1999-01-3548
A Simple Approach to Studying the Relation between Fuel Rate
Heat Release Rate and NO Formation in Diesel Engines
Copyright © 1999 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.
ABSTRACT
Modern diesel engine injection systems are largely com-
puter controlled. This opens the door for tailoring the fuel
rate. Rate shaping in combination with increased injec-
tion pressure and nozzle design will play an important
role in the efforts to maintain the superiority of the diesel
engine in terms of fuel economy while meeting future
demands on emissions.
This approach to studying the potential of rate shaping in
order to reduce NO formation is based on three sub-
models. The first model calculates the fuel rate by using
standard expressions for calculating the areas of the
dimensioning flow paths in the nozzle and the corre-
sponding discharge coefficients. In the second sub-
model the heat release rate is described as a function of
available fuel energy, i.e. fuel mass, in the cylinder. The
third submodel is the multizone combustion model that
calculates NO for a given heat release rate under
assumed air /fuel ratios.
When studying the potential of fuel rate shaping, different
heat release rates are generated by using Vibe functions.
The NO formation, convective heat losses, IMEP, indi-
cated thermal efficiency and fuel rate are calculated for
every given heat release rate.
The calculations show that by increasing the length of the
injection period and maintaining a smooth and even fuel
rate, the NO formation could be reduced with very limited
reduction of the indicated thermal efficiency. In the exam-
ple given in the paper, NO is reduced by about 20% with
an increase in the fuel consumption of only 1%.
INTRODUCTION
The increasing demands on the environmental properties
of diesel engines call for a deeper understanding of the
limits of the typical diffusive type of combustion that is
characteristic of the diesel engines of today.
Recent reports, [1] and [2], on the combustion and emis-
sion formation in diesel engines claim that the NO forma-
1
Rolf Egnell
Lund Institute ofTechnology
tion takes place on the core of the spray at close to
stoichiometric air/fuel ratio. This conclusion is supported
by previous work of the author [3] where the engine-out
NO concentration is calculated for different assumptions
on the average equivalence ratio. Comparing the calcu-
lated results with measured data for several load cases
revealed that model prediction was close to measure-
ments if the average equivalence ratio in the zones where
most of the NO is formed was slightly higher than 1.
In this paper results are presented from calculations
where the average equivalence ratio is kept constant for
various inputs of the heat release rates (HRR). The rates
are given as the sum of two Vibe functions, one repre-
senting the premixed, and the other the diffusive, com-
bustion.
In order to find a connection between the HRR and the
fuel rate, measurements were performed at 6 different
conditions where the fuel nozzles and load conditions
were altered. The fuel rates were calculated with the
model shown below. This model is based on the flow
equation according to Bernoulli, a geometrical model of
the flow path in the nozzle and a mathematical expres-
sion [4] for the discharge coefficient where the influence
of Reynolds number, hydraulic diameter and length of the
path are given.
The calculated fuel rate is compared with the HRR calcu-
lated from the pressure trace, and it is found that HRR
can reasonably well be described by a very simple differ-
ential equation where the HRR is a given as a function of
the available fuel energy, i.e. the fuel mass, in the cylin-
der. This approach is actually a simplified version of the
model presented in [5]. The difference is that the influ-
ence of turbulence on the HRR is not explicitly accounted
for.
The derived expression for the relation between the fuel
rate and the HRR is used to connect the given HRR, pro-
vided by the Vibe functions, to the corresponding fuel
rate. Thus it is possible to connect the fuel rate to the NO
formation.
MODELS
FUEL RATE MODEL – The flow dimensioning areas in
the flow path in the nozzle are the truncated cone shaped
area between the needle and the needle seat and the
hole area. The geometry of the former varies with the
needle lift.
The effective flow area is calculated by multiplying the
geometric area by the discharge coefficient, Cd, which is
calculated with the following expression [4]:
for
(Eq. 3)

(Eq. 4)
Where:
L is the length of the hole or the valve seat [m].
D is the hydraulic diameter of the hole or the valve seat
[m]. For the holes, D is the nominal hole diameter multi-
plied by the correction factor: CorrD .

CD
Re is the Reynolds number, i.e. Re = , where:
C ν
is the speed of the flow [m/s]
ν is the kinematic viscosity [m2/s]
The pressure drop across the valve seat is given by:

ρ × Ccone
2
Pinj − Psac =
2 (Eq. 5)
Figure 1. Flow paths in a nozzle [6]
The pressure drop across the holes is given by:
The mantel surface area of the truncated cone can be
calculated by using the following parameters shown in ρ × C holes
2
Psac − Pcyl =
Figure 1 where: 2 (Eq. 6)
H is the needle lift
Where:
R is the base circle radius of the truncated cone Pinj is the injection pressure [Pa]
α is half the tip angle of the needle Psac is the pressure in the sac [Pa]
By using standard geometrical relationships it can be Pcyl is the pressure in the cylinder [Pa]
shown that the truncated cone area, i.e. the flow area
between the needle and the seat, can be expressed in Ccone is the speed through the valve seat [m/s]
the following way: Choles is the speed through the holes [m/s]
Acone = π [2 R − H sin(α ) cos(α )]H sin(α ) ρ is the density of the fuel [kg/m3]
(Eq. 1)
Due to the incompressibility of the fuel the mass
The total area of the holes is not varied and is given by
the following expression: flow through the valve se m& cone
at,, and the holes,
m& holes , is assumed to be equal:
Aholes = N holes × π × (CorrD × Dholes ) 2 × 0.25
(Eq. 2) m& cone = ρ × Ccone × Cd cone × Acone
(Eq. 7)
Where:
N holes is the number of holes. [-] m& holes = ρ × Choles × Cd holes × Aholes
(Eq. 8)
Dholes is the diameter of the holes. [m] m& cone = m& holes
(Eq. 9)
CorrD is a correction factor for the hole diameter. [-]

2
The calculated injected fuel mass per injection, Table 1. Test conditions and input for calculations
DeltaCalc , is given by the following expression:
t EOI

DeltaCalc = ∫ m&
ta
holes (t )dt
(Eq. 10)
Where:
tα is the time at start of injection [s]
t EOI is the time at end of injection [s]
The injection pressure and the pressure in the cylinder
are given at every time step of calculation. The pressure
in the sac is calculated by iteration where the speeds,
Reynolds numbers and discharge coefficients at the seat
and the holes are calculated. The needle lift is also given
at every time step and thus the mantel surface area of the
truncated cone can be calculated. Dholes is the nominal hole diameter
When the areas of the flow paths, the corresponding dis- Hmax is the maximum needle lift
charge coefficients, the flow speeds and the densities are
given, the mass flow, i.e. the flow rate, can be calculated C1000 is the plunge speed at 1000 rpm
using equations (7) or (8). Delta is the measured mass of fuel injected at each
cycle
Model Verification – The fuel rate model was verified by
comparing calculated and measured accumulated fuel CorrD1 is the correction factor for Dholes to get the mea-
flow data. The measurements were performed on a sin- sured fuel mass when using the model. See equation (2).
gle cylinder supercharged heavy-duty diesel engine with CorrD2 is the correction factor for D holes to get the mea-
a displacement of two liters. The compression ratio was sured fuel mass when using the model while keeping
18:1 and a unit injector system was used. During the test Cdcone=1.
series, consisting of 6 runs, the engine speed was kept
constant at 1200 rpm. The fuel pressure, the cylinder When using the nominal hole diameter the accumulated
pressure and the needle lift were recorded during the fuel mass, i.e. Delta, is underestimated with the flow
test. The following input to the calculations was kept con- model at all runs. There are many possible reasons for
stant at all runs: this, one being that the holes are somewhat bigger in
reality than the nominal diameter. The variable Corr D1
R = 0.6e-3 [m] represents the increase of the hole diameter necessary
α = 47.5 [o] to get the measured fuel mass when using the flow
model. The figures correspond quite well with the upper
Nholes = 6 [-] manufacturing tolerance of the holes.
Dcone = half the gap between the needle and the seat Another explanation is that the discharge coefficient of
Lholes = 0.6e-3 [m] the valve seat, i.e. Cdcone, is under-estimated. With the
given input, the value is close to 0.8 at maximum flow. As
Lcone = 0.01e-3 [m] the flow path in the gap is constantly narrowing it is possi-
ν = 3.0e-6 [m2/s] ble that the contraction of the flow is much less. For that
reason the fuel flows were recalculated with the assump-
ρ = 840 [kg/m3] tion that Cdcone = 1. It was then found that the model
The test variables are shown in Table 1 below. IP stands overpredicted the flow and, in order to get agreement
for Input and refers to the run number. with measured data, a correction factor that reduced the
hole diameters was introduced. This factor CorrD2 for the
different nozzles is also shown in Table 1.
Since the fuel flow model does not include any pressure
loss due to turbulence in the sac, it is very likely that the
discharge coefficient of the valve seat is closer to 1 than
the model predicts. Some typical calculated results from
the flow model are shown in the Figures below. Cdcone =
1 and CorrD2 is used when generating the curves.

3
Figure 2. Cylinder, Injection and Sac Pressures vs CAD.
IP 1
Figure 2 shows the measured injection and cylinder pres-
sures and the calculated sac pressure. As can be seen,
the sac pressure is close to the cylinder pressure at the
first crank angles when the needle is opening, e.g. the
flow is mainly controlled by the valve seat area. It can
also be seen that injection pressure falls rapidly and even
below cylinder pressure at the end of injection. As will be
shown in the next figure, this results in a negative fuel
flow which is not likely to happen. The reason is a bump
in the needle lift curve.
Figure 3. Calculated injected fuel flow. IP 1
The last two figures, 3 and 4, show the calculated fuel
flow and accumulated fuel mass during the injection
period. The star in Figure 4 shows the measured fuel
mass, i.e. Delta. The correction factor Corr D2 was varied
until the Delta and the calculated fuel mass, DeltaCalc,
agreed. In this particular case, e.g. IP=1, the value of the
correction factor was found to be 0.956. This means that
the nominal hole diameter had to be reduced by 4.4%.
4
Figure 4. Accumulated injected fuel mass versus CAD.
IP 1
The conclusions from using the fuel flow model are that
the discharge coefficient at the valve seat is probably
underestimated and that the pressure loss due to turbu-
lence in the sac should be accounted for in order to get
better agreement with measured data.
HEAT RELEASE RATE (HRR)- FUEL RATE (FR)
MODEL – When examining different experimental cases
where the HRR and FR were calculated it, was observed
that the following equation gave a reasonable relationship
between the two rates:
dQ = k (Q fuel − Q)
(Eq. 11)
Where:
dQ is the heat release rate, HRR, [W]
Q is the accumulated released heat, HR, [J]
Q fuel
is the energy of the accumulated injected fuel [J]
k is an empirical constant [1/s]
The fuel energy can be expressed in the following way:
t
Q fuel = H u ∫ m& (t )dt
tα
(Eq. 12)
Where:
Hu
is the lower heating value of the fuel [W/kg]
m& is the fuel rate [kg/s]
tα
is the time at start of injection [s]
t is the time of the calculation step in question [s]
Figure 5. Measured and calculated HRR. IP 1 Figure 8. Measured and calculated HRR. IP 4

Figure 6. Measured and calculated HRR. IP 2 Figure 9. Measured and calculated HRR. IP 5

Figure 7. Measured and calculated HRR. IP 3 Figure 10. Measured and calculated HRR. IP 6

5
The interpretation of equation (11) is that the HRR is pro- turbulence. Heat release rates for different values of k are
portional to the mass of injected fuel not yet combusted shown in Figure 11 below.
in the cylinder. The figures above show the results of
HRR calculations based on the fuel rate calculations dis-
cussed above, i.e. based on input data given in Table 1
and in the text below the table.
The net portion of the “measured” HRR, Qn ,is calculated
with an expression derived from the first law of thermody-
namics. Any effects of blowby, crevices and the enthalpy
of the injected fuel are neglected.

dQn γ dV 1 dp
= p + V
dt γ − 1 dt γ − 1 dt (Eq. 13)
Where:
Qn
is the net heat release [J]
γ is the ratio of specific heats [-]
p is the pressure [Pa]
Figure 11. The influence on calculated HRR of the
V is the volume [m3] constant k. The curves correspond to k values:
100, 300, 500, 1000, 1500, 2000 and 3000.
The ratio of specific heats is calculated by using the
actual fluid composition according to the multi-zone
The Fuel Rate to Heat Release Rate model does not
model used. The method is thoroughly described in [3].
include any ignition delay calculations at the moment.
The heat transfer is calculated with the standard expres- This means that the heat release is assumed to start as
sion for convective heat transfer, i.e.: soon the fuel enters the cylinder. Or, if the heat release is
given, the fuel injection starts at the time of combustion
dQht initiation. This weakness of the model does not play any
= hc × Areawall (Tgas − Twall ) important role when the ignition delay is short, as it was
dt (Eq. 14) in the cases studied. If, however, the model should be
Where: used in combustion cases with long ignition delays, it
Qht must include a submodel for the delay.
is the heat transferred to the wall by convection
[J] NO CALCULATION – The model used for NO calculation
hc is the heat transfer coefficient [W/K m2] is described in depth in [3]. Basically it is a multizone
Areawall is the area of the wall [m2] combustion model where the HRR is used as input. At
every time step of calculation the amount of air and fuel
Tgas that corresponds to the released heat during the step in
is the temperature of the gas [K]
Twall question is combusted in a simple combustion model.
is the temperature of the wall [K] The local temperatures are determined by minimizing
The heat transfer coefficient hc is calculated by the Gibb’s free energy. NO formation in the combustion and
expression proposed by Woschni as presented in [7]. post combustion zones is calculated with the Zeldovich
mechanism.
The sum of Qn and Qht is the gross heat release which is
the quantity labeled “measured” in the previous figures. The combustion and post combustion zones could be
divided into different subzones with different assumed
Different values of the empirical constant k in equation equivalence ratios. In this work, however, it is assumed
(11) were tested, and it was found that k=500 [1/s] gave that the combustion influencing the NO formation takes
reasonable agreement with the HRR derived from the place at an average equivalence ratio close to one (1.05).
cylinder pressure measurements. Thus, this value was This ratio was found when comparing calculated and
used in the calculation of the results shown in the figures measured NO emissions. Another assumption in the
above. model is that the post combustion zones do not mix with
The constant k can be interpreted as a spray or atomiza- other zones or the fresh charge as long as the NO forma-
tion characteristic number. The higher the value of k the tion continues.
smaller the droplets and the better the penetration, i.e.
factors that control the rate of combustion. For a given
spray k can probably be related to the swirl ratio or the

6
VIBE FUNCTION REPRESENTATION OF HRR – Vibe Table 2. Input to the HRR shown in Figures 12 and 13
functions are frequently used to describe the heat below
release in IC engines. In this model the sum of two Vibe
functions is used to represent the heat release in a diesel
engine. The first describes the premixed and the second
the diffusive part of the heat release.
A Vibe function has the general form:
m +1
 Θ − Θ0 
X (Θ) = 1 − exp(−a  )
 ∆Θ  (Eq. 15)
Where:
X (Θ ) is the fraction of the total released heat at
CAD Θ [-]. The figure below shows the contribution of the premixed
HRR and the diffusive HRR on the total heat release rate,
Θ0 is the crank angle at which the heat release
dQ. The input is chosen to get a reasonable correspon-
dence to a measured HRR curve. This is shown in Figure
starts [CAD]. 13 below. The proportions between the energy released
at premixed and diffusive phases of combustion are not
correlated to the fuel flow during the actual ignition delay
∆Θ is the duration of the heat release [CAD]. time.
a and m are constants [-]
By using Vibe functions for the premixed and the diffusive
stages of combustion, the total released heat can be rep-
resented by the following expression:

Q (Θ )= Q tot [ X (Θ ) + k X ( Θ )] /( k + 1)
diff frac pm frac
(Eq. 16)
Where:
Q(Θ) is the released heat at crank angle [J] Θ
Qtot is the released heat at the end of combustion [J]

X diff (Θ)
is the value of the Vibe function for the
Θ
diffusive released heat at crank angle [-]
X pm (Θ) is the value of the Vibe function for the
premixed released heat at crank angle [-]
k frac Figure 12. Typical HRR curve generated with Vibe
is the premixed heat release fraction of the
functions
released heat by diffusive combus-tion at the end of com-
bustion. [-]
Separating the two combustion modes could be impor-
A typical HRR for a diesel engine generated with Vibe tant when looking at NO formation. According to [1] the
functions is shown in Figures 12 and 13 below. The fol- premixed combustion takes place at such a high equiva-
lowing input was used: lence ratio that NO formation is not likely to occur. As can
be seen inTable 2 and Figure 12, the premixed and diffu-
sive combustion phases are slightly overlapping (0.7
CAD). Experiments with optical access have to be per-
formed in order to clarify to what degree this is true.

7
 By reducing the value from 10 (which was used in Figure
13) to 3 in steps of 1, 8 different HRR curves were cre-
ated. All data in Table 2, except a for the diffusive com-
bustion, were kept constant. The different HRR curves
are shown in Figure 14. As can be seen, the premixed
portion of the heat release is not affected by the paramet-
ric change. This could of course be questioned since the
different HRR curves could be accomplished with fuel
rate shaping as will be discussed below. Thus the fuel
rate during the ignition delay could also be shaped and
the premixed portion would be more related to the fuel
rate during the diffusive phase. However, since this para-
metric study is chosen to demonstrate the general
approach it is of pedagogic value to simplify the paramet-
ric change.

Figure 13. Measured and Vibe function generated HRR.

When generating the pressure trace on which the “mea-

sured” HRR curve was based, the test engine was, in this
case, equipped with a Common Rail injection system.
The injection period was 15 CAD. The calculated NO
emission for the measured HRR case and from the Vibe
function HRR agreed quite well. The Vibe function based
NO was 97% of the calculated value based on measured
HRR data. The corresponding figures for the calculated
IMEP and ITE (Indicated Thermal Efficiency) were 95%
in both cases. This shows that it is possible to represent
diesel engine combustion HRR with the sum of two Vibe
functions.

PARAMETRIC STUDY
Figure 15. Pressure curves calculated with the HRR
In order to study the effect on NO, IMEP, ITE of different
curves shown in the Figure 14 above.
heat release rates and to calculate the corresponding
fuel rates, a set of calculations was performed where dif-
The pressure curves corresponding to the HRR shown in
ferent HRR were generated by changing the constant in
Figure 14 can be seen in the figure above. The maximum
equation (15) for the diffusive case. a
pressure is reduced from about 180 bar to 130 bar. The
location of the peak pressure is also changed.

Figure 14. Vibe function based heat release rates.

adiff varied from 10 (the top curve) to 3. Figure 16. Normalized NO emissions versus adiff

8
For this reason it can be expected that the chosen heat
release rates will have a considerable influence on NO
formation, IMEP and ITE.
Figure 16 shows the relative NO versus the constant a in
the Vibe expression for the diffusive combustions. By rel-
ative is meant the normalized value expressed as per
cent. The calculated NO emission is almost halved over
the parameter range. This is mainly due to the reduction
of the maximum temperature.

Figure 19. Qnet and Qgross versus adiff

The heat release rates created with the Vibe functions

are the net HRR, i.e. the apparent heat release rate. In
the model this HRR is used to calculate the pressure and
the temperature in the cylinder. These quantities are then
used to calculate the convective heat losses using the
expression proposed by Woshni. The method is
described in [7]. The sum of the net heat release and the
convective heat losses is the gross heat release which is
used when calculating the ITE.
Figure 17. Relative IMEP versus a
diff

Figure 17 shows the impact on IMEP. The change of the

When the constant a in the Vibe expression for the diffu-
pressure curve results in a reduction of IMEP by 12%.
sive combustion is decreased, the temperature
However, as can be seen in Figure 18 below, this does
decreases, which reduces the heat losses and, conse-
not give the same reduction of the Indicated Thermal Effi-
quently, the gross heat release. This is shown in Figure
ciency (ITE). Over the parameter range only about 4.5%
19. Thus the decrease of IMEP is followed by a reduction
of the baseline efficiency is lost. This somewhat surpris-
of the supplied energy, which explains why ITE is less
ing result is explained by a decrease in thermal losses.
affected than IMEP.

Figure 18. Relative ITE versus adiff

Figure 20. Relative ITE versus relative NO

9
By combining the results shown in Figures 16 and 18, the
trade-off between NO and ITE can be illustrated. This is
done in Figure 20 above. As can be seen, the loss of effi-
ciency when NO is reduced by 45% is about 4.5%. The
corresponding value for a reduction of 20% is about 1%.
The presented parametric study is chosen to illustrate the
approach. No attempts have been made to find the opti-
mum HRR in order to minimize NO with the least loss of
ITE.
Figure 21. Calculated fuel rates for the HRRs given in
Figure 15
The final figure in this paper, i.e. Figure 21, shows the
fuel rates calculated for the Vibe function created HRRs.
Different values of k in equation (11) were tested to get a
reasonable fuel rate in all cases. At lower k - values, neg-
ative fuel flows were needed to obtain the given HRR.
The fuel rates in Figure 21 were generated with
k = 2200, which is considerably higher than the value
that matched the measured data when the fuel rate
model was verified. See “Model Verification” above. This
means that, in order to use the fuel rate to create a
desired HRR, a change in the spray characteristics and/
or the flow pattern may be necessary.
As the fuel flow model does not take ignition delay into
account all fuel, that in the real case would have been
injected during the delay period, is now supplied to the
cylinder during the premixed phase of combustion. This
can be seen in Figure 21. The premixed combustion was
not changed during the parametric study, see Table 2.
Thus the fuel rate is the same for all cases at the begin-
ning of the injection period.
When the diffusive HRR is flattened out by the reduction
of the constant a in the Vibe expression for the diffusive
combustion, the fuel rate also becomes more even, as
can be seen in Figure 21.
The conclusion from the parametric study is that the NO
formation could be reduced, with limited effects on fuel
10
consumption, by improving the conditions for fast com-
bustion and injecting the fuel slowly and evenly.
SUMMARY
This paper is focused on a simple approach to studying
the relation between fuel rate, heat release rate and NO
formation in diesel engines. Models are presented for:
1. Fuel flow calculations
2. The connection between fuel flow and heat release
rate
3. Creation of heat release rates with Vibe functions
4. NO calculations based on heat release rates [3]
In order to illustrate the approach, the different sub- mod-
els are connected and used in a parametric study where
the shape of the diffusive heat release rate is changed.
The effect of these changes on NO, indicated thermal
efficiency, indicated mean effective pressure and fuel rate
are presented.
CONCLUSION
The general conclusion from the work presented in this
paper is that fuel rate shaping could be effective in reduc-
ing NO formation with limited effects on fuel consump-
tion. In the parametric study, where the diffusive
combustion rate was changed, it was found that IMEP
decreased when NO was reduced, but the effect on the
thermal efficiency was less due to lower thermal losses
The verification of the fuel rate model revealed that the
discharge coefficient in the valve seat path is probably
higher than the model predicts. The model value is about
0.8 at maximum flow, but the value is most likely closer to
1.
The very simple differential equation used to describe the
connection between fuel rate and heat release rate gives
reasonable results in 6 different cases. The model
assumes that the heat release rate is proportional to the
available fuel energy in the cylinder. The proportional
constant could be interpreted as a measure of the size of
the combustion zone for a given amount of fuel mass in
the cylinder. This size depends on the spray properties
and the gas motions in the cylinder.
The faster the combustion takes place, the easier it will
be to tailor the heat release with the shape of the fuel
rate.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author would like to thank Scania CV AB for supply-
ing the measured data for the diesel engines. The project
has been financed by the National Council for Technical
Research and Vehicle Engineering. The author is very
grateful for this support
REFERENCES

1. Dec, J.D. “A Conceptual Model of Diesel Combustion

Based on Laser-Sheet Imaging” SAE Paper 970873
2. Flynn, P.F. “Diesel Combustion: An Integrated View Com-
bining Laser Diagnostics, Chemical Kinetics, and Empirical
Validation. SAE-Paper 1999-01-0509.
3. Egnell, R. “Combustion Diagnostics by Means of Multizone
Heat Release Analysis and NO Calculation”. SAE-Paper
981424
4. Merritt, H.E. “Hydraulic Control Systems” John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. 1967
5. Chmela, F.G. and Orthaber, G.C. “Rate of Heat Release
Prediction for Direct Injection Diesel Engines Based on
Purely Mixing Controlled Combustion. SAE-paper 1999-01-
0186.
6. Gåsste, J. “Measurements and Calculations of the Flow out
of Diesel Nozzles” Internal report No. 98. Internal Combus-
tion Engines, Department of Machine Design, Royal Insti-
tute of Technology. 1997
7. Heywood, J. B. ”Internal Combustion Fundamentals”
McGraw-Hill series in mechanical engineering. 1988.

CONTACT

The author, Rolf Egnell, has been working in an industry-

sponsored project concerning NOx formation in diesel
engines since 1996. He has also been doing research on
direct injected, natural gas fueled Otto engines. Rolf
Egnell can be contacted through the following email
address: rolf.egnell@vok.lth.se.

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