the differential operator is discretized, utilizing

a truncated Taylor series expansion in each coordinate direction, and applied at
each point of a rectilinear grid placed on the problem region. The method
usually involves an iterative process. The disadvantages are, among others, the
crude modeling of problem geometry and the large number of unknowns in
open field problems.
The finite element method uses a variational technique in which the potential is
approximated by a sequence of functions defined over the entire domain of the
problem. Relating these approximations to the operator equation through
minimizing a functional that is proportional to the energy of the system yields
the values of the solution at the nodes.
In many practical applications, the large amount of input data required; the
derivative discontinuities in the geometrical model; calculation of potential by
interpolation and its derivatives through differentiation; localized large errors; no
simple means of checking the accuracy of the solution; and the inability to
model infinitely extending regions exactly constitute the major shortcomings of
the finite element method.
Both methods have been researched extensively and are widely documented in
the literature.
The second approach to the solution of boundary value problems is the

boundary integral equation formulation on which the Boundary Element Method
employed by OERSTED is based.
In the integral equation formulation, the potential is not solved for directly.
Instead, an equivalent current, which would sustain the field, is found by forcing
it to satisfy prescribed boundary conditions under a function which relates the
location and effect of the current to any point on the boundary.
This function, called the Green function or influence function, effectively

eliminates the need for a finite element mesh or a finite difference grid except
where real currents or nonlinearities exist.
Once the current is determined, the potential or derivatives of the potential can
be calculated at any point. Provided the problem is piecewise homogeneous,
the equivalent current is located only on the boundaries and interfaces of
different media.
The main advantages of this method over the direct approach are the reduction
of one in problem dimensionality; accurate modeling of geometry; elimination of
differentiation and interpolation to calculate potential or its derivatives; precise
results due to the smoothness of the integral operator; and sound means for
checking the accuracy of the solution.
BOUNDARY INTEGRAL EQUATIONS
For the time-harmonic electromagnetic field, we seek the solution of the

magnetic vector potential due to some currents such that
 
B  A
(4-1)
and
 
E   jA
(4-2)
In the case of two-dimensional geometry with TM polarization, the magnetic

vector potential Az due to a z-directed current density is
  
Az (r )    G(r ,r )J z (r )ds
S
(4-3)
in which
 1 ( 2)  
G(r ,r )  H 0 (k r  r  )
4j
(4-4)
where H 0( 2) is the zero order Hankel function of the second kind and the wave
number

k    (1  j )

(4-5)
Now consider an inhomogeneous medium consisting of two homogeneous

regions. The homogeneous and lossy material body is bounded by S and has
constitutive parameters  2 ,  2 , and  2 . The region external to the body is also
homogeneous and has constitutive parameters 1 and  1 . The impressed

source is denoted J i and locates outside the lossy material body. The field that
 
it produces with the body absent is denoted, E i , H i . The total field is denoted
 
E , H . And the total field in the external region is the impressed field plus the
field produced by the material body.
We distributef equivalent surface current on S to account for the effect of the

material body, then use the boundary condition on the tangential components of
 
E and H over S to obtain the boundary integral equation. Since the tangential

H is discontinuous at a surface current, it is important to evaluate this
tangential component on the proper side of surface currents. We define a

surface S  to be just outside S , and S  to be just inside S . We use E  and

H  to denote the fields evaluated on S  and S  , respectively. We also need
equivalent surface current J i (i  1,2) on S radiating into the media having
 
constitutive parameters  i ,  i , and  i everywhere. The notation Ei ( J i ) and
  
H i ( J i ) are used to represent the fields produced by J i obtained from the
potential integral of equation (4-3). From the equivalence principle, we can
show that the field in the material body may be produced by the equivalent

surface current J 2 ,
     
E  E2 ( J 2 ),H  H 2 ( J 2 )
(4-6)
The field in the region external to the material body may be the field due to the
  
equivalent surface current J 1 plus E i , H i ,
       
E  E1 ( J 2 )  E i ,H  H1 ( J1 )  H i
(4-7)
A Dual Simple-Layer Source Boundary  Integral Equation is obtained by

enforcing the tangential E and H continuity conditions on the boundary S
   
   

   
n  E r ;J1   E2 r ;J 2   n  E i (r ),r  S
(4-8)

      
    
n  H 1 r ;J 1   H 2 r ;J 2   n  H i (r ),r  S
(4-9)

where the unit vector n points outward from S . In the case of two-dimensional
space with TM polarization, we have
        
j 1 Gk1 ; r , r J 1 r ds    2 G(k 2 ; r , r ) J 2 (r )ds    E xi (r )
 s 
s 
(4-10)
       
G(k 2 ;r ,r )ds   J 1 (r )  J 2 (r )
1
J 1 (r ) G(k1 ;r ,r )ds   J 2 (r )
 S n S n 2
 i
 n  H ,r S
(4-11)
METHOD OF WEIGHTED RESIDUALS
Consider the operator equation
L  g
(4-12)
where L is assumed to be a linear operator which maps  to g uniquely.

Normally, L and g are known and we have the deterministic problem of finding
. That is, we are required to solve
  L1 g
(4-13)
where L1 is assumed to exist and that the solution for is unique.
Let the solution be expanded by the series of functions in the domain of the
operator and let a1 , a2 , a3 ,... be coefficients such that
 ( x)  n1 ann ( x)

(4-14)
For an exact solution, the basis or expansion functions must form a complete
set which is usually infinite in number. Rewriting (4-8) as
L ( x)  g ( x)  0
(4-15)
and substituting the expansion functions to approximate the potential, the

residual is
R  n1 an Ln ( x)  g ( x)

(4-16)
and is equal to zero only if the coefficients and expansion functions can be
found such that they are the exact solution. In the method of weighted
residuals, the coefficients are found in such a way that the residual is forced to
approximation.
A suitable inner product is taken with the residual and some prescribed
functions over the range of the operator. These functions are called weighting
functions, or, more descriptively, testing functions. The inner product is defined
by
 wm , R    Rwm ds m  1,2,3,...
(4-17)
where w1 , w2 , w3 ,... are the testing functions. The inner product is set to zero,
forcing the residual to be orthogonal to the testing functions
 wm , R 0
(4-18)
Substituting the right-hand side of (4-12) into (4-14) and rearranging yields


n 1
an  wm , L n ( x)   wm , g ( x)
(4-19)
For a solution of (4-15), we approximate (4-10) by a finite sum. Equation (4-15)

is then a finite set of linear equations which can be put in standard matrix form
as
 
Sa  b
(4-20)
where
S mn   wm , L n 
bm   wm , g 
(4-21)
Assuming the matrix is not singular, it may be inverted, yielding the coefficients.
These coefficients may then be substituted into (4-10) giving an approximate
(on rare occasions an exact) solution for the current.
The approximation of the solution to the exact solution will obviously depend
upon the choice of the basis and testing functions, and the number of them
used. One requirement is that expansion and testing functions be linearly
independent as linear dependence will result in a singular S matrix.
The particular choice of the basis functions being the same as the testing
functions is called Galerkin's method. This is the method used by OERSTED.
BOUNDARY ELEMENT METHOD
The boundary element method arises from discretization of the boundary into
individual sections which are referred to as elements. The expansion and
testing functions, as well as the geometry, are then specified on an element-by-
element basis. Coefficients of the expansion functions are normally defined at
nodes on the element. Each node is then associated with a particular expansion
function. OERSTED uses linear shape functions defined parametrically over
each element. They are simply expressed as
1  1  
2  
(4-22)
The current over each element is expressed as
  i1 i i ( )
m
(4-23)
where m  2 as linear elements are used.
OERSTED currently models the geometry by fitting Lagrange quadratic shape

functions on the specified segment. These quadratic functions are defined by
 2  2 2  3  1
 2  4(   2 )
 3  2 2  
(4-24)
over the domain [0,1]. Global positions in cartesian coordinates are specified
parametrically over each element as
x  i1 i ( ) xi
m
y  i1 i ( ) yi
m
(4-25)
From the method of weighted residuals, we wish to determine
 wm , K n    wm , b 
(4-26)
which can be put in vector notation as
 , K T    , g 
(4-27)
The operator K is dependent upon the boundary conditions where the inner
product is being calculated. For the Dirichlet sections of the boundary and for
the interior
   
K   (r )   G(r , r ) (r )drr Bi
bbi
(4-28)
where contains all boundaries and interfaces. Substitution of the

shape functions for the equivalent current yields
  
K T    G(r ,r ) T (r)dr   (r )
bbi
(4-29)
The application of Galerkin's method results in

  
 , K T     (r ) G(r ,r ) T (r )dr 
b bbi
(4-30)
For the Neumann sections of the boundary, the inner product produces
    
  (r )
b bbi
G (r ,r ) T (r )dr dr    (r ) T (r )dr
b
(4-31)
OERSTED steps over each element and applies the appropriate inner product
depending on the particular boundary condition. All the integrals are calculated
over the simplex [0,1].
One of the major difficulties in the integral equation approach is the integration
of the Green function singularity which occurs when the observation and source
points coincide.
OERSTED caters to this problem by dividing out the singularity and using a
quadrature scheme containing the form of the singularity. This technique
enables very accurate integrations of the singular integrand.
The values calculated from each integration are stored in the matrix according
to their node numbers. The matrix equation is solved to find the values of the
coefficients at the nodes. The potential and magnetic field can then be
calculated at any specified point.
SUGGESTED REFERENCES
This is a brief introduction to the theoretical basis of OERSTED. If you would

like to learn more about the boundary element method, we suggest you read
the following publications:
1) Stratton, J. A. Electromagnetic Theory. New York: McGraw-Hill Book

Co., 1941.
2) Harrington, R. F. Field Computation by Moment Methods. Reprinted by

R. F. Harrington, R.D.2, West Lake Road, Cazenovia, N.Y., 1968.
3) Harrington, R. F. "Boundary Integral Formulations for Homogeneous

Material Bodies," Journal of Electromagnetic Waves and Applications.,
Vol. 3, No. 1, January 1989.
4) Mikhlin, S. G. Integral Equations. New York: Pergamon Press, 1964.

5) Jaswon, M. A. and Symm, G. T. Integral Equation Methods In Potential

Theory and Elastostatics. New York: Academic Press, 1977.
6) Yildir, Y. B A Boundary Element Method for the Solution of Laplace's

Equation in Three-Dimensional Space. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of
Manitoba, 1985.
7) Lean, M. H. Electromagnetic Field Solution with the Boundary Element

Method. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Manitoba, 1981.
8) Klimpke, B. W A Two-dimensional Multi-media Boundary Element

Method. M.Sc. Dissertation, University of Manitoba, 1983.
9) Deno, D. W. "Transmission Line Fields," IEEE Trans. Power Apparatus

and Systems, Vol. PAS-95, No.5, September/ October 1976.
10) Lean, M. H. "Dual Simple-Layer Source Formulation for Two-

Dimensional .Eddy Current and Skin Effect Problems," Journal of Applied
Physics, Vol. 57, No.8, April 1985
Chapter 5 – Coils & Windings 111
CHAPTER 5
COILS AND WINDINGS
COILS AND WINDINGS: A FUNDAMENTALLY NEW APPROACH

TO DEFINING SOURCES
The traditional approach to defining sources in magnetic field problems has

been to use currents, either in the form of volume currents assigned to closed
regions (typically used to model multi-turn coils), or surface currents assigned
to segments (as are used to model permanent magnets). However, the
majority of physical systems are energized by voltage sources.
The application of volume current sources to voltage energized models does

not present great problems for the case of steady state DC simulations, as long
as the resistance of the coil is known. In those cases, the volume current in a
coil region is determined by the resistance of the coil and the level of voltage
excitation. It is a simple matter to calculate the terminal current from Ohm’s
law, and then multiply this value by the number of coil turns to obtain the
required current source.
The problem becomes much more complex in the case of AC (or phasor)
simulations. In these cases, the terminal current in a multi-turn coil will depend
on its impedance, which is the complex sum of its inductive reactance in
combination with its resistance. An even more difficult situation occurs when
the dimensions of winding conductors are comparable with the skin depth for
the simulation frequency. Then even the effective winding resistance will be a
variable dependent on the field solution.
OERSTED handles these types of problems by

allowing the definition of two types of windings.
Coil Windings are used when conductors are
small compared to the skin depth. In this case
only the bulk cross section of coils are drawn
and individual conductors are not modeled.
Eddy Current Windings are used when skin
and/or proximity effects require that each
individual conductor be modeled.
During the field solution, the correct current

distribution will be automatically calculated
subject to the level of voltage excitation
specified by the user.
In the following sections, we will explain how

coils and windings are defined, and provide
examples showing how they can be applied in
actual models.
Coil Properties
Coils are defined by selecting closed regions and assigning properties such as
the number of turns and effective terminal resistance. For 2D models, coils
must consist of two closed regions, one of which is designated as the input
(where positive current flows) and the other as the output (for negative
current). In RS models, only one region is needed, and it is designated as
having either a positive or negative polarity.
As an example, consider an iron core inductor shown

in 3D at right. The center leg of the core is
surrounded by a coil consisting of a large number of
turns of fine wire.
Below left, the schematic circuit diagram of the coil is

shown, and at right the 2D cross section model.
The schematic shows that the coil consists of 450 turns, and has an effective
terminal resistance of 2.4 Ohms. Note that MAGNETO does not calculate the
resistance of coils. This is a property that you must specify based either on
calculations or test measurements.
In addition, since the effective inductance

of a coil depend on its dimensions, and its
reactance is also frequency dependent,
both of these properties must be set in the
Physics Global Setup dialog box.
At right we show settings for a Two-D

model with a length of 1.25 inches in the
third dimension. Note the Phasor setting
for a frequency of 60 Hz.
The Length setting is critical for 2D models. In RS models,

there is no length setting, but you must still specify the source
Frequency.
Step-by-Step Example of a Coil Assignment
We will demonstrate the procedure for assigning a coil using the model from the
previous section.
1) From the program Menu Bar, select Physics>Coil Windings>Assign

Coil.
2) The Command Line will show the prompt: Enter the Resistance of the
Coil Winding.
3) Type 2.4 and press the <Enter> key on your computer keyboard.
4) The Command Line will show the prompt: Enter number of turns.
5) Type 450 and press <Enter>.
6) The Command Line will show the prompt: Assign input of coil: Select
a region.
7) Move your mouse pointer into the region representing the coil input and
Left-click.
8) The Command Line will show the prompt: Assign output of coil:
Select a region.
9) Move your mouse pointer into the region representing the coil output and
Left-click.
10) The input region of the coil will fill with a

solid magenta color, and the output
region will fill with a solid blue color. The
Command Line will show the prompt:
Assign input of coil: Select a region
(this is to allow you to continue defining
other coils with the same resistance and
turns).
11) Press the <Enter> key on your keyboard

to end the command.
The properties of a coil can be displayed in the program Message Area by

selecting Physics>Coil Windings>Display Coil and clicking on either the input
or output regions.
Note that the definition of a coil does not include any information regarding the
source energizing it. This is specified when you assign the coil to a winding,
which we will describe in a later section.
Default Coils
In some cases models may contain

several groups of coils, with each group
having the same resistance and number
of turns. The Coil Defaults command
allows you to specify these properties so
that they are automatically assigned when
you select the Assign Coil with Defaults
command.
Coils in Parametrics
Both coil resistance and numbers of turns

are parameter types that can be varied
over the course of a parametric run.
Coil Winding Properties
Once you have defined all the coils in

your model, sources are assigned by
creating either Voltage or Current
windings. At right we show the
commands for this in the Physics>Coil
Windings submenu.
Windings are created by first selecting

previously defined coils, which are then
treated as if they are connected in
series for analysis purposes. Once the
coils have been selected, the program
will prompt you for the value of voltage
or current sources. As in the case of
coils you can set defaults which will
save time if you have a large number of
similar windings.
You can also specify an External Load

which can be a series resistance
inductance and capacitance.
Voltage windings permit a

more realistic approach to
modeling most physical
systems, since voltage
sources are far more common
than controlled current
sources. In most cases the
supply voltage is known, and
the resulting current flowing
into a device is the variable to
be determined.
After the model has been

solved, the values of coil
voltages and currents can be
displayed using commands
from the Analysis menu as
shown at right.
In the next section, we will

demonstrate how a winding is
assigned using the coil we
defined in the previous
section. We will set up a
model where the coil is
energized by an ideal (zero
impedance) 120 Volt AC
source. A schematic of the
system is shown at right.
Step-by-Step Example of a Coil Winding Assignment
Using the previously defined coil, the winding is assigned as follows:

1) From the program Menu Bar, select Physics>Coil Windings>Assign

Voltage Winding.
2) The Command Line will show the prompt: Assigning Voltage Winding:
Select coils.
3) Move your mouse pointer into either one of the coil regions and Left-
click to select.
4) Both coil regions will fill with a solid green color, and the Command Line
will again show the prompt: Assigning Voltage Winding: Select coils
(this is to allow you to define a multi-coil winding in those cases where
more than one coil has been created).
5) Right-click to end the selection process (or alternatively you can press
the <Enter> key on your keyboard).
6) The Command Line will show the prompt: Enter the voltage modulus
(V) and phase (deg.).
7) Type 120, 0 and press the <Enter> key on your computer keyboard.
8) Both the input and output regions of the

coil will fill with the same solid color (to
show they are part of the same winding)
and the Command Line will again show
the prompt: Assigning Voltage Winding:
Select coils (this is to allow you to define
more windings if needed).
9) Press the <Enter> key on your keyboard

to end the command.
Since we assumed a perfect voltage

source the winding definition is
complete. Alternately, if the source
has a non-zero impedance this can be
added by selecting Physics>Coil
Windings>External Load>Add
External Load.
Coil Windings in Parametrics
The modulus and phase angle of the

winding sources can be varied in a
parametric run. It is also possible to have
the external load changed in a
parametric.
Zero Value Sources and their Application to Transformers
The winding defined in the previous section included a 120 Volt source. It is
also possible to assign a zero value for the voltage source, and this approach
can be used to analyze the performance of transformers under load conditions.
In the picture at right we have added a second coil to

our original inductor, to make a transformer. The
schematic below shows that the second coil has 50
turns and a total resistance of 29.6 m. The coils
output terminals drive a 0.533  load.
The second coil is assigned in the same manner as the first using the
appropriate values of 50 for the turns and 0.0296 for the resistance. When the
second voltage winding is assigned, values of 0,0 are entered for the voltage
modulus and phase, and the external resistance and reactance are entered as
0.533, 0 to model the load.
Under these conditions, the induced voltage on the secondary coil is only 12
Volts, and the secondary current is 22.5 Amps. The current in the primary
winding reaches a value of only 2.5 Amps. Both of these results are as
expected since we are modeling a step-down transformer.
The performance of an unloaded (secondary

open-circuited) transformer can be modeled by
assigning the secondary coil to a Current
Winding that has a zero value. Under these
conditions, the secondary voltage rises to 13.3
Volts, and the primary current drops to 0.27
Amps. Again, these results are consistent with
an open-circuited transformer.
Analysis>Induced Voltage Submenu
At right we show the Analysis>

Voltage submenu. The menu
contains four items, the last three
of which are only applicable to
models which have coils and
windings assigned.
The commands are used as follows:
Region: This command is applicable for models using conventional volume

current sources, as well as those that have coils and windings defined. The
program will prompt you to select Forward and Return source regions. The
message area will display the voltage on a per turn basis. You can select
several forward and return regions to calculate an effective series connected
voltage.
Coil: This command returns the terminal voltage on individual coils.
Winding: Calculates the total voltage of a winding as if all coils and any
external impedances are in series. This command is most useful for cases
where zero current windings have been assigned.
Vexternal: Calculates the voltage on the external resistance and reactance of

a winding.
Analysis>Current Submenu
At right we show the

Analysis>Current submenu. The
menu contains two items.
The commands are used as follows:

Region Current (At): This command is applicable for models using

conventional volume current sources, as well as those that have coils and
windings defined. The message area displays the total current in the selected
region, which for coils is the terminal current multiplied by the number of turns.
Winding: Applicable only to regions that have been assigned as inputs or

outputs of coils. The message area displays the terminal current of the
selected coil.
Eddy Current Windings
In Eddy Current Windings,

each individual conductor
must be drawn, and filled with
a conductive material. At
right we show the example of
a transformer with 27 primary
turns and 3 secondary turns.
Note that bulk coils are not
defined, rather selecting
Forward and Return regions
produce turns.
Example Databases
The examples discussed in

the previous sections are
installed with your OERSTED
program in the Databases
folder under the subfolder
named Windings.
There are three models:
Voltage Driven Inductor.dbs
Loaded Transformer.dbs
Unloaded Transformer.dbs
The databases are annotated

as shown at right to identify
key parts of the models, and
describe analysis results.
Chapter 6 – Transient Analysis 125
CHAPTER 6
TRANSIENT ANALYSIS
OVERVIEW OF TRANSIENTS
The simplest types of field solutions are those obtained by assuming equilibrium
or steady state conditions produced by constant time-invariant sources. When
these conditions are met, the Operation Mode of the Physics Setup Dialog
should be set to perform a Static analysis.
The second simplest solutions are the steady state conditions produced by
single frequency sinusoidal sources. For these conditions, the Operation
Mode of the Physics Setup Dialog should be set to perform a
Harmonic/Single frequency analysis.
The most complex field solutions are those that require analysis of non-
equilibrium or transient conditions. Solving these problems by numerical
methods requires a series of field solutions at multiple discrete time instances.
126 2D Eddy Current Program Guide
The Physics Global Setup dialog box

has three transient Operation Mode
settings as shown at right. Note that
there are Transient, Rotational
Transient, and Translational
Transient settings.
 “Transient” is a signal transient
 “Rotational transient” analysis is

required for fields produced by
rotating sources (even though
the sources themselves may be
constant with respect to time).
 “Translational Transient” is for effects due to linear motion.
Performing a transient analysis requires the following steps:
1. Create a geometric model and assign any required physical properties.
2. Set the Operation Mode for the required type of transient.
3. In Solution>Solver Setup specify the total time duration and the time
interval between steps of the transient. In the case of a rotational
transient, you must also select the objects that rotate.
4. Specify the types of time signals for all transient sources.
5. Run the analysis.
Once the analysis is completed, post processing may be performed in the same
manner as for any solved model.
MOTION
The options Translational Velocity and Rotational Velocity have different

functionality depending on the Operation Mode set in Physics Global Setup.
1) If the Operation Mode is set as Static, Harmonic/Single Frequency, or

Transient, there is no motion transient. In that case these two options
are interpreted as a steady state velocity of a moving conductor.
OERSTED considers there to be an effective electric field due to v x B
and that field generates current flow in the part due to its conductivity.
For example, a copper bar assigned a velocity will have a current flowing
due the velocity, and that will affect the field solution. However, the
velocity of a region filled with nonconductive material assigned volume
current will not affect the field solution.
2) If the Operation Mode is set as Rotational Transient, only Rotational

Velocity is available. Parts can be assigned an angular velocity about
specified axes. Then at each time step the part will be rotated and the
field solution will be affected not only by the new angle of rotation but the
induced field effect due to changing flux.
3) If the Operation Mode is set as Translational Transient, only

Translational Velocity is available. Parts can be assigned a
translational velocity. Then at each time step the part will be displaced
and the field solution will be affected not only by the position, but also by
the induced field effect due to changing flux.
Mechanical Simulation of Motion
Both Rotational Velocity and Translational Velocity commands have options

to assign either a velocity or an initial velocity. If a velocity is chosen, the same
velocity is used at each time step. If an initial velocity is chosen a mechanical
simulation is used to determine the change in velocity due to torque or force at
each time step.
To perform the mechanical simulation OERSTED must have

the correct mass density assigned to the material used in the
volume moving.
SETTING THE TIME VARIABLES IN TRANSIENT ANALYSIS
As was noted in the previous section, numerical simulations of transients

involve generating field solutions at multiple discrete time intervals. There are
two time parameters that must be specified in order to perform a transient
analysis: the total and the time step between solutions, or the total time and the
number of steps. These are two equivalent ways of configuring the same thing,
but in different cases one or the other may be easier.
When the Operation Mode of the

Physics Global Setup dialog box is set
for a transient analysis, the Transient
section of the Solver Setup becomes
active and the Method of Solution is
forced to be Finite Element.
The Transient options are as shown at

right. Set the required Total time then
select an appropriate Time Step or and
Number of Steps and click the [OK]
button to apply the settings and close the
box.
TYPES OF TRANSIENT SOURCES
Oersted transient sources can be voltages, currents or impressed magnetic

fields.
At right we’ve shown the Physics menu

and emphasized the items that relate
directly to transient setup. Those shown
in redcommands will open the Source
Table which is used to display and
assign transient sources. This includes
opening the Source Table by selecting
the last item of the Physics menu (this
will only be active when the program is
set for transient operation mode).
Those indicated in blue do not open the

source table, but are only active as
appropriate for rotational or translational
transients. When forces/torques are
used to affect translation/rotation these
external force/torque can be added to
the modeled values.
Initially, the Source Table will be empty

as shown at right.
Clicking the [Source Manager] button

will open the Source Manager dialog
box.
The Source Manager (shown at right)

allows you to add or delete Voltage,
Current or B-Field sources (you can
create other types of sources but the
Oersted field solver will not process
them).
To examine or modify the time

characteristics of a source, first select it
in the Source Manager and then click
the [ViewEdit] button to open the
View/Edit Source dialog box.
The View/Edit Source dialog box is

shown at right. This box is used to
define and/or display the time
dependent behavior of sources.
In particular, note that a source is

made up of a combination of one or
more Component Signals.
In practice you will create complex

sources by first defining individual
signals which will then be added
and/or multiplied together to form the
final source.
Radio buttons at the bottom of the box

allow you to specify whether signals
are to be added or multiplied.
TYPES OF COMPONENT SIGNALS
The View/Edit Source dialog allows

you to define Component Signals as
one of three types:
1. Standard signals which are

part of a built-in library of
common time functions.
2. Function signals which you

can enter as algebraic
functions of time.
3. Table defined signals which

are read in from standard text
files.
At right we show the radio button

controls used to define the type of
signal.
In the next sections we will outline the key features of each signal type.
Standard Signals
You may be able to construct your

desired source by using one or more of
the Standard predefined time signals.
At right we show examples of the

Standard time signals available (a
complete listing is given in the Appendix
at the end of this chapter). These signals
are typical of the type found in
mathematical handbooks.
Once you’ve selected a signal from the

drop down list, you can set the
relevant parameters for the signal in
the numeric field boxes. At right we
show an example of a Periodic
Triangular Pulse Source that is
defined by four parameters; a Start
time, an Amplitude, a Pulse width
and a Period (if desired a fifth
parameter Stop time could also be
specified).
Graphs of the time variation of the

source can be plotted using the [Plot
Source] button. The [Plot All] button
produces graphs of all component
signals in addition to the resultant
source.
For the parameter settings given above, the source will be the time function
shown in the plot below.
Function Signals
You can enter signals as closed form

functions of time by selecting the
Function radio button and entering
the signal as an algebraic expression.
An example of this is shown at right.
A plot of the resulting signal is shown below.
Note that the arguments of trigonometric functions are assumed to be in

degrees. Also note that there should be no extra spaces in formulas as these
will cause parsing errors.
Table Defined Signals
As a final option, you can define signals by creating

text files containing two-column data tables.
In the example shown at right, the first column

represents discrete time instants, and the second
column represents the corresponding signal values.
Note that the data points describe a signal with zero
initial value followed by a positive pulse of 0.4
starting at t=0.25 and lasting till t=0.5. After another
zero interval, a negative pulse of -0.2 starts at t=0.8
and lasts until t=0.9. The signal then returns again
to zero.
At right we show the Component

Signal Properties section as it
appears when the Table radio button
is selected.
Click the file open button to locate

to the desired data file.
Note also that the Linear radio button

has been selected in the Interpolation
section.
The resulting time signal is shown below. Note that Linear interpolation should
be used for signals with sharp transitions, but Nurbs should be used for
continuous signals.
COMBINING COMPONENT SIGNALS INTO SOURCES
Consider the three

components plotted at
right: a constant
signal of -2; a ramp
with zero initial value
and final value of +2;
and a 10Hz cosine
wave with amplitude
of one.
The type of source

formed by these
components will
depend on whether
they are specified to
Add or Multiply.
For every component

except the first, you
have the option to
select either the Add
or Multiply radio
buttons. The first
component defined (in
this case the constant
signal) will be
automatically
defaulted to add, and
this setting cannot be
changed. If the
remaining
components are also
set to Add, the final
source will appear as
shown at right.
If the other
components are set to
Multiply the resulting
source will have a
zero initial value
(because of the
ramp), and the
combined effect of the
ramp and constant
will be to produce a
sinusoidal source with
final amplitude of 4.
Finally, if the ramp is

set to Add, and the
cosine set to
Multiply, the initial
amplitude of the
sinusoid will be 2, but
the final amplitude will
be zero.
Note that the add and

multiply operations
proceed from the top
of the component list
to the bottom. If you
wanted to first add the
constant to the
cosine, then the ramp
should be defined
last.
SATURATION SETTINGS
Near the top of the View/Edit Source

dialog box are controls for setting
Saturation levels. Sources will be
automatically “clipped” if they are less
than the Minimum or more than the
Maximum levels.
The example below shows a voltage signal that exceeds the Maximum
saturation level, which results in limiting of the final source.
RUNNING TRANSIENT SIMULATIONS
Transient simulations are run in exactly the same

manner as other field solutions. Selecting
Solution>Solve from the main program menu will
initiate the solver.
Transient simulations can only be run using

the Finite Element solver. The program will
automatically select this solver type and will
not permit you to change to the Boundary
Element solver while the Physics Global
Setup dialog is set for transient analysis.
During the simulation the Run Solver dialog

box will display information on the progress
of the solution.
If Outputs are defined, at each time step of

the transient the Outputs will be calculated.
When the analysis is completed, if

Outputs were defined the Output
Manager will automatically open,
otherwirse the Field Analysis
Result dialog box will open
automatically.
ANALYSIS OF TRANSIENT SIMULATION RESULTS
Field plots and graphs of field components

at a specified time from transient simulations
are produced using the Field Analysis
Result dialog box
Since transient simulations are performed as

multiple discrete time field solutions, you
must set a specific time instant for plotting
the field results. This is done in the At Time
field as shown at right.
To obtain results at every time step, use the

Solution>Define Outputs option. If a model
is unsolved, these will be calculated during
the solution. If a model already has a
transient solution, defining new outputs will
immediately calculate the results at every
time step, then add them to the Output
Manager.
Quantities such as force and

torque, which are normally
displayed as single values in
the Message Area, are by
default plotted as graphs with
respect to time. This can be
changed in the [Document
Properties] tab of the
Settings dialog box as shown
at right.
You can also toggle between Single time

point values and graphs by using the
<F11> key on your computer keyboard.
Post-processing in Single time point mode requires that you enter the desired
time instant as shown below.
Appendix 145
APPENDIX: STANDARD COMPONENT

SIGNALS
The following table lists the Standard Component Signals available.
Constant Source
Step Source
Truncated Ramp Source

Appendix 147
Sinusoidal Source
Power Source
Exponential Source
Damped Sinusoidal Source

Appendix 149
Rectangular Pulse Source
Triangular Pulse Source

Periodic Rectangular Pulse Source
Periodic Triangular Pulse Source

Appendix 151
Alternating Periodic Pulse Source
Full Impulse Wave

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INTEGRATED ENGINEERING SOFTWARE

2D Eddy Current Analysis Guide*

Users Guide and Technical Manual

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220 – 1821 Wellington Avenue

**Copyright Integrated Engineering Software Sales Inc., 2013

TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................... 3

COMPONENT CHECK .......................................................................................... 9

MANUAL CONVENTIONS .................................................................................... 10

SYMBOLS USED IN THE MANUAL ........................................................................ 10

OERSTED FEATURES ..................................................................................... 10

DEFINING THE TYPE OF MODEL ......................................................................... 16

Setting the Type of Model ........................................................................ 17

Defining how to Calculate Induced Currents in Conductors ................ 18

Considering the Displacement Current .................................................. 18

Using Mixed Mode .................................................................................... 20

Ambient Temperature ............................................................................... 21

Include Small Susceptibility .................................................................... 21

DEFINING PERIODICITY IN A MODEL ................................................................... 22

Angular Periodicity ................................................................................... 22

Linear Periodicity ...................................................................................... 23

Analyzing a Periodic Model ..................................................................... 25

The Material Table..................................................................................... 26

Magnetic Materials .................................................................................... 26

Permanent Magnets .................................................................................. 27

Ideal Magnets ............................................................................................ 30

ASSIGNING BOUNDARY CONDITIONS.................................................................. 30

Assigning a Constant Potential ............................................................... 30

Deleting and Displaying Boundary Conditions ...................................... 31

CURRENT SOURCES ......................................................................................... 32

Currents in Coils ....................................................................................... 32

Currents in Solid Conductors .................................................................. 36

PERMANENT MAGNETS ..................................................................................... 37

Creating a Magnetic Material ................................................................... 37

Assigning Magnetization Directions ....................................................... 38

Deleting Permanent Magnets ................................................................... 40

ASSIGNING A CONSTANT FIELD TO THE GEOMETRY SPACE ................................. 41

DEFINING CONDUCTORS ................................................................................... 43

SIMULATING TRANSVERSE MOTION ................................................................... 45

TYPES OF ANALYSIS ......................................................................................... 49

Solver Types ............................................................................................. 49

Solver Method ........................................................................................... 49

SOLVING A MODEL WITH BEM (DEFAULT SOLVER).............................................. 49

To solve a model in Self-Adapt mode: .................................................... 49

To solve a model in Manual mode:.......................................................... 50

SOLVER PARAMETERS ..................................................................................... 51

FIELD CALCULATIONS ...................................................................................... 54

Setting the Field Quantity and the Type of Plot ..................................... 54

CREATING GRAPHS .......................................................................................... 57

View Settings ............................................................................................ 58

Integrating Graphs .................................................................................... 59

CREATING CONTOUR PLOTS ............................................................................. 60

Grid Density .............................................................................................. 61

Other Settings ........................................................................................... 62

Contour Menu Operations ........................................................................ 63

CREATING PROFILE PLOTS ............................................................................... 65

CREATING ARROW PLOTS ................................................................................ 66

Grid Density .............................................................................................. 67

Other Arrow Plot Settings ........................................................................ 67

CREATING LOCI PLOTS ..................................................................................... 70

CREATING SCATTER PLOTS .............................................................................. 72

THE VALUES MENU .......................................................................................... 73

CHECKING THE SOLUTION FOR ERRORS ............................................................. 74