The Climate Adapted Design of Buildings: An Easy Way for the

Optimization.
Bruno Keller, Tian Yuan, Eugen Magyari
Chair of Building Physics, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology ETHZ, Zurich

Abstract: As has been shown elsewhere, the thermal dynamics of a room can be described in
an excellent approximation by only three parameters: The generalized loss coefficient K, the
time constant τ and the gain-to-loss factor γ. As a first step of a successive optimization, in all
climates the loss factors must be kept as low as possible, in a second step a best combination
of time constant (storage capacity etc.) and gain-to-loss-coefficient (windows size etc.) must
be found. For this a new method has been developed: The free-run-temperature (FRT) of a
room in a given climate is its most important characteristic and is completely defined by these
three parameters. The more time this FRT of a room remains in the comfort range of internal
temperatures: zero energy hours (ZEH), the less thermal energy and power is needed to
operate it and thus the better a design is adapted to the climate. With these fundamentals the
optimization of the climate adapted design is transformed into a simple maximization of the
ZEH depending only on τ and γ: ZEH(τ,γ). Also the effect of a variable sun-shading as well as
of internal sources can easily be included. Some examples are given.

1.Introduction
The climate adapted optimization of buildings has a long history. It finally ended up in the use
of very many-parametric simulation programs. The large amount of parameters makes an
overall view difficult: the results are represented principally in a many dimensional space: as
many dimensions as the number of parameters used. Human beings however are not able to
imagine relations in spaces of more than three dimensions. Therefore no clear strategies could
be formulated.
The authors are convinced, not all of these many parameters to be of the same importance. A
reasonable reduction of the number of parameters should be possible and may lead to a
representation of only the most important relations but in a way, human beings can understand
and imagine it. This in turn should allow to deduce clear strategies. Of course, any such
reduction requires a simplification of the problem and thus a reduction in precision. Strategies
however need not to be very precise but they should indicate the right direction for the initial
design of buildings. The more sophisticated simulation programs could later then be used for
the final fine adjustment. If the initial direction of design would have started in the wrong
direction, this final adjustment however would make no sense at all. To cite Albert Einstein:
“It is better to be roughly right than to be precisely wrong”. Especially in the very first steps
of design a clear and simple strategy is necessary, but it needs not to be very precise.

2. The Fundamentals
The simplest expression for the relation between gains, losses and storage capacity is given by
the conservation of energy. This is fulfilled in any situation and looks as follows [1]:
• The thermal input into the room: solar radiation I(t) across the transparent elements G,
the internal sources PintS(t) and the heat release from the HVAC elements PHVAC(t),
• minus the output from the room via the thermal loss factor K comprising the effect of
the external surfaces and the air infiltration
• result in a change dQ: loss or gain of the heat stored in the room elements:
 dQ Room
G ⋅ Isol + Pint S + PHVAC − K ⋅ ( ϑi − ϑe ) =
dt (1)
Input - Output = Change

As the external surface of the room is the surface of heat exchange, the equation can be
normalised to the external surface.
The two factors G and K can easily be quantified:
G equals the mean radiation transmission of the external surface:
1
G= ⋅ ∑ g i ⋅ A transp−i (2)
A ext i
Aext: total area of external surface; Atransp-I: area of the transparent part i
gi: total solar energy transmission of element i.
K equals the generalized loss factor of the room including transmission as well as air
infiltration.:
1 ⎡ ( c ⋅ρ )air ⎤
K= ⋅ ⎢ ∑ Ui ⋅ Ai + n ⋅ V ⋅ ⎥ (3)
Aext ⎣ i 3600 ⎦
Ai: area of the external element i, Ui: U-value of element i, n: air exchange rate in 1/h
V. volume of the room; c*ρ: volumetric storage capacity of air
For the change of the heat content of the room, dQ can be written as: dQ = C ⋅ dϑi using an
appropriate storage capacity C of the room in J/m2K.
With this equation, already some simplifications have been made:
• The neglecting of the variability of the solar transmittance of the transparent elements
due to the changing angle of the sun,
• The neglecting of the heat transmission through the non-transparent elements when
they are irradiated by the sun, (for elements of high insulation level combined with
massive parts the amplitude damping is such high that this effect can well be
neglected)
• The description or specification of the thermal state of the room by only one “mean”
room temperature (corresponding roughly to the mean radiant temperature).
These simplifications restrict the applicability a little, but for most rooms they are applicable,
as has been tested by comparison with well monitored real buildings [1].
The equation can be re-arranged:
C dϑ ( t ) G P ( t ) PHVAC ( t )
ϑi ( t ) + ⋅ i = ϑe ( t ) + ⋅ I sol ( t ) + int S + (4)
K dt K K K
where the time dependence is now explicitly shown. The parameters K, G and C can
principally also vary with time, but for reasons of simplicity they are kept constant at least for
some time intervals. In other words, the time development of the room temperature is
determined by the influence
G
• of the weather: Φ meteo ( t ) = ϑe ( t ) + ⋅ I sol ( t ) (5)
K
P P
• and of the internal sources and the HVAC: int S + HVAC (6)
K K
It is important to see the role of the two coefficients:
C
= τ , [ τ] = h,s ; is the time constant of the room, describing the reaction of the (7)
K
room, its thermal inertia,
G m2 ⋅ s
= γ , [γ] = ; the solar temperature coefficient, describing the influence of (8)
K K
 the solar radiation on the effect of the external temperature
(similar to the “solar-air temperature” used in HVAC).
Furthermore the internal sources and the contributions of the HVAC system enter not as such
but as P/K into the equation.
Putting the internal sources and the HVAC contributions away, one obtains an equation for
the temperature development of the room under the influence of the weather alone: the free-
run-temperature (FRT) or natural temperature:
dϑ ( t )
ϑi ( t ) + τ ⋅ i = ϑe ( t ) + γ ⋅ Isol ( t ) (9)
dt
σ T λ
For thin storage layers: d≤ with σ = ⋅ = penetration depth: C = c ⋅ ρ ⋅ d ,
2 π c ⋅ρ
this equation can easily be solved:
t ( t − t ')
1 −
ϑi ( t ) = ⋅ ∫ e τ ⋅ ⎡⎣ϑe ( t ) + γ ⋅ I ( t ) ⎤⎦ ⋅ dt ' (10)
τ −∞
For layers of larger thickness, the Eigen-value equation must be solved for each storage layer
and a series expansion results:
∞
2⋅β
t
1
ϑ i ( t) = ∑ ⋅ ⋅ ∫ e − ( t − t ′ ) /τ k ⋅ [ϑ a ( t ′) + γ ⋅ I ( t ′)] ⋅ dt ′ (11)
k =1 1 + β + ( β ⋅ µ k ) τ
2
k −∞

R1
with: β= = reziprocal Biot-number with the layer resistance R and the discharge
R
1
resistance R1 determining the Eigen-values by the equation: µ k ⋅ tan µ k = and the time
β
constants:

d2 d 1 R⋅C
τk = = ⋅d ⋅c⋅ρ ⋅ 2 = 2 (12)
a⋅µk λ
2
µk µk
Thus a more complicated but principally similar solution results. For most real rooms, the
parameter β is relatively large and then the equation reduces to the one for thin layers: (10) .

3. The Strategy
From equations (10) one easily sees, the FRT to be a function of time, of the weather (5) and
of the two parameters γ and τ alone: ϑi ( t; γ, τ ) . This means, any two rooms with the same
parameters γ and τ show exactly the same thermal behaviour. In fact they form a so-called
similarity class. It turns out, the FRT to be the most important and only thermal room
characteristic in a given climate. Since the basic equations are the results of the conservation
of energy, the deductions will be of a very general validity, everywhere, of course within the
limits set by the approximations.
Whenever the FRT risks to cross a comfort limit, the HVAC has to compensate for the
weather to keep the temperature within the comfort limits. From equations (4) and (9) one
obtains
For the lower comfort limit:
dϑi P
ϑi ( t ) = ϑmin =0 ϑmin = ϑe ( t ) + γ ⋅ I ( t ) + h (13)
dt K
or Ph = K ⋅ ⎡⎣ ϑmin − ϑe ( t ) − γ ⋅ I ( t ) ⎤⎦ = K ⋅ Π h ( γ , τ ) (14)
for the necessary heating power. For the necessary cooling power one obtains accordingly:
 Pc = K ⋅ ⎡⎣ ϑe ( t ) + γ ⋅ I ( t ) − ϑmax ⎤⎦ = K ⋅ Π c ( γ , τ ) (15)
with Π h,c ( γ, τ ) being the temperature corrections needed to keep the room temperature within
the comfort limits. They are functions of γ and τ only.
The energy needed for heating and cooling is easily computed from the powers:
t2 t2

E h,c = ∫ Ph,c ( t ) ⋅ dt = K ⋅ ∫ Π h,c ( t ) ⋅ dt = K ⋅ Ω h,c ( γ , τ ) (16)

t1 t1

Thus the minimum of Ph,c and Eh,c is reduced to the minimum of the two equations :
Ph,c = K ⋅ Π h,c ( γ, τ ) and E h,c = K ⋅ Ω h,c ( γ, τ ) (17)
This goal can easily be attained by choosing K as small as possible within the limits set by
architecture, economy and user needs and by minimizing the two functions Π and Ω.
This means, in any climate of the world, it always helps to make the loss factor K as small as
possible. This is in a way the first step of approximation.
The next step is the best adaptation of window size and quality: γ to the thermal inertia: τ of a
room: the minimum of Π and Ω. This is the point, passive solar approaches have mostly
failed. It is not sufficient just to turn in any climate the windows to the south side and make
them as large as possible. A reduction of heating energy is then often compensated by an
increase in cooling energy.
To find the minimum of Π and Ω, the following procedure can be applied: As long as the FRT
remains within the comfort limits, no heating or cooling power is needed. Thus a room with a
maximum of hours within the comfort limits will be the room with the least thermal power
and thus also least thermal energy need. Thus the minimization problem is transformed to the
maximization of the number of hours within the comfort range, the zero energy hours: ZEH.
The FRT can easily be computed for a given climate: year sets of hourly values of ϑe ( t ) and
I(t) for any values of γ and τ and then the number of hours counted where the temperature is
within the comfort limits.

70
60
50
40 0.3 / 5
0.3 / 1
30
0.1 / 1
20
10
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Fig.1: FRT Zurich south side for γ= 0.1 m2K/W and τ = 100h without sun-shading (0.1/1), γ=
0.3 m2K/W without (0.3/1) and with external sun-shading (0.3/5).

The curves of ZEH or N0(γ,τ) can be shown and the best combinations of γ and τ read out:
climate diagrams (CD). This gives for any climate and any kind of room the best design in a
given climate [2].
 h
Climate Diagram South New York τ=100

8000
Hours/year

6000 Nh 100h
4000 Nc100h
N0 100h
2000

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Gamma m2K/W

Fig.2: Zero energy hours N0, heating hours Nh and cooling hours Nc of New York, south side

Computing these curves for various values of γ and τ yields an easy to interpret overview for
the optimization:

CD South New York

N0 50h
N0 50h SS 2
8000
N0 50h SS 5
6000 N0 100h
hrs./year

N0 100h SS 2
4000 N0 100h SS 5
N0 200h
2000
N0 200h SS 2

0 N0 200h SS 5
N0 400h
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
N0 400h SS 2
Gamma m2K/W
N0 400h SS 5

Fig.3: ZEH N0(γ) for τ= 50, 100, 200 and 400h New York South side, for no sun shading,
internal sun shading: SS=2 and external sun shading SS=5

One easily can read out the ranges of best γ and τ, the effect of τ and the effect of sun shading.
One also sees, if the choice of a best γ is critical: sharp peak or relatively tolerant: flat part of
the curve.
For the climate given here, one also can conclude
• Without sun shading the time constant τ to have almost no effect,
• The sun shading to have an important effect,
• The time constant to become important only together with a variable sun shading.
Three important conclusions for this climate, not possible with multi-parametric simulation
programs. These relations there disappear in the “dense jungle” of parameters.
4. The practical optimization
With the aid of the climate diagrams N0(γ,τ), the best choice for γ and τ can be taken. For
practical use however, these values have to be led back to real parameters as window size,
quality of the glazing etc.
This can be done by reversing the equations for γ: (2), (8) and K: (3).
One obtains for the glazing partition λ:
n ⋅ V ( c ⋅ρ )air
γ ⋅ U wall + γ ⋅ ⋅
A gl Ae 3600
λ≡ = (18)
Ae g gl + γ ⋅ U wall − γ ⋅ U gl
and for the loss factor:
n ⋅ V ( c ⋅ρ )air
K = λ ⋅ U gl + (1 − λ ) ⋅ U wall + ⋅ (19)
Ae 3600
The expressions (18) and (19) can easily be represented by a graph for a given room: n, V,
Uwall, Ugl, ggl, Ae. It is a matter of a simple spread sheet program. For several types of
glazings: Ugl, ggl, the corresponding curves of λ ( γ ) can be shown. For the γ-range read out
from the climate diagram N0(γ,τ) the corresponding glazing partitions λ can be read out and
the corresponding loss factors K determined from the graph K(λ):

Glazing Partition

1
Glazing Partition l

0.8
2.8/0.77
0.6 1.5/0.65
0.4 0.9/0.41
0.5/0.42
0.2
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
m2K/W

Fig.4: Glazing partition λ as function of γ for four typical glazings (U/g) for a specific room

Loss Factor K(λ)

1.9
Loss Factor W/m2K

1.7
2.8/0.77
1.5
1.3 1.5/0.65
1.1 0.9/0.41
0.9 0.5/0.42
0.7
0.5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Glazing Partition

Fig.5: Resulting loss factor K for a room with V= 60 m3, U-values of walls: 0.3 W/m2K, air
infiltration 0.2 h-1, external wall area 12 m2.
In figure 4 one easily sees, with normal double gazings: U=2.8 W/m2K and g= 0.77, even
with 100% glazing partition only γ –values up to 0.25 can be realized.
If there is still any choice, one of course would choose the combination: glazing quality U,g
with the lowest resulting loss factor.
Thus the practical recipe for a given room is the following:
1. look at the climate diagram and choose γ, τ and sun shading.
2. go to the λ(γ)-diagram and read out the glazing partition for several possible glazings.
3. go to the K(λ)-diagram and choose the glazing with the lowest value for K.
4. If the result is not satisfactory go again to 1.
In this way one always arrives at the best solution for any kind of room in any given climate.
The general validity of this procedure is assured by the only use of the generally valid
conservation of energy. It is of course limited by the assumptions or approximations set.

5. Conclusions
With the use of the conservation of energy applied to a simple room, one can derive a
generally valid strategy for the optimization of a room:
• a first step leads to the minimum of the loss factor and
• the second step leads to the climate adapted tuning of γ and τ by means of
climate diagrams.
with the aid of for any room easily computable diagrams λ(γ) and K(λ) one arrives at the
practically relevant choices for the glazing partition λ and the loss factor K.
As already indicated, several further conclusions for a given climate can also be taken:
importance of thermal inertia, sensitivity to the windows size: γ, importance or unimportance
of sun shading etc.. This will be presented in another contribution.
Different climates all over the world could in this way be classified in γ-sensitive and un-
sensitive, τ-sensitive and un-sensitive, in sun shading requiring etc. leading to an overall view
of the world from the point of view of thermal energy and power need: How to design low
energy buildings where.
All such principal and important conclusions can only be derived, because one has succeeded
in the reduction of the necessary number of parameters to the very few but most important
one: K, γ and τ.

Literature
[1] H. Burmeister: „Die quantitative gebäuderelevante Darstellung von Klimadaten.
Die Klimaflächen.“. Dissertation Nr. 11586, ETH Zürich, 1996.
H. Burmeister and B. Keller: “Climate surfaces: A quantitative building-specific
representation of climates“.Energy and Buildings, 28, 167-177 (1998).

[2] B. Keller, E. Magyari and Y. Tian:„Klimatisch angepasstes Bauen: Eine allgemeingültige

Methode“ 11. Symposium for Building Physics , Dresden, 26-30 Sept. 2002, pp. 113-
126Dresden