Maya West

Dr. Atwell
WRTG 3030
July 26, 2018

A Review of How Microgravity Affects the Human Body

1. Introduction

Before satisfying our natural desire to explore new places, or escaping an ever-changing
climate, we need to better understand how our bodies are affected by the harsh space
environment. Beyond our atmosphere, humans are subjected to a multitude of dangers, one of
which being microgravity. The known effects of microgravity on biological functions have been
extensively studied within the past few decades stemming from experiments using both
simulated microgravity and real microgravity aboard the ISS. Simulated microgravity
experimentation is evidently more practical as well as time and cost effective than that based in
real microgravity1-3,10,11. These studies have shown how microgravity causes noticeable changes
in cytoskeletons1,2 4, impaired immune systems2,5-8,12, and bone degeneration1,2,9,13 amongst
others. Neglecting to counteract these changes could prove fatal to humans and put a damper on
space exploration efforts.

2. Microgravity Simulation

The most effective method of studying the consequences of prolonged exposure to a

microgravity environment to the human body is through experimentation in that environment. As
a result, numerous studies were conducted on the ISS, Russian Soyuz, and Chinese Shenzhou
missions. These studies, however, are neither time nor cost effective. Thus, a need for alternative
testing conditions is born. A vast majority of studies performed on different cells in vitro are
done on the Earth’s surface using simulated microgravity mechanisms. These mechanisms are
proven to be invaluable to the study of isolated cell cultures, resulting in studies comparable to
those conducted in real microgravity. One such mechanism is the random positioning machine
(RPM) which produces a continuous random change in an object’s orientation over two axis
directions. These changes are necessarily faster than the object’s response time to gravity,
therefore ensuring an accurate simulation of microgravity1,2,10. Humidity and temperature
fluctuations can complicate the success of this method, and hence must be eradicated. This issue
is solved by placing the device in an incubator that cultivates an environment free of
condensation and promotes the success of the RPM up to temperatures up to 40°C10.
Another, more common, method of replicating microgravity is the rotating wall vessel
(RWV). This mechanism is based on a similar principle of altering the orientation of an object
but minimizes the effects of shear forces and turbulence as observed with the RPM. The RWV is
composed of a large vat of liquid, slowly rotating along a single axis as to prevent the enclosed
sample from settling in one position. The rotation speed is altered as a function of culture
density, mass, and viscosity3. This method allows researchers to investigate a suspension culture,
where cells are given the necessary conditions to multiply while suspended, as if in free fall11.
The second aspect to this method allows for the minimization of shear and turbulence
interference. This involves a central silicone membrane allowing the active or passive diffusion
of oxygen, preventing cellular damage and the introduction of air bubbles into the culture2.
The appropriate use of microgravity simulators to uncover the hidden functionalities of
cells in terms of growth, survival, and decay, is imperative in the effort to protect humans from
the harsh space environment. The two mechanisms detailed above are the two most common and
accurate methods of simulated microgravity and have produced results leading to the
understanding of cell behavior in altered gravity fields, foundation for future studies in space,
and approaches to solving the detrimental effects to the human body.

3. Biological Effects

3.1 Cytoskeleton Alteration

The cytoskeleton is described by the organization of the protein filaments and tubules
that compose the cytoplasm of a cell. In other words, it is the architecture of the cell, and is
highly dependent on tensile forces induced by gravity. Exposure to microgravity therefore causes
a disturbance in the physical integrity of cells leading to apoptosis, or cell death, and interferes
with signal transduction and cell growth1. It is suggested that cytoskeleton proteins are highly
sensitive to reduced gravity and are among the first to be affected1,2. These modifications to the
cell come in the form of microfilament thinning and their redistribution within the cell1,4. Any
alteration in the fundamental arrangement of the cytoskeleton will lead to a disturbance in gene
regulation, consequently initiating a change in other proteins throughout the body1. The changes
in the cell structure were observed primarily in endothelial cells, which line blood vessel walls,
and in immunological cells, which will be discussed in the following section. It is worth noting
that the changes applied to the cytoskeleton are reversible after returning to standard Earth
gravity, and are repaired after about three days, but the nucleus and cell shape may be
permanently altered2.

3.2 Impaired Immune System

The body’s immune system wards off infections, diseases, and other foreign threats, and
repairs internal and external wounds. The absence or impairment of any working component in
the immune system is surely detrimental and potentially fatal to the human host. More than half
of the astronauts returning from the Apollo missions suffered from viral or bacterial infections,
prompting researchers to investigate the effects of space on cells imperative to the functionality
of the immune system including, but not limited to, T lymphocytes (T cells), natural killer cells,
and other immunological cells6. T cells are divided into two subgroups: T helper cells and T
cytotoxic cells. The T helper cells regulate the immune system while the T cytotoxic cells kill
any cell recognized as foreign. A 13-day study on mice on the ISS showed decreased production
of T cells, as did another study of 19 astronauts a couple years later2,7,12. The reduction of T cells
in the body can lead to viral and bacterial infections or disease following long duration space
flight7. The macroscopic effects of this are evidenced by a study conducted on 17 astronauts
aboard the ISS focusing on the reactivation and shedding of latent herpes viruses. Of the 17
astronauts, 9 shed one or more of the target viruses and had elevated levels of cytokine (cell-
signaling protein) molecules8.
 Natural killer cells terminate tumors and virally infected cells2. A study of 30 astronauts
aboard the ISS found that not only were the number of natural killer cells in the bloodstream
reduced, but their functional activity was also reduced2,5. The aforementioned study on mice
aboard the ISS found that microgravity impacted the expression of some of their cancer related
genes and indicated an increase in carcinogenesis, the transformation of regular cells into cancer
cells2. These results are worrisome in the context of a radiation-heavy space environment. The
decrease in natural killer cells seriously increases the probability that astronauts will develop
cancer and tumors in space.
Overall, the reduction in these cells and their functionality can lead to an increased risk of
infection and disease, which has obvious negative consequences. Besides the threat to astronauts’
lives, an immunodeficiency development could compromise the astronauts’ ability to perform
their essential duties on the spacecraft and on interplanetary settlements. There is still much to
learn about the immune system in space before any viable solutions can be implemented.

3.3 Bone Degeneration

The importance of strong bones in our lives is noncontroversial. Maintaining the integrity
of bone structure is imperative for organ defense, blood cell production, and supporting the body.
It is shown through data collected before, during, and after long duration space flights that
microgravity reduces bone mass which can lead to early onset osteoporosis, but the mechanisms
by which this occurs are still unknown. This bone loss is estimated to be on the order of 1-2%
each month1,2,9. Studies using simulated microgravity have shown a decrease in the response of
osteoblasts, the cells responsible for forming bone, to stimuli1. Since bone undergoes a constant
process of destruction and rebuilding, this implies that when an astronaut loses bone mass their
body will not be able to build more fast enough to counteract the decay. Decreased bone density
can lead to fractures that will not heal at a comparable rate to Earth surface conditions1,2. Bone
contains 99% and 80% of the body’s supply of calcium and phosphorous, respectively. These
elements help constitute the mineral responsible for strengthening the bone matrix13. Calcium
and phosphorous are excreted at higher rates into urine and feces in space, posing an additional
threat to maintaining bone density1. Though there is still no absolute solution, some
countermeasures that are being taken today include increased exercise and load-bearing and
specialized nutrition regimes in space.

4. Conclusion

In order to confidently send humans on long duration spaceflights, it is imperative that

we first understand the complications to formulate solutions. Amongst the many dangers
inherent in these flights is the prolonged exposure to microgravity. The approaches to studying
this are encompassed by experimentation conducted in real or simulated microgravity.
Simulations provided by the random positioning machine and rotating wall vessel are based on a
principle of altering a cell culture’s orientation, allowing for accurate and practical tests1-3,10,11.
The primary target for alteration due to reduced gravity is the cytoskeleton, which in turn affects
genes and proteins in the body1,2,4. The reduction in gravity lowers the count of T cells and
natural killer cells, weakening the body’s immune system, and making the affected person prone
to viral or bacterial infection and disease2,5-8,12. Bone degeneration is a significant worry for
astronauts in terms of bodily defense and blood cell production and can be combatted in part by
exercise and nutrition1,2,9,13.

References

1. Grimm, D., Wise, P., Lebert, M., Richter, P., & Baatout, S. (2011). How and why does
the proteome respond to microgravity? Expert Review of Proteomics,8(1), 13-27.
doi:10.1586/epr.10.105

2. Blaber, E., Marçal, H., & Burns, B. P. (2010). Bioastronautics: The Influence of
Microgravity on Astronaut Health. Astrobiology,10(5), 463-473.
doi:10.1089/ast.2009.0415

3. Weiss, W. M., Mulet-Sierra, A., Kunze, M., Jomha, N. M., & Adesida, A. B. (2017).
Coculture of meniscus cells and mesenchymal stem cells in simulated microgravity. Npj
Microgravity,3(1). doi:10.1038/s41526-017-0032-x

4. Buravkova, L., & Romanov, Y. (2001). The role of cytoskeleton in cell changes under
condition of simulated microgravity. Acta Astronautica,48(5-12), 647-650.
doi:10.1016/s0094-5765(01)00023-6

5. Rykova, M., Antropova, E., Larina, I., & Morukov, B. (2008). Humoral and cellular
immunity in cosmonauts after the ISS missions. Acta Astronautica,63(7-10), 697-705.
doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2008.03.016

6. Paulsen, K., Tauber, S., Goelz, N., Simmet, D. M., Engeli, S., Birlem, M., . . . Ullrich, O.
(2014). Severe disruption of the cytoskeleton and immunologically relevant surface
molecules in a human macrophageal cell line in microgravity—Results of an in vitro
experiment on board of the Shenzhou-8 space mission. Acta Astronautica,94(1), 277-292.
doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2013.06.007

7. Morukov, B., Rykova, M., Antropova, E., Berendeeva, T., Ponomaryov, S., & Larina, I.
(2011). T-cell immunity and cytokine production in cosmonauts after long-duration space
flights. Acta Astronautica,68(7-8), 739-746. doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2010.08.036

8. Mehta, S., Crucian, B., Stowe, R., Simpson, R., Ott, C., Sams, C., & Pierson, D. (2013).
Reactivation of latent viruses is associated with increased plasma cytokines in
astronauts. Cytokine,61(1), 205-209. doi:10.1016/j.cyto.2012.09.019

9. Tavella, S., Ruggiu, A., Giuliani, A., Brun, F., Canciani, B., Manescu, A., . . . Cancedda,
R. (2012). Bone Turnover in Wild Type and Pleiotrophin-Transgenic Mice Housed for
Three Months in the International Space Station (ISS). PLoS ONE,7(3).
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0033179
10. Borst, A. G., & Jack J. W. A. Van Loon. (2008). Technology and Developments for the
Random Positioning Machine, RPM. Microgravity Science and Technology,21(4), 287-
292. doi:10.1007/s12217-008-9043-2

11. Hammond, T. G., & Hammond, J. M. (2001). Optimized suspension culture: The
rotating-wall vessel. American Journal of Physiology-Renal Physiology,281(1).
doi:10.1152/ajprenal.2001.281.1.f12

12. Gridley, D. S., Slater, J. M., Luo-Owen, X., Rizvi, A., Chapes, S. K., Stodieck, L. S., . . .
Pecaut, M. J. (2009). Spaceflight effects on T lymphocyte distribution, function and gene
expression. Journal of Applied Physiology,106(1), 194-202.
doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.91126.2008

13. Bonjour, J. (2011). Calcium and Phosphate: A Duet of Ions Playing for Bone
Health. Journal of the American College of Nutrition,30(Sup5).
doi:10.1080/07315724.2011.10719988